Discursive Constructions in Macbeth: A Systemic-Functional Contribution to English Language Teaching

Academy of Education and Social Sciences Review Vol. 5 No. 4 | November, 2025 | 568 - 578 ISSN (p): 2790-8348 | ISSN (e): 2789-6781 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17775611 Discursive Constructions in Macbeth: A SystemicFunctional Contribution to English Language Teaching Saba Ahmed* Department of Humanities & Social Sciences Bahria University Karachi Campus, Pakistan How to Cite: Ahmed, S. (2025). Discursive Constructions in Macbeth: A Systemic-Functional Contribution to English Language Teaching. Academy of Education and Social Sciences Review, 5(4), 568–578. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17775611 Publisher’s Note: International Research and Publishing Academy (iRAPA) stands neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in the published maps and institutional affiliations. Copyright: ©2025 | Academy of Education and Social Sciences Review published by International Research and Publishing Academy (iRAPA) This is an Open Access article published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0) Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY): lets others distribute and copy the article, to create extracts, abstracts, and other revised versions, adaptations or derivative works of or from an article (such as a translation), to include in a collective work (such as an anthology), to text or data mine the article, even for commercial purposes, as long as they credit the author(s), do not represent the author as endorsing their adaptation of the article, and do not modify the article in such a way as to damage the author's honour or reputation. 09-49-AESSR-6322-1131 Published online: 30 November 2025 View related articles Submit your article to this journal Discussion Paper Ahmed Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) 569 introduction Language teaching has seen a recent change in how teaching materials are used from isolated linguistic material to the use of literary materials in context. Literature is no longer perceived as a tool for language acquisition, but also critical awareness and not just an object of cultural enjoyment. This new attitude rejects the traditional dichotomy between language and literature in pedagogical contexts and calls for a teaching approach which brings two together. Nonetheless, with this growing interest, pedagogy of literature within classrooms still exists in the context of the study of historical and chronological literary movement that too rarely leads to true literary literacy. Current scholarship on Critical Literature Pedagogy (CLP) argues for the shift from content-driven instruction to pedagogies that link students in a critical way with texts, the development of awareness of the socio-cultural and ideological dimensions of literature (Durante, 2025; Hunaepi et al.,2024). According to this point of view, the task of teachers does not simply consist of transmitting knowledge about literature but leading students to acquire their reflective and metacognitive reading so that ‘they become active readers rather than passive readers’. However, within English Language Teaching (ELT) there is a persistent challenge i.e. literary texts are often marginalized. Their use is often diminished to acting as a pretext for grammar teaching, while writing assignments reflect answering comprehension questions, which do not require much critical thinking. Even though students are nominally included in literature, many learners find it too complex or not related to their personal experiences, factors that work against both motivation and engagement (Nystrand & Gamoran, 1991). Yet, when texts are carefully chosen and constructively explored, they can uncover space for meaningful conversations about social life, identity, and human experience that will enrich the understanding of students both of their world and of the text (Yu & Cai, 2025). From this perspective, literary works may be regarded as discursive events, events that are filled with complex acts of communication in which meaning emerges through linguistic choices. Analysis can go beyond the thematic content to the linguistic mechanisms through which characters, relationships and the progression of the narrative are constructed. Literary texts are authentic examples of how language is used, as they were created to communicate an author’s vision, experiences and relationships rather than just serving mere pedagogical purposes. Halliday (1964) affirms similarly that it is part of the task of the linguist to describe texts of all kinds, and that the method of analysis which the linguist needs to use reveals the way in which meaning is constructed. From a socio-semiotic perspective, the framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) (Halliday & & Hasan, 1989; Halliday, 2004) offers us some useful tools for the exploration of the ways in which evaluative meanings are encoded and how they contribute Abstract Literary texts invite close attention to how language constructs meaning and guides interpretation. This study explores the representation of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth in Shakespeare’s Macbeth through the framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics, with particular focus on the Attitude subsystem of Appraisal Theory. By analysing selected passages from Acts I and V, the research traces how evaluative language shapes the characters’ portrayal at decisive points in the play. The analysis reveals that Macbeth’s progression from admired warrior to tyrant, and Lady Macbeth’s shift from resolute instigator to guilt-ridden figure, are realised through distinct evaluative choices. These findings highlight the value of literature as a resource for English language teaching, not merely as cultural content but as a site of linguistic meaning-making. Approaching literary discourse in this way supports the integration of literary and linguistic literacy, enabling learners to develop both critical interpretive skills and greater sensitivity to language in use. Keywords Appraisal theory Discursive construction English language teaching Macbeth Systemic functional linguistics 570 Discursive Constructions in Macbeth: A Systemic-Functional Contribution to English Language Teaching Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) to the representation of fictional worlds. In particular, the Attitude subsystem of Appraisal Theory offers a mechanism for the analysis of affect, judgment and appreciation in the portrayal of character. Accordingly, the present study is conducted on the discursive construction of Macbeth and lady Macbeth in William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, in Acts I & V as they present the characters of the story at two crucial junctures: their initial positioning in the plot and their ultimate transformations. Therefore, the analysis objectives are to: • Reveal how shifts in evaluative language across the play contribute to changes in the perception of these characters. • Demonstrate the pedagogical potential of such analysis for language teaching. By treating literary texts as material for linguistic study, teachers can foster both literary and linguistic literacy. This approach encourages learners to move beyond passive reading, fostering active engagement, deeper comprehension, and a more integrated view of language and literature. the context of Macbeth Widely considered one of the greatest writers and playwrights of the English Language, William Shakespeare (1564-1616) wrote Macbeth around 1606, in later part of his career. The play is possibly a tribute to King James I (formerly James VI of Scotland), who assumed the English throne in 1603 and became patron of the theatrical company to which Shakespeare belonged (Rakesh, 2024). The only known work by Shakespeare in which the action takes place mainly in Scotland, has as its literal starting point witchcraft, which has always been among the great concerns of the king (Wallace, 2023). Macbeth, the shortest of Shakespeare’s tragedies, is adapted from accounts of 11th-century events primarily recorded in Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicles and other historical sources (Hudson, 2023). The title character is a brave Scottish general who hears from three witches the prophecy that he will become king. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth kills King Duncan and begins to persecute everyone he sees as possible threats to his continued reign. Eventually, Lady Macbeth goes mad, consumed by guilt, and ends up committing suicide, while her husband, increasingly paranoid and tyrannical, faces a rebellion led by Duncan’s son and ends up dying in battle. The likely historical moment in which Shakespeare wrote the play was delicate relations between England and Scotland. James I intended to unite the two kingdoms, but encountered severe opposition among the Protestants English (Fincham & Lake, 1985). The way in which Shakespeare presents the central issues of his play seem to correspond to the concerns of their royal patron. Shakespearean plays have the ability to present opposing points of view in a non-contradictory manner (Polka, 2010). For instance, the crime from which Macbeth and Lady Macbeth begin their ruinous journey is presented by Shakespeare as being particularly terrible, which can be justified by James I’s attachment to the doctrine of the divine right of kings. Having ascended the English throne at a time of great political and religious turmoil, in which his own mother was executed, James would have been quite sensitive to the theme of regicide (Hencher, 2014), especially after the Conspiracy of Gunpowder of 1605. Thus, for the Shakespearean Macbeth couple, much more than for the historical Macbeths of the 11th century, when the king was only the primus inter pares and assassinating the king would represent a subversion of the natural order (Ali & Tasnim, 2025). The decision to assassinate the king puts the Macbeths in a tragic spiral from which they have no chance of escape. Readers and audience of the play follows the rapid transformation of what was once classified as ‘the happiest married couple in all of Shakespeare’s work’ (Talley, 2013) in archetypes of ambition, cruelty and guilt. These thematic and historical elements make Macbeth rich text for linguistic and literary analysis. By examining the evaluative language used to construct its two central characters, it is possible to gain deeper insight into how Shakespeare crafts moral ambiguity, psychological depth and dramatic tension. Ahmed Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) 571 Systemic Functional Linguistics In general terms, Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), pioneered by the English linguist Halliday and further developed by his colleagues (Halliday & Hasan, 1989; Eggins, 2004; Thompson, 2013; Martin & Rose, 2003; Martin & White, 2003), is a theory of language that examines a wide variety of texts with a focus on the meanings they create. From this perspective, language is viewed as a means of interaction between speakers, situating it within a socially oriented field of study. Research in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is mainly concerned with the way language is used, and the reason for this is that any utterance is always embedded in a context of use. In other words, language is not arbitrary and exists to meet the communicative needs of speakers. When the users interact with each other in time and space, language serves as the main tool through which they construct meaning and interact with others. From this angle, language is social in nature and only exists till it is embedded in social contexts. Consequently, SFL takes a necessarily functional orientation, away from the idea of an idealized, decontextualized language. Two important concepts need to be considered when analysing a text through the SFL lens: cultural context and situational context. The cultural context is a relationship to the way that various communities use language. In this sense, linguistic interaction is never confined to the level of sounds or symbols, but represents the cultural histories and practices of the participants as well. The situational context, on the other hand, refers to the immediate particularities that determine an interaction. It includes the people, events and situations that provide motivation for the creation and interpretation of texts, as well as the extralinguistic elements of communication. Halliday and Hasan (1989) describe situational context as comprising three interrelated elements: field (what is happening in the interaction), tenor (the participants and their relationships), and mode (the symbolic organization of the interaction). Appraisal System The Appraisal System, developed within the framework of SFL (Halliday, 2004), is an approach that seeks to systematize and investigate interpersonal meanings in different texts. More specifically, it examines how speakers and writers express feelings, intensify or diminish them, and incorporate the voices of others into their utterances (Martin & Rose, 2003; Martin & White, 2003). The main subsystems of the Appraisal System are: Attitude, Graduation, and Engagement. Attitude refers to the resources used to negotiate feelings, judge people’s character and behaviour, and evaluate the value of things. Graduation consists of grammatical and lexical resources that allow phenomena to be placed on a scale of intensity or degree. Engagement refers to the set of resources used by speakers to signal their stance toward their own statements as well as toward those of other participants in the interaction. Due to scope restrictions, this study adopts only the Attitude subsystem as its analytical resource. Attitude is concerned with the ways in which speakers express positive and negative feelings in relation to three main semantic domains: Affect, Judgment, and Appreciation. As the term suggests, affect deals with the linguistic resources used to express emotions, whether as internal states or as responses to external triggers. Judgment, in turn, refers to the ways in which people evaluate themselves and others by drawing on socially and culturally established norms of behaviour. Finally, Appreciation encompasses the interpersonal resources used to convey positive or negative evaluations of entities, processes, and phenomena. Literary contributions in ELt classrooms Language classrooms are deemed to play the role of opening the cognitive mind sets of the students to have a heightened realization that the constructive use of language cannot be confined to shallow grammatical categories but must incorporate the actual communicative roles of a language. In this respect, Novianti et al. (2020) note that the failure in literacy teaching in EFL settings is often seen when teachers focus on linguistic correctness instead of critical literacy that allows learners to be active readers and interpreters of the texts. In this school of thought, the professional identity of a teacher should have an element of ensuring critical participation in classroom activities. In this view, students will be 572 Discursive Constructions in Macbeth: A Systemic-Functional Contribution to English Language Teaching Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) able to formulate new interpretive vistas while studying literary works, understanding that there is no objectively flaccid reading but an opportunity at reflection and moments of mutual dialogue. The authors contend that response-oriented models of critical reading are beneficial because they motivate students to relate text and context when developing meaning, which promotes student autonomy. Besides, the introduction of literary integration in EFL classrooms provides an excellent platform to use language meaningfully, understand culture, and think critically. More importantly, the recent research related to the influence of introduction of Shakespearean work in the language learning classrooms focused on the pedagogical worth imprinted in the canonical literature. In a case study, Kevin and Joshua (2023) discuss how literary versions of Shakespeare can be used in EFL classrooms as scaffolds to language access and cultural knowledge. Equally, an immersive, performance-based approach to teaching Shakespeare at a Royal Shakespeare Company initiative concluded that this teaching modality enhances vocabulary complexity, confidence, and communicative competence of primary school pupils. Taken altogether, the literature confirms that teaching Shakespeare through performance-based instruction leads to a greater increase in vocabulary complexity, confidence, and communicative competence of primary school students, who become active, reflective, and competent learners in both academic and social spheres. MEtHodoLoGY The study is a qualitative, interpretive research undertaking with an aim of seeking how language of evaluation serves in the discursive construction of the characters Macbeth and Lady Macbeth of the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare. The discussion dwells on the chosen passages of Acts I and V. The reason why these acts were selected is that they mark two turning points in the story, the first time the characters are presented, and the very last time they change. The study is based on the attitude subsystem of the Appraisal Theory in the framework of the Systemic Functional Linguistics in general. This analytic prism allows recognizing affect, judgment, and appreciation in speech of the characters, in the judgment they are made by other characters and in the discourse of the narrator. Explicit and implicit evaluative resources are considered. Data collection involved: • Selecting relevant excerpts – Passages were chosen in which Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are either speaking themselves or are the subject of evaluations by other characters. • Categorising evaluative expressions – Each evaluative item was classified according to the Attitude categories: affect, judgment, or appreciation. • Interpreting the linguistic patterns – The distribution and intensity of evaluative items were examined to identify changes in how each character is portrayed between Acts I and V. AnALYSiS Act 1 In Act I, the audience is introduced to Macbeth, who, upon returning from battle with Banquo, encounters three witches. They prophesize that he will be granted the title of Thane of Cawdor and, eventually, ascend to the throne of Scotland, even though King Duncan is still alive. In the opening scenes, when a captain reports to Duncan, Macbeth is evaluated through a series of positive judgments. He is portrayed as a courageous warrior, which constitutes a judgment of social esteem (capacity), as he is considered competent and worthy of trust. Moreover, his tenacity in a battle is pointed at, which means the Judgment of tenacity, as he is depicted as a reliable and not deterred by the difficulties. These tests combined make Macbeth a figure of Appreciation, who was admired because of being a hero and a successful fighter in the battlefield (see Text A, in Appendix). In the passage of Act I, scene three. Macbeth is made to focus on his inner voice (see Text B in Appendix). Ahmed Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) 573 Having already seen the first part of the prophecy of the witches, i.e. his elevation as Thane of Cawdor, he starts to think more firmly that he is soon to be crowned king. Nevertheless, he also understands that this coronation can be possible only after eliminating the barriers, such as King Duncan himself. By applying the Appraisal Theory, the thoughts of Macbeth make it possible to observe the changing evaluative positions. Appreciation of the situation has reflected his ambition since he is reflecting on the importance of the fulfilment of the prophecy. At the same time, his hesitation toward murdering Duncan conveys Affect, a negative emotional response marked by fear and moral unease. Finally, his self-assessment illustrates Judgment, as he evaluates his own capacity for ruthless action and recognizes his insecurity. These layers of meaning highlight the contradiction between his earlier image as a brave warrior and his emerging construction as a fearful and conflicted man (see Text B in Appendix). In the third excerpt, taken from Act I, Scene 5, Lady Macbeth’s character begins to take shape through her soliloquy. She first constructs Macbeth and then turns to speak about herself. Initially, she expresses a negative judgment of social esteem regarding ability, exploiting Macbeth’s weaknesses (“too full o’ the milk of human kindness”) to persuade him toward the series of murders that will secure his rise to the throne. At the same time, she draws on the non-authorial effect of satisfaction to describe Macbeth’s ambition (“Thou wouldst be great; Art not without ambition”). In doing so, Lady Macbeth’s references to her husband’s emotions become a deliberate rhetorical strategy, both convincing and persuasive. Alongside the negative judgment, there is also a positive judgment of social esteem in terms of capacity, since “ambitious” can equally be understood as a quality attributed to Macbeth. Furthermore, Lady Macbeth reinforces this by referring to him as “great.” When shifting focus to herself, she positions her own role as one that provides Macbeth with security, relying on the authorial effect of confidence to project her ability to sustain and support his rise (see Text C, in Appendix). Act V In Act I, at the beginning of the play, Macbeth is referred to by other characters as the “noble” and the “brave.” In Act V, however, there is a marked shift in how the character is constructed. In the excerpt from Scene II, Macbeth ceases to be the “brave” hero and comes to be associated with negative qualities such as tyranny and madness. This change is evident in the negative judgment of social esteem of normality (“tyrant” / “madman”). In addition, we observe the presence of non-authorial effect of unhappiness, since the phrase “hate less” indicates that he is generally detested, though to varying degrees. There is also an attribution of emotions to Macbeth, in which other characters portray him as a man psychologically tormented and consumed by the weight of his crimes (see Text D, in Appendix). In Act I, Macbeth already demonstrates insecurity and negative feelings regarding his own actions. By Scene III of Act V, this evolves into an authorial effect of dissatisfaction, revealing his discontent with the outcomes of his deeds. Thus, Macbeth is constructed through negative emotions, presenting him as a man tormented by the weight of his crimes (see Text E, in Appendix). In relation to Lady Macbeth, in the first scene of Act V, the Doctor employs appreciation resources, particularly an appreciation for composition: complexity, to describe the then queen of Scotland. Lady Macbeth’s heart is valued in a way that signals her state as deviating from normalcy. Her actions are further evaluated as evidence that justifies her disturbed condition. However, in Scene IX, we encounter a shift toward judgment resources, specifically a negative judgment of social esteem concerning Lady Macbeth’s normality. She is described as diabolical, which implies behaviour marked as abnormal and transgressive for what is expected of a queen (see Text F, in Appendix). Therefore, the analysis of evaluative resources indicates both an evolution of characterization and a role reversal throughout the play. In the first act, Lady Macbeth presents herself as “brave” and “fearless,” while Macbeth is initially constructed in a more hesitant and reticent manner. Other characters, however, describe him as “noble” and “brave,” reinforcing his public image. By the fifth act, the characters are reconstructed: Lady Macbeth is redefined as a “madwoman,” whereas Macbeth is attributed a “valiant fury.” At this stage, Macbeth is framed through predominantly negative evaluations, realized through both affect and judgment within the Appraisal framework. 574 Discursive Constructions in Macbeth: A Systemic-Functional Contribution to English Language Teaching Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) concLuSion This paper has analysed how Shakespeare uses evaluative language to create meaning in the Macbeth play and how the two main characters in the play Macbeth and Lady Macbeth use the evaluative language to create meaning. Based on the Systemic Functional Linguistics and the Attitude subsystem of the Appraisal Theory, the analysis showed how changes in affect, judgment, and appreciation lead to the development of the characters and their ultimate change. The comparison between the early descriptions of courage and desire in Act I and the devolution into dictatorship and remorse in Act V demonstrate the use of language not only to describe people, but also to herald larger topics of strength, righteousness and weaknesses. There are also implications of the study to English language teaching in the aspect of using canonical literature in the cultivation of critical sense in language learners. The application of an SFL approach to literature makes canonical texts discursive events, not fixed cultural and literary texts. Such a view enables students to observe the negotiated meaning of language, thus enhancing their knowledge of mastery of literature and formal structure of language. Rather than considering literature as the peripheral one, one can re-think it as the core of the development of critical literacy, interpretive autonomy and awareness of the socio-cultural aspects of communication. Competing Interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Authors’ Biography * Saba Ahmed is a Lecturer at the Department of Humanities & Social Sciences, Bahria University Karachi Campus, Pakistan. She completed her Masters of Applied Linguistics from NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi, Pakistan. rEFErEncES Ali, C., & Tasnim, T. (2025). Blood for the Crown: Analyzing Army Coups and Political Upheavals in Shakespeare’s Selected Plays. International Journal of Language and Literary Studies, 7(3), 319-332. https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlls. v7i3.2174 Durante, P. G. C. (2025). Advancing critical literacy through critical literature pedagogy-based principles of literary education. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 83(2), 196-217. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/25.83.196 Eggins, S. (2004). Introduction to systemic functional linguistics. A&C Black. Fincham, K., & Lake, P. (1985). The ecclesiastical policy of King James I. Journal of British Studies, 24(2), 169-207. https://doi.org/10.1086/385831 Halliday, M. A. (1964). The linguistic study of literary texts. In Proceedings of the ninth international congress of linguists (pp. 302-307). The Hague: De Gruyter. Halliday, M. A. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar. revised by CMIM Matthiessen. London: Arnold. Halliday, M. A. K., & Hasan, R. (1989). Language, context, and text: Aspects of language in a social-semiotic perspective. Oxford University Press. Hencher, R. (2014). Profane, steal, or usurp: Kingship, divine right, and regicide in Shakespeare’s Macbeth and Richard II. Verso: An Undergraduate Journal of Literary Criticism. Hudson, B. T. (2023). Macbeth before Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. Hunaepi, H., Khaeruma, K., Hajiriah, T. L., Wardani, K. S. K., Sukiastini, I. G. A. N. K., Nitiasih, P. K., ... & Sudatha, I. (2024). Critical pedagogy and student learning outcomes: A systematic literature review. Path of Science, 10(5), 3048-3060. http://dx.doi.org/10.22178/pos.104-27 Kevin, A., & Joshua, M. (2023). Shakespeare in the EFL Classroom: A Case Study on the Use of Literary Adaptations. Law Research Journal, 1(1), 88-110. Martin, J. R., & Rose, D. (2003). Working with discourse: Meaning beyond the clause. London: Continuum. Martin, J. R., & White, P. R. (2003). The language of evaluation (Vol. 2). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi. org/10.1057/9780230511910 Ahmed Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) 575 Novianti, N., Thomas, A., & To, V. (2020). Addressing challenges in the practice of critical literacy in EFL classrooms: A new framework. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10(1), 206-217. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal. v10i1.25049 Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (1991). Instructional discourse, student engagement, and literature achievement. Research in the Teaching of English, 25(3), 261-290. https://doi.org/10.58680/rte199115462 Polka, B. (2010). Coriolanus and the Roman World of Contradiction: A Paradoxical World Elsewhere. European Legacy, 15(2), 171-194. https://doi.org/10.1080/10848771003647923 Rakesh, A. (2024). Shakespeare and the Political: Elizabethan Politics and Asian Exigencies. Bloomsbury Publishing. Talley, C. L. (2013). Shakespeare’s concept of love and marriage as presented in ten selected plays (Doctoral dissertation). Thompson, G. (2013). Introducing functional grammar. Routledge. Wallace, T. (2023). The witch-finder King: A study of James I of England and his relationship to witchcraft (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Victoria). Yu, L., & Cai, L. (2025). Contemporary American Literature in Distance Learning: Creating Reading Motivation and Student Engagement. Reading Research Quarterly, 60(2), e609. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.609 APPEndiX text A The merciless Macdonwald— Worthy to be a rebel, for to that The multiplying villainies of nature Do swarm upon him—from the western isles Of kerns and gallowglasses is supplied; And Fortune, on his damnèd quarrel smiling, Show’d like a rebel’s whore: but all’s too weak; For brave Macbeth—well he deserves that name— Disdaining Fortune, with his brandish’d steel, Which smoked with bloody execution, Like valour’s minion carved out his passage Till he faced the slave; Which ne’er shook hands, nor bade farewell to him, Till he unseam’d him from the nave to th’ chaps, And fix’d his head upon our battlements. (Shakespeare, Macbeth, 1.2.25–34) text B [Aside] This supernatural soliciting Cannot be ill, cannot be good. If ill, Why hath it given me earnest of success, 576 Discursive Constructions in Macbeth: A Systemic-Functional Contribution to English Language Teaching Vol. 5 No. 4 (November, 2025) Commencing in a truth? I am Thane of Cawdor. If good, why do I yield to that suggestion Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair And make my seated heart knock at my ribs, Against the use of nature? Present fears Are less than horrible imaginings: My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical, Shakes so my single state of man That function is smothered in surmise—and nothing is But what is not. (Shakespeare, Macbeth, 1.3.134–145) text c Lady Macbeth: Glamis, thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be What thou art promised. Yet do I fear thy nature; It is too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness To catch the nearest way. Thou wouldst be great, Art not without ambition, but without The illness should attend it. What thou wouldst highly, That wouldst thou holily; wouldst not play false, And yet wouldst wrongly win. Thou’ldst have, great Glamis, That which cries, ‘Thus thou must do, if thou have it; And that which rather thou dost fear to do Than wishest should be undone.’ Hie thee hither, That I may pour my spirits in thine ear And chastise with the valor of my tongue All that impedes thee from the golden round, Which fate and metaphysical aid doth seem To have thee crowned withal. (Shakespeare, Macbeth, 1.5.15–31)