Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, Rhinolophidae) from Southeast Asia

Biodiversity Data Journal 13: e162374 doi: 10.3897/BDJ.13.e162374 Species Conservation Profiles Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, Rhinolophidae) from Southeast Asia Nazifah Fitriyah Zariman , Juliana Senawi ‡ 1Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Malaysia § 2Langkawi Research Centre, Tuanku Abdul Halim Mu’adzam Shah Campus, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Teluk Yu Road, Burau Bay, 07100, Langkawi, Malaysia Corresponding author: Juliana Senawi ([email protected]) Academic editor: Krizler Tanalgo Received: 17 Jun 2025 | Accepted: 12 Nov 2025 | Published: 28 Nov 2025 Citation: Zariman NF, Senawi J (2025) Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, Rhinolophidae) from Southeast Asia. Biodiversity Data Journal 13: e162374. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.13.e162374 Abstract Background Rhinolophus acuminatus was first evaluated for its conservation status in 1996, with subsequent assessments conducted in 2008 and most recently in 2019, during which it was categorised as Least Concern. These evaluations, however, were largely based on limited occurrence records and a general list of countries where the species was known to occur. Recent discoveries have documented new distribution records, indicating a broader geographic range than previously recognised. Additionally, the availability of a more precise locality data has contributed to a more comprehensive understanding of the species distribution and ecological context. ‡ ‡,§ © Zariman N, Senawi J. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. New information This study provides novel insights into the distribution of Rhinolophus acuminatus, including newly-documented localities, an updated elevational range and refined regional records. Notably, Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo) and Brunei were not previously recognised as part of the species’ range during its most recent IUCN assessment. We report the first confirmed occurrence of R. acuminatus in Sarawak, specifically within Gunung Mulu National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, known for its exceptional biodiversity and extensive limestone karst systems. Additionally, a new locality record from Melilas in Brunei further expands the species’ known distribution on the island of Borneo. The record from Sarawak represents a newly-documented extant range within Malaysian Borneo, while the Brunei record constitutes a new country record for R. acuminatus. This study also presents the most comprehensive and detailed locality data for the species since its last detailed assessment in 2019. The species’ elevational range has been revised from the previously reported maximum of 1,676 m above sea level (a.s.l.) in the 2019 IUCN assessment to a new upper limit of 3,943 m a.s.l., based on records from Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, indicating the species' presence in upper montane forest habitats. Furthermore, this study provides the first quantitative estimates of the species’ Extent of Occurrence (EOO), calculated at 6,957,361.5 km², Area of Occupancy (AOO) at 608 km² and 149 number of locations. EOO mapping further illustrates the species’ broad distribution across the Southeast Asian region. Collectively, these findings offer critical data for future reassessments of the conservation status of R. acuminatus under the IUCN Red List criteria. Keywords Area of Occupancy, bat conservation, Extent of Occurrence, IUCN Red List Assessment Introduction Currently, a total of 1,500 bat species are recognised globally (Simmons and Cirranello 2025). The family Rhinolophidae Gray, 1825 includes only a single genus, Rhinolophus Lacepède, 1799 (Csorba et al. 2003). This genus is restricted to the Palaeotropical Region and is believed to have originated in the Oriental biogeographic zone (Chornelia and Hughes 2022). Species within Rhinolophus are easily distinguished by their complex noseleaf structure, which includes a raised sella, a connecting process and a horseshoe-shaped structure covering the nostrils and upper lip (Csorba et al. 2003). This specialised morphology is thought to play a vital role in echolocation, enabling these bats to navigate and forage effectively in complete darkness (Curtis and Simmons 2017, Pavey 2021). The high diversity of Rhinolophus in Southeast Asia highlights the region’s importance for bat conservation (Kingston 2010). 2Zariman N, Senawi J The genus was first divided into morphological groups by Knud Andersen in 1918, based primarily on the structure of the noseleaf. The pusillus group contains 11 recognised species that share a triangular-pointed shape of the connecting process (Andersen 1918, Csorba et al. 2003, Bates et al. 2004). Within this group, Rhinolophus acuminatus is notably larger than other members (Bates et al. 2004, Francis 2019). Although it closely resembles R. affinis in overall morphology, it can be distinguished by the shape of the connecting process, which is triangular in R. acuminatus and rounded in R. affinis (Francis 2019). Despite being placed in the same morphological group as R. pusillus, phylogenetic evidence indicates that R. acuminatus belongs to a different evolutionary lineage (Csorba et al. 2003). Ecological studies have revealed variations in both body size and roosting behaviour across different regions. In Myanmar, males are generally larger than females (Bates et al. 2004). Observations from the same region recorded colonies of around 100 individuals, while surveys in Vietnam found aggregations of up to 500 bats (Bates et al. 2004, Thong et al. 2019). In contrast, studies in Malaysia documented this species roosting solitarily or in pairs (Kingston et al. 2009). Rhinolophus acuminatus is distributed widely across Southeast Asia. Its most recent IUCN Red List assessment in 2019 classified the species as Least Concern (Thong et al. 2019). However, the assessment lacked detailed information, particularly regarding range metrics, such as the Extent of Occurrence, Area of Occupancy and the number of locations. Since then, expanded research efforts have led to new locality records and improved knowledge of the species’ elevational range. These findings reveal significant gaps in the previous assessment and underscore the need for updated data to better understand the species’ distribution, ecological requirements and potential threats. Including such information will enhance the accuracy of conservation assessments and provide information for more effective management strategies. The objective of this study is to provide updated and comprehensive data to support the reassessment of the IUCN conservation status of R. acuminatus, with a particular focus on its distribution, elevational range and key conservation metrics. Material and Methods Locality data for Rhinolophus acuminatus were compiled from a total of 153 sites, comprising 148 sites from published records and five sites from field surveys, conducted for the present study. Field surveys were conducted primarily in Malaysia using various bat-trapping techniques, including harp traps, mist nets and high nets. Harp traps were strategically placed across trails, while mist and high nets were deployed in open areas, such as above rivers, forest gaps and clearings within the study sites. Traps and nets were operated from dusk (1900 hrs) to dawn (0700 hrs). The geographic coordinates of each trapping site were recorded using a Garmin GPSMAP 65s device. Morphological measurements were taken from each captured individual, including forearm length, body weight, sex, age and reproductive status. Species identification was conducted using the Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, ... 3 taxonomic key for Peninsular Malaysian bats, as described by Kingston et al. (2009) and Borneo Malaysia bats, as described by Yasuma et al. (2005a) and Yasuma et al. (2005b) . Additional locality data were obtained from the Zoological Museum of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), where both skull and wet specimens of R. acuminatus were examined and corresponding locality information was recorded. All geographic coordinates derived from literature, field surveys and museum records were standardised and converted into decimal degree format. A distribution map was created using QGIS version 3.34.1, incorporating spatial data for each country sourced from GADM version 4.1 (2025). All maps were set to the WGS 1984 coordinate reference system (EPSG:4326). The Area of Occupancy (AOO) was calculated using the 'Grid' tool in QGIS to create a 2 km x 2 km grid around each locality point, following IUCN guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee 2022). The AOO estimates were obtained by counting the number of occupied cells times the area of an individual cell (4 km ). Detailed protocols for locality data collection, AOO and EOO calculations are published and accessible at protocols.io (Zariman and Senawi 2025 ) (Fig. 1). The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) was estimated using the IUCN EOO Calculator Toolbox in ArcMap version 10.8.1. Prior to running the toolbox, presence, origin and seasonal attributes were assigned to each locality point. EOO is defined as the area within the 2 Figure 1. Illustration of scale dependence in the calculation of Area of Occupancy (AOO). The red dots represent six locality points, distributed across five occupied grid cells (5 locations). Based on the standard 2 km × 2 km grid, the estimated AOO for this area is 5 × 4 km² = 20 km².  4Zariman N, Senawi J smallest continuous imaginary boundary that encompasses all known, inferred or projected sites of a taxon’s current presence, excluding instances of vagrancy. It is important to note that EOO is not intended to reflect the total area of occupied or suitable habitat, nor is it a general representation of the species’ overall range. EOO is typically calculated using a minimum convex polygon, which is the smallest polygon in which all internal angles are less than or equal to 180 degrees and which contains all occurrence points. The number of locations was determined using the 'Google Satellite Image' function in QGIS, guided by the IUCN Red List definition of a “location” as a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threatening event can rapidly impact all individuals present. This definition differs from the broader terms “location” or “locality” commonly used in biogeographic studies. In the assessment of R. acuminatus, all known occurrences were considered, regardless of current threat levels. The primary plausible threat to the species is habitat loss due to deforestation, which affects both roosting and foraging habitats. According to IUCN Red List criteria, if multiple subpopulations occur within an area that could be affected by a single threatening event, they are counted as one location. Conversely, if a subpopulation spans an area larger than could be impacted by a single event, it may be counted as multiple locations (IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee 2022). Species Conservation Profile Rhinolophus acuminatus Peters, 1871 Species information Common names Acuminate Horseshoe Bat (English), Kelawar Ladam Kenarong (Malay). Taxonomy Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Animalia Chordata Mammalia Chiroptera Rhinolophidae Taxonomic notes Rhinolophus acuminatus Peters, 1871 belongs to the pusillus group and can be distinguished by its notched, broadly-based triangular connecting process, which is typically blunt, but may occasionally appear sharply pointed (Peters 1871, Csorba et al. 2003). The posterior margin of the connecting process is directly attached to the face of the posterior noseleaf. The lancet displays concave lateral margins that become nearly Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, ... 5 Figure(s) or Photo(s): parallel towards the tip (Bates et al. 2004), while the sella is parallel-sided and covered with fine hairs (Kingston et al. 2009). The skull is relatively broad with a short rostrum and the upper canine is slender, often narrowing beyond the cingulum. The forearm length ranges from 45 to 53 mm, making R. acuminatus noticeably larger than other members of the pusillus group, which also share the triangular-shaped connecting process (Kingston et al. 2009). Subspecies variation is minimal and is primarily associated with differences in the shape of the sella and the width of the horseshoe (Francis 2019). The morphologically similar R. affinis can be easily distinguished by its rounded connecting process (Francis 2019). This species emits an FM/CF/FM echolocation call, a typical acoustic characteristic of the genus Rhinolophus. However, the peak constant frequency (CF ) varies considerably amongst populations across different regions. In Laos, CF values range from 86– 90 kHz in males and 93–95 kHz in females. In Vietnam, a peak frequency of around 90 kHz has been recorded, while in Thailand, it is approximately at 80 kHz (Csorba et al. 2019). In Malaysian Borneo, individuals from Sabah exhibit CF values between 88– 90 kHz (Csorba et al. 2019). In contrast, more recent recordings from Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak (GMNP), in northwest Borneo, by McArthur and Anwarali Khan (2021) and ChiroVox (Görföl et al. 2022), indicate slightly lower frequencies, ranging from 82–87 kHz. This pattern suggests a gradual decline in CF from northern mainland Asia to the southern parts of the species’ range. Additionally, within Malaysian Borneo, a similar trend is observed, with higher frequencies recorded in the north (Sabah) compared to the northwest (Sarawak). These regional differences in echolocation frequency may reflect ecological variation, population structure or even morphological differences, such as body size, which is often inversely correlated with CF in Rhinolophus species. A single male individual from Melilas, Brunei is represented in the GBIF database, with associated COI sequence data published in BOLD Systems (The International Barcode of Life Consortium 2024). However, no echolocation data are currently available for populations in Brunei, leaving a gap in our understanding of acoustic variation in this part of Borneo. Region for assessment: - Global Figs 2, 3, 4 Reviewers Waldien, D.L. Peak Peak Peak Peak Peak 6Zariman N, Senawi J Editor Zariman, N. F. & Senawi, J. Figure 2. Oblique view of the noseleaf structure of Rhinolophus acuminatus from Royal Belum State Park, Malaysia. Photographed by Juliana Senawi, 16 June 2017.  Figure 3. Anterior view of the noseleaf structure of Rhinolophus acuminatus from Royal Belum State Park, Malaysia. Photographed by Juliana Senawi, 16 June 2017.  Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, ... 7 Map of records (image): Map of records (Google Earth): Basis of EOO and AOO: Geographic range Biogeographic realm: - Indomalayan Countries: - Viet Nam - Philippines - Brunei Darussalam - Cambodia - Thailand - Lao People's Democratic Republic - Malaysia - Indonesia - Myanmar Fig. 5 Suppl. material 1 Observed Figure 4. Parallel-sided sella of the noseleaf structure of Rhinolophus acuminatus from Royal Belum State Park. Photographed by Juliana Senawi, 16 June 2017.  8Zariman N, Senawi J Min Elevation/Depth (m): Max Elevation/Depth (m): Basis (narrative) Koopman (1982) recognised five subspecies of R. acuminatus, reflecting its wide geographic distribution: R. a. acuminatus from Gadok, Java and Krakatau Island; R. a. sumatranus from Lower Langkat, North Sumatra and North Borneo; R. a. audax from Lombok, Sunda and Bali Island; R. a. calypso from Enggano Island, West Sumatra; and R. a. circe from Nias Island, West Sumatra (Koopman 1982, Csorba et al. 2003). The species is native to the region and is not known to have been introduced beyond its natural range. It occupies a broad elevational range, from 20 to 3,943 m above sea level and is capable of adapting to a variety of habitats, including lowland dipterocarp forests, upper montane forests and even urban environments. Its estimated Extent of Occurrence (EOO) is approximately 6,957,361.5 km², while its Area of Occupancy (AOO) is 608 km². In the present study, a total of 153 localities were recorded. Based on identified threats, such as habitat loss, 149 discrete locations were delineated. However, R. acuminatus is not considered severely fragmented, as most known populations are distributed across the contiguous mainland and larger islands within its range. 20 3943 Figure 5. Distribution map of Rhinolophus acuminatus using locality data. Symbol: dots – locality points.  Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, ... 9 Justification for conservation actions: Of the 149 confirmed localities for this species, more than half are located within protected areas, such as forest reserves, wildlife reserves and nature reserves. Monitoring and safeguarding these habitats are vital for the species' conservation in Southeast Asia. However, communication, education and public awareness about bats, especially in this particular species, remain limited amongst government agencies and the general public. Promoting understanding of the ecological roles play by bats, including ecosystem services, pest and vector regulation, can enhance public appreciation of their importance. Public education on threats, such as habitat loss is also key to building support for conservation efforts. Strengthening collaboration amongst government agencies, conservation organisations and local communities is vital to ensure the long-term stability of the species' population in the region. Conservation sites identified: Yes Occur in at least one Protected Area: Yes Research Actions Research actions needed: 1.1 Research: Taxonomy 1.2 Research: Population size, distribution & trends 3.1 Monitoring: Population trends Justification for research actions needed: There are 153 known localities of R. acuminatus, with 149 number of locations. The majority of these sites are located within protected areas, such as forest reserves and state parks, which offer a degree of protection for many populations. However, to ensure the long-term survival of this species, additional conservation efforts are needed, including improved land-management practices and increased public awareness. In Malaysia, the designation of forest reserves is not permanent, as state governments can reclassify these areas for ‘higher economic use’. Several forest reserves have already been converted for large-scale developments, including residential projects, highways and dams. Raising awareness amongst the public and policy-makers about the vital ecosystem services provided by insectivorous species like R. acuminatus is essential for protecting both their habitats and population stability. Although R. acuminatus is distributed throughout Southeast Asia, there is a significant lack of data on its population size. Collaborative efforts from bat researchers across the region are crucial for generating this information, particularly to assess population trends and guide future conservation strategies. 16 Zariman N, Senawi J IUCN Red List Assessment The Extent of Occurrence (EOO) for Rhinolophus acuminatus is estimated at 6,957,361.5 km² and its Area of Occupancy (AOO) is 608 km². According to IUCN Red List Criterion B (Geographic Range), the thresholds for a threatened category are an EOO of less than 20,000 km² or an AOO of less than 2,000 km². As R. acuminatus exceeds these thresholds, it does not qualify for listing under any threatened category, based on this criterion. Rhinolophus acuminatus is, therefore, assessed as Least Concern (LC), supported by its wide distribution and occurrence in numerous protected areas throughout its range. Currently, there are no major threats or observed population declines that would justify a higher risk category under the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Conclusion In conclusion, this study underscores the critical role of comprehensive locality data in accurately assessing the conservation status of Rhinolophus acuminatus. This includes information on the Extent of Occurrence (EOO), Area of Occupancy (AOO), number of occupied locations and observations of declines or fluctuations in these parameters as well as in the number of mature individuals. By integrating field records with an exhaustive literature review, we have expanded the known distribution of the species and quantified key range metrics, laying the groundwork for more robust evaluations of population stability and threat exposure. These newly-identified sites provide essential baselines for detecting future trends. Moving forward, targeted studies on roosting ecology, population size estimates and long-term monitoring are imperative to fill the remaining knowledge gaps. Ultimately, this enhanced dataset not only refines the IUCN Red List assessment for R. acuminatus, but also helps to prioritise and guide the most effective research and conservation actions. Acknowledgements This material is based upon work supported by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2020/WAB11/ UKM/02/3), the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DEB-1754810/ ST-2019-006, Lubee Bat Conservancy and Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia to J.S.; and by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia, under the MyBrainSc Program (KPT(BS). 1/23-990815145610) to N.F.Z. Species conservation profile and revision of Rhinolophus acuminatus (Chiroptera, ... 17 Author contributions Conceptualisation: N.F.Z., J.S.; Methodology: N.F.Z., J.S.; Formal analysis: N.F.Z., J.S.; Investigation: N.F.Z., J.S.; Data curation: N.F.Z.; Writing - original draft: N.F.Z.; Writing - review and editing: J.S.; Visualisation: N.F.Z.; Supervision: J.S. Ethics and security We thank the Department of Wildlife and National Parks Peninsular Malaysia, the Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah Biodiversity Centre, Sarawak Forestry Corporation and the Malaysia Access to Biological Resources and Benefit Sharing (MyABS) for granting permission to conduct research in Malaysia (JPHL&TN (IP): 100-34/1.24 Jld 14(31); JPHL&TN (IP): 600-6/1/4 24 Jld 2 (117); EPU 40/200/19/3511(9); JH/100 Jld 22 (27); MBP.600(S)-1/1/1 Jld.4(10)). We also gratefully acknowledge our collaborators, as well as the volunteers and students who provided invaluable assistance in the field. 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