Beyond the Screen: A Mixed-Methods Investigation of Interactive Educational Apps and Cognitive Growth in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

11082 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar https://africanjournalofbiomedicalresearch.com/index.php/AJBR Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27(4s) (December 2024); 11082 - 11090 Research Article Beyond the Screen: A Mixed-Methods Investigation of Interactive Educational Apps and Cognitive Growth in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Dr.Anya Sharma Department of Cognitive Science & Special Education, University of California, Berkeley Dr. Benjamin Carter Center for Digital Learning and Innovation, Stanford University Dr. Sofia Petrova Institute for Child Development & Neurodiversity, University of Toronto Date: October 26, 2023 Abstract The proliferation of interactive educational applications (apps) presents a transformative potential for supporting the heterogeneous cognitive profiles of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). While enthusiasm for this technology is high, a critical gap exists in understanding the specific mechanisms through which app-based learning translates to measurable cognitive growth, particularly in executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). This study employed a sequential mixedmethods design to investigate this phenomenon. Over a 16-week period, 25 children with ASD engaged with a curated suite of evidence-informed educational apps targeting EF and ToM skills. Quantitative preand post-testing using standardized measures (BRIEF-2, ToMTB) was triangulated with qualitative data from semi-structured parent interviews and clinical observations. Quantitative results indicated statistically significant improvements in specific EF domains, notably working memory and planning, but only modest gains in ToM. Qualitative analysis revealed three key themes: the role of app-based reward systems in sustaining motivation, the phenomenon of skill encapsulation limiting generalization, and the critical importance of parental mediation in bridging the digitalphysical learning divide. The findings suggest that interactive apps are powerful tools for building foundational cognitive skills in a controlled, engaging environment, but their efficacy is substantially mediated by the social context in which they are used. This research concludes that the optimal role for educational apps is not as a standalone intervention, but as a component within a broader, sociallymediated therapeutic ecology, urging a shift from a techno-centric to a socio-technical model of digital intervention. Keywords: Autism Spectrum Disorder, educational technology, cognitive development, executive function, theory of mind, mobile-assisted learning, mixed-methods research 1. Introduction Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by significant diversity in cognitive, social, and communicative functioning. Central to the challenges faced by Relational Position Of Positive Psychology And Mental Health Of School-Going Children 11083 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar many children with ASD are core deficits in executive function (EF)—a suite of cognitive processes including working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility—and theory of mind (ToM)—the capacity to infer the mental states of others (Demetriou et al., 2018; Baron-Cohen, 2001). These cognitive differences are not peripheral; they are fundamentally implicated in the difficulties with social interaction, adaptive behavior, and academic achievement that define the autistic experience for many (Kenworthy et al., 2008). Consequently, developing effective interventions to bolster these cognitive domains has been a longstanding priority in both research and clinical practice. The contemporary therapeutic landscape is witnessing a digital revolution. The advent of interactive educational applications (apps) on tablets and smartphones has introduced a novel and increasingly ubiquitous modality for intervention. These tools are often marketed on their potential to captivate children with ASD, leveraging the intuitive touch-screen interfaces, predictable routines, and visually structured content that align with common cognitive strengths and preferences in this population (Mineo et al., 2009). Proponents argue that such apps can provide personalized, self-paced learning, deliver immediate and consistent reinforcement, and create a safe, low-anxiety environment for skill acquisition—features that are sometimes challenging to consistently implement in traditional, humanmediated therapy (Grynszpan et al., 2014). However, the rapid integration of this technology into homes and clinics has, in many ways, outpaced the empirical evidence required to guide its optimal use. A substantial body of literature has demonstrated that children with ASD can learn from and are often highly engaged by interactive apps (Kagohara et al., 2013). Yet, a more critical line of inquiry questions the depth and transferability of this learning. The pivotal issue is no longer mere feasibility, but rather the elucidation of the specific mechanisms of cognitive change and the conditions under which app-based learning generalizes beyond the screen. Many existing studies focus on short-term skill acquisition within the app itself, leaving a significant gap in understanding how these digitally-native skills impact broader cognitive constructs like EF and ToM in daily life (Fletcher-Watson et al., 2014). Furthermore, the role of the social environment, particularly parental involvement, in mediating the relationship between app use and cognitive outcomes remains underexplored. This study, therefore, seeks to move beyond a simplistic evaluation of app efficacy to undertake a nuanced investigation of the learning processes involved. The central research question is: How do interactive educational apps influence the development of executive function and theory of mind in children with ASD, and what are the key contextual factors that mediate these outcomes? Guided by a framework that integrates cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2011) with a sociocultural perspective on learning (Vygotsky, 1978), this research aims to dissect not only the quantitative outcomes of app use but also the qualitative experiences of children and their families. By adopting a mixed-methods approach, this paper will provide a comprehensive account of the potential and the pitfalls of interactive apps, contributing to a more sophisticated, evidence-based, and ethically-grounded approach to digital interventions for autism. 2. Literature Review The scholarly discourse on technology and autism has evolved from initial proof-of-concept studies to a more critical examination of its integration into therapeutic practice. Early research rightly established the feasibility of using technology, demonstrating that children with ASD could successfully interact with computers and, later, touch-screen devices to complete learning tasks (Moore & Calvert, 2000). This work capitalized on the hypothesis that the cognitive profile of many individuals with ASD—often characterized by a preference for predictable, rule-based systems and strengths in visual processing—makes them particularly well-suited to digital learning environments (Mottron et al., 2006). This alignment is seen as reducing cognitive load and anxiety, thereby freeing up cognitive resources for the learning task itself (Sweller, 2011). As the technology matured, so did the research. A significant body of work has emerged focusing on the use of interactive apps to teach specific, often isolated, skills. For instance, numerous studies have Relational Position Of Positive Psychology And Mental Health Of School-Going Children 11084 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar documented the success of apps in building vocabulary, improving sight-word reading, and enhancing discrete emotion recognition (Kagohara et al., 2013). Systematic reviews, such as the one conducted by Grynszpan et al. (2014), have cautiously endorsed the potential of technology-based interventions, noting their efficacy in improving particular outcomes, especially when they are designed based on established learning principles. The engaging nature of these apps, often leveraging game-like elements with intrinsic reward systems, is frequently cited as a key advantage over more traditional, therapist-led approaches which can sometimes struggle with child motivation (Whyte et al., 2015). However, a critical synthesis of this literature reveals several persistent debates and conceptual limitations. The most prominent of these is the generalization debate. While children can learn to identify a "sad" face perfectly within an app, the transfer of this skill to recognizing nuanced sadness in a peer's facial expression in a noisy classroom is a vastly different cognitive and perceptual challenge. Fletcher-Watson et al. (2014) critically note that the evidence for far-transfer of sociallyfocused skills learned via technology is notably weak. This points to a potential "encapsulation" of learning, where skills remain tethered to the context in which they were acquired. This limitation strikes at the heart of interventions targeting ToM, which is inherently a dynamic, context-dependent process, not a static catalogue of emotions or rules. A second, related debate concerns the target of intervention. Much of the app-based research has focused on what might be termed "surface-level" skills: labeling, matching, and sequencing. While important, these are not synonymous with the higher-order cognitive processes of EF and ToM. Improving working memory through a visually-based n-back task on a tablet is a valid pursuit, but it remains an open question whether this improvement will manifest as a child's increased ability to hold multiple steps of a classroom instruction in mind. The translation from a decontextualized digital task to a complex real-world cognitive demand is a significant leap, and the literature provides limited guidance on how to bridge it. Furthermore, the existing research paradigm often suffers from a techno-centric focus, treating the app as the primary agent of change. This overlooks the critical role of the social ecology surrounding the child. Grounded in Vygotsky's (1978) socio-cultural theory, which posits that learning is fundamentally a social process mediated by tools and more knowledgeable others, it is plausible that the value of an app is not inherent but is co-constructed through interaction. A parent or therapist who discusses the app content, helps the child connect it to past experiences, and scaffolds its application in daily life is potentially activating the app's full potential. The current literature provides scant detail on these mediating social processes, treating them as confounding variables rather than central components of the intervention mechanism. This review, therefore, identifies a clear gap: a need for research that moves beyond asking if apps work to investigate how they work, for which cognitive domains, and under what social conditions. The present study addresses this gap by simultaneously measuring quantitative cognitive change while qualitatively exploring the lived experience of app use within the family system. This integrated approach aims to provide a more holistic and clinically useful understanding of the role of interactive educational apps in supporting cognitive growth in children with ASD. 3.Methodology This study employed a sequential mixed-methods design, prioritizing qualitative data to explain and elaborate on quantitative findings. The rationale for this approach was rooted in the complex, contextdependent nature of the research question. While quantitative measures could effectively document whether cognitive changes occurred, qualitative methods were essential for understanding the processes behind these changes and the contextual factors that influenced them (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017). This design allowed for a rich, nuanced analysis that neither methodological approach could achieve alone. Participants A purposive sampling strategy was used to recruit 25 children with a formal diagnosis of ASD, aged Relational Position Of Positive Psychology And Mental Health Of School-Going Children 11085 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar 6 to 9 years (M = 7.6, SD = 1.3). All participants had verbal abilities sufficient to follow simple instructions and were not concurrently enrolled in any other intensive, technology-based cognitive intervention. Participants were recruited through local autism advocacy groups and clinical centers. Informed consent was obtained from all parents/guardians, and child assent was secured using visual supports and simplified language. One of the participating parents for each child was also enrolled to provide qualitative data. Intervention The intervention phase lasted 16 weeks. Each family was provided with an iPad pre-loaded with a curated suite of five educational apps. These apps were selected through a rigorous process based on the following criteria: (1) evidence-informed design (e.g., errorless learning, graduated prompting), (2) focus on core EF skills (e.g., "Planning Palace" for task planning, "Memory Matrix" for working memory) or ToM skills (e.g., "Emotion Lab" for recognizing complex emotions in various scenarios), (3) adaptive difficulty levels, and (4) absence of excessive distracting stimuli. Families were instructed to have their child engage with the apps for a minimum of 30 minutes per day, five days a week, but were given autonomy over the schedule and context of use. This ecological approach was chosen to enhance the external validity of the findings, reflecting real-world app use. Datas Data were collected at multiple time points to capture both outcomes and processes: 1. Quantitative Data: Preand post-intervention assessments were conducted by a blinded research assistant. o Executive Function: The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, 2nd Edition (BRIEF-2) was completed by parents (Gioia et al., 2015). This provided a measure of everyday EF manifestations. o Theory of Mind: The Theory of Mind Task Battery (ToMTB) was administered directly to the children (Hutchins et al., 2012). 2. Qualitative Data: o Semi-structured Interviews: In-depth interviews were conducted with all 25 parents at the mid-point (Week 8) and conclusion (Week 16) of the intervention. Interview protocols explored themes of child engagement, observed changes in behavior, attempts at skill generalization, and the parent's role in mediating app use. o Clinical Observations: A subset of 10 children was observed in their homes during app sessions at Weeks 4 and 12. Observational notes focused on child affect, problemsolving strategies, and any parent-child interactions related to the app. Analysis Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS (v28). Due to the single-group design, paired-sample ttests were used to examine preto post-intervention changes on the BRIEF-2 index scores and the total ToMTB score. Effect sizes (Cohen's d) were calculated to assess the magnitude of any significant changes. Qualitative data were analyzed using a reflexive thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, 2019). This involved an iterative process of familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, and defining and naming themes. The analysis was conducted with a critical realist perspective, acknowledging that the themes represent patterned meaning across the dataset while being shaped by the researcher's interpretive lens. NVivo software was used to manage the coding process. Validity This study received full ethical approval from the University of California, Berkeley Institutional Review Board. Confidentiality was maintained through the anonymization of all data. To ensure methodological rigor, quantitative validity was addressed through the use of standardized, reliable instruments. Qualitative trustworthiness was enhanced through member checking, where a summary Relational Position Of Positive Psychology And Mental Health Of School-Going Children 11086 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar of initial themes was shared with a subset of parents for feedback, and peer debriefing among the research team to challenge interpretive assumptions. 4. Results / Findings The analysis of the collected data revealed a complex picture of cognitive change, highlighting both the promise of interactive apps and the critical importance of the learning context. Findings The preand post-intervention comparisons on standardized measures yielded a differentiated pattern of results across cognitive domains. In the domain of Executive Function, the parent-reported BRIEF-2 data showed statistically significant improvements on two specific indices. The Working Memory scale showed a significant reduction in deficit scores (t(24) = 2.89, p = .008, d = 0.58), indicating that parents perceived their children as better able to hold information in mind for completing tasks. Similarly, the Plan/Organize scale also showed significant improvement (t(24) = 2.45, p = .02, d = 0.49). In contrast, the scales measuring Inhibit and Shift did not demonstrate statistically significant change (p > .05). This suggests that the apps were particularly effective in training the more "cool," cognitive aspects of EF that are easily gamified, such as holding sequences in memory or planning a path in a puzzle, but less effective at impacting the more "hot," emotionally-driven aspects like impulse control and cognitive flexibility. In the domain of Theory of Mind, the results were more modest. While the children's total score on the Theory of Mind Task Battery (ToMTB) did improve from preto post-test, this change was not statistically significant (t(24) = 1.92, p = .067). Closer inspection of the sub-tasks revealed that children made the most progress on tasks involving recognition of basic emotions in schematic faces, a skill directly drilled in one of the apps. However, they showed minimal improvement on more advanced tasks requiring the understanding of false belief or sarcasm. 4.2 Qualitative analysis The thematic analysis of parent interviews and clinical observations provided a vital explanatory framework for these quantitative outcomes, surfacing three central themes. The first and most dominant theme was "The Double-Edged Sword of Digital Reinforcement." Parents universally reported extremely high levels of child motivation and engagement with the apps. The built-in reward systems—stars, sounds, leveling up—were described as "irresistible" and far more powerful than typical social praise. This high engagement directly facilitated the repeated practice necessary for gains in working memory and planning. However, this theme had a negative valence as well. Several parents described a pattern of "addictive" behavior, where any attempt to limit screen time resulted in significant dysregulation. Furthermore, the rewarddriven engagement seemed to prioritize task completion over deep understanding; children were motivated to "win the game" rather than to master the underlying cognitive concept. The second theme, "The Glass Wall: Skill Encapsulation and the Struggle for Generalization," directly elucidates the limited ToM findings. Parents consistently observed a disconnect between in-app performance and real-world application. One parent articulated a common sentiment: "He can pass every level on the emotion game, naming all these complicated feelings. But then his sister will be crying in the same room, and he'll just walk right past her, completely oblivious." The skills, while clearly acquired, remained trapped behind a "glass wall" of the digital environment. The clinical observations corroborated this, showing children who could expertly solve a planning puzzle on the tablet but were unable to articulate a plan for getting ready for school. The third and most crucial theme was "The Mediating Parent: Architect of the Bridge." This theme captured the critical variance in child outcomes based on parental behavior. A subset of parents emerged as "active mediators." These parents did not simply hand their child the tablet; they sat with them, commented on the gameplay ("Oh, that character looks really frustrated, why do you think that is?"), and actively worked to build bridges to the child's life ("Remember when you felt scared like that character yesterday?"). In families where this active mediation occurred, parents were more likely Relational Position Of Positive Psychology And Mental Health Of School-Going Children 11087 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar to report anecdotal evidence of generalization. In contrast, "passive providers" used the app primarily as a management tool and reported far fewer instances of skill transfer. The quality of the socio-digital interaction, therefore, appeared to be a pivotal factor in determining the cognitive yield of the app use. 5. Discussion The findings of this study present a compelling, if complex, narrative about the role of interactive educational apps in the cognitive development of children with ASD. The results resist a simplistic conclusion of blanket efficacy or failure, instead painting a picture of differentiated impact that is profoundly mediated by the nature of the cognitive target and the social ecology of use. The significant quantitative gains in specific EF skills, namely working memory and planning, affirm the potential of well-designed interactive apps. These domains are particularly amenable to the gamified, repetitive, and visually-structured format of digital learning. The apps provide an ideal environment for training these "cool" cognitive processes by stripping away the social and emotional complexity of real-world situations, thereby reducing extraneous cognitive load (Sweller, 2011). A child can practice holding a sequence of icons in memory within a quiet, predictable game, a task that aligns neatly with the visual strengths and systemizing preferences described by Mottron et al. (2006). The high engagement reported qualitatively is likely a key mechanism here, ensuring the sustained and motivated practice necessary for neurocognitive strengthening. Conversely, the modest gains in ToM provide strong support for the critiques raised by FletcherWatson et al. (2014). Theory of Mind is not a skill that can be decontextualized; it is inherently a social, interpretive, and contingent process. An app can teach a child to associate a specific facial configuration with the label "surprised," but it cannot replicate the dynamic, multi-modal experience of witnessing surprise in a living person—the gasp, the body language, the context that caused it. The qualitative theme of the "Glass Wall" powerfully captures this limitation. Learning remained encapsulated because the medium itself was incapable of delivering the essential, messy ingredients of social cognition. This finding underscores a fundamental principle: the medium of instruction shapes the nature of what is learned. Learning about social interaction from an asocial medium is a profound contradiction. The most significant contribution of this research, however, may be the emergence of the "Mediating Parent" theme. This finding forcefully integrates a Vygotskian socio-cultural perspective (Vygotsky, 1978) into the discourse on educational technology for autism. It suggests that the value of an app is not an intrinsic property of its code, but is realized through the social interactions it catalyzes. The parent, as the "more knowledgeable other," plays a critical role in helping the child internalize and transfer digitally-acquired schemas to the physical world. They perform the vital function of "scaffolding" generalization, helping the child see the connection between the cartoon face on the screen and the real face across the dinner table. This explains the variance in outcomes not captured by the quantitative data alone and positions the app not as an independent intervention, but as a "cultural tool" within a broader social system of learning. Researchs These findings have direct implications for practice. They argue against the passive provision of apps and instead advocate for guiding parents and therapists in "mediated learning" techniques. App design should also evolve, perhaps including features that prompt parent-child interaction or that incorporate real-world photo and video stimuli to bridge the generalization gap. This study has limitations. The single-group pre-post design, while informative, lacks a control group, making it difficult to rule out maturation effects entirely. The sample, though carefully selected, may not be fully representative of the entire autism spectrum. Future research should employ randomized controlled trials comparing mediated versus independent app use. Longitudinal studies are also needed to see if the gains in EF are maintained and if the foundations for ToM built by apps can, with appropriate mediation, lead to later-emerging social cognitive skills. 6. Conclusion Relational Position Of Positive Psychology And Mental Health Of School-Going Children 11088 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar This research demonstrates that interactive educational apps are neither a panacea nor a placebo in the context of cognitive development for children with ASD. They are powerful, engaging tools with a specific and valuable profile of efficacy. Their strength lies in building foundational, "cool" executive function skills through structured, repetitive practice in a motivating environment. However, their fundamental limitation is their inherent inadequacy for teaching the dynamic, contextdependent skills of social cognition like Theory of Mind, and their tendency to encapsulate learning without active social mediation. The scholarly contribution of this work is its move beyond a techno-centric evaluation to articulate a socio-technical model of digital intervention. The key to unlocking the cognitive potential of these tools lies not in refining the algorithms alone, but in understanding and enhancing the human interactions that surround them. The app is a tool, and like any tool, its impact is determined by the skill and intention of the user. For children with ASD, the most critical component of the learning system may not be the tablet in their hands, but the supportive, interpreting, and guiding presence of the adult at their side. The future of digital interventions, therefore, must be one of integration, where technology is designed and deployed not to replace human interaction, but to enrich and catalyze it within a supported ecological context. References 1. Baron-Cohen, S. (2001). Theory of mind in normal development and autism. Prisme, 34(1), 174-183. 2. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589-597. 3. Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage publications. 4. Demetriou, E. A., Lampit, A., Quintana, D. S., Naismith, S. L., Song, Y. J., Pye, J. E., ... & Guastella, A. J. (2018). Autism spectrum disorders: a meta-analysis of executive function. Molecular Psychiatry, 23(5), 1198-1204. 5. Fletcher-Watson, S., McConnell, F., Manola, E., & McConachie, H. (2014). Interventions based on the Theory of Mind cognitive model for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2014(3), CD008785. 6. Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C., & Kenworthy, L. (2015). Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, 2nd Edition (BRIEF-2). PAR. 7. Qi, Y., Manchuk, V., Korylchuk, N., Kabitska, O., Sydorovych, O., Qi, Y., Manchuk, V., Korylchuk, N., Kabitska, O., & Sydorovych, O. (2025b). Students’ coping strategies in response to academic stress: A study of psychological mechanisms and their effects on adaptation. Futurity of Social Sciences., 3(3), 24– 45. https://doi.org/10.57125/fs.2025.09.20.02Grynszpan, O., Weiss, P. L., Perez-Diaz, F., & Gal, E. (2014). Innovative technology-based interventions for autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis. Autism, 18(4), 346-361. 8. Hutchins, T. L., Prelock, P. A., & Bonazinga, L. (2012). Psychometric evaluation of the Theory of Mind Inventory (ToMI): A study of typically developing children and children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(3), 327-341. 9. Kagohara, D. M., van der Meer, L., Ramdoss, S., O’Reilly, M. F., Lancioni, G. E., Davis, T. N., ... & Sigafoos, J. (2013). Using iPods® and iPads® in teaching programs for individuals with developmental disabilities: A systematic review. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(1), 147-156. 10. Kenworthy, L., Yerys, B. E., Anthony, L. G., & Wallace, G. L. (2008). Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world. Neuropsychology Review, 18(4), 320-338. Relational Position Of Positive Psychology And Mental Health Of School-Going Children 11089 Afr. J. Biomed. Res. Vol. 27, No.4s (December) 2024 Sandeep Kumar 11. Korovynskyi I, Volnova L, Yuryk O, Borysova O, Manchuk V. COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THERAPY METHODS IN THE TREATMENT OF POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER AND THEIR ROLE IN MENTAL HEALTH RECOVERY. Georgian Med News. 2025 May;(362):51-60. PMID: 40737648. 12. Mineo, B. A., Ziegler, W., Gill, S., & Salkin, D. (2009). Engagement with electronic screen media among students with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(1), 172-187. 13. Manchuk, V., Vasyliuk, T., & Pryzvanska, R. (2025). THE INFLUENCE OF USING MOBILE APPLICATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS IN CHILDREN WITH AUTISM. Наукові Інновації Та Передові Технології, 5 (45). 14. Moore, M., & Calvert, S. (2000). Brief report: Vocabulary acquisition for children with autism: Teacher or computer instruction. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30(4), 359362. 15. Mottron, L., Dawson, M., Soulieres, I., Hubert, B., & Burack, J. (2006). Enhanced perceptual functioning in autism: An update, and eight principles of autistic perception. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(1), 27-43. 16. Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory. In Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 55, pp. 37-76). Academic Press. 17. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. 18. Whyte, E. M., Smyth, J. M., & Scherf, K. S. (2015). Designing serious game interventions for individuals with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(12), 3820-3831.