Instructional supervision on teaching practices, performance and learning outcomes

 Corresponding author: Kristine Bernadette Francisco Eugenio Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Liscense 4.0. Instructional supervision on teaching practices, performance and learning outcomes Kristine Bernadette Francisco Eugenio 1, 2, * 1 Department of Education, Salapungan National High School, Bulacan, Philippines. 2 Baliwag Polytechnic College, Institute of Arts and Sciences, Bulacan, Philippines. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 Publication history: Received on 21 August 2025; revised on 01 October 2025; accepted on 03 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.28.1.3368 Abstract This study determined the relationship between instructional supervision and teachers’ teaching practices and performance and the learning outcomes of the students in selected high schools in EDDIS III, Bulacan during the School Year 2019-2020. With 346 teachers as respondents of the study, findings showed that the respondents always conducted instructional supervision in their respective schools. Likewise, respondents always utilized teaching practices such as differentiated instruction and cooperative learning. In the same manner, respondents always showed outstanding teaching performance. Meanwhile, the learning outcomes of the students were described as very satisfactory. Highly significant correlations were found between instructional supervision and teaching practices and the performance of teacher respondents. Similarly, a highly significant correlation was found between instructional supervision and the learning outcomes of the students Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: There is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and teaching practices. There is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and teaching performance. There is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and learning outcomes. Keywords: Instructional Supervision; Teaching Performance; Teaching Practices; Learning Outcomes 1. Introduction Instructional supervision is one of the many ways to ensure that the schools’ mission, vision, and goal are being implemented through empowering, equipping, and enhancing teachers’ skills with the help of observation to provide meaningful learning for students. In our present situation, teachers are undergoing instructional supervision thru the classroom observation tool. Moreover, school managers observe teachers in an actual teaching scenario and provide post-observation after the actual teaching observation. Thus, teachers may benefit from the feedback given by the instructional supervisor that can lead to student growth and development. In addition, training, seminar-workshop, and learning action cell sessions were provided to cater to the needs of both teachers and the students which may result in an increase in the learning outcomes and teacher’s performance. The Northern Bedford County School District (2008) provides a system of differentiated supervision such as direct supervision, mentoring, administrative mentoring, peer coaching, self-directed supervision, instructional leadership, professional colloquium, action research, and national teacher certification [1]. In addition to the above mentioned, the principals’ main role is to orient the new teaching staff, supervise curriculum, timetabling, and monitor students’ academic progress. Hence, a principal should be setting time for instructional supervision in schools because it influences the students’ academic achievement positively. (Samoie, 2014) [2]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 228 Sergiovanni and Starrat (as cited in Mwaniki & Guantai, 2018), note that teacher instructional supervision plays a powerful role in developing and nurturing the educational competencies of a teacher, which in turn contributes to the academic success of the students [3]. In addition, classroom observation has the biggest role in instructional supervision which can help a teacher grow in different aspects with the aid of different observation tools. It may be done formally or informally depending on the needs and wants of the immediate superior. Thus, the observer must have to prioritize the proper approach in order to improve the quality of teaching as well as the preparation of learning episodes. Having frequent classroom observation may help teachers enhance their knowledge of the effective classroom strategies that will cater to the needs of every student. Through the given feedback, it will help improve the quality of instruction. Moreover, Abubakr (2015) stated that continuous supervisory training for teachers and teachers can create an enabling environment in which roles are appreciated in the development of teaching practices to improve professional development [4]. According to the Reform Support Network (2015), several challenges that prevent observers from providing meaningful feedback is by using observation rubrics with a lack of specificity [5]. Thus, observers find it hard to assess teachers’ performance if there are unclear expectations for teacher practice or assessing too many indicators at once. Many reasons have arisen why some of the teachers, even observers find classroom observation ineffective, bias and unreliable. According to Dynarski (2015), teacher evaluation systems need a stronger scientific basis to understand effective teaching and to measure teachers’ effectiveness [6]. Moreover, more research is needed to identify teaching practices rather than using notions of what effective teachers should be doing. Evaluation systems that tell us what effective teachers should be doing are not clear and misleading. In addition, solid research about what aspects of teaching improve learning is much needed. In line with this, the Department of Education, through the Teacher Education Council issues DepEd Order no. 42, S.2017 entitled “National Adoption and Implementation of the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers” [7]. It contains 7 Domains which collectively comprise 37 strands that refer to more specific dimensions of teacher practices. All performance appraisal for teachers shall be based on this set of standards. Furthermore, it also aims to apply a uniform measure to assess teachers’ performance, identify needs, and provide support for professional development. It has a supervisory tool known as the Classroom Observation Tool (COT) which is useful to collect information from the actual teaching-learning activity in the classroom base on the domains. This observation tool is aligned with Philippine Professional Standard for Teachers. Hence, teachers need to develop their 21st-century skills to get along with 21stcentury learners. Thus, observation might be of great help to improve those skills. It is important that the analysis is as unbiased as expected and that advisors are aware of their own preferences and predispositions so that the data obtained is as valid and reliable as possible and not intended to validate a point. According to Will (2020), observations in the classroom are another main component of an evaluation. But things look different now, teachers are struggling to adjust to a modern environment of distance learning, and with student access, there are significant inequities [8]. Based on the aforementioned discussions of related literature, the researcher formulated the following research problem and research questions. Moreover, this study was conducted to find out how instructional supervision through COT affects teaching practices and performance as well as the learning outcomes. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Research Design This study used the explanatory sequential mixed-methods of research in which quantitative and qualitative approaches are mixed in a single study. The design of this proposed study is descriptive research. The use of the descriptive method of research was preferred by the researcher for both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis emphasizing the relationship between instructional supervision and teaching performance, teaching practices, and learning outcomes World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 229 For the qualitative part, teacher-informants were interviewed online regarding their perception of the implementation of the classroom observation tool. Most significant stories of teachers about their experiences during a classroom observation. Supporting numerical data from a survey questionnaire through google forms were also used to enrich and substantiate the qualitative data. 2.2. Data Gathering Techniques Prior to the gathering of the data, the researcher sought permission from the Schools Division Superintendent in Bulacan in collecting the required data. She wrote a request letter addressed to the superintendent and asked help from the schools’ administrative staff to submit it to the division office. Upon permitted, the researcher also secured permits from the school heads where the study was conducted. After permission was granted, the researcher proceeded to the concerned respondents and informants to conduct the usual procedure of the distribution of research instruments up to the retrieval. The instrument was administered online through google forms at the appointed date to the secondary schools in San Rafael. In order to obtain the correct and accurate information, the respondents and informants were briefed and oriented on the purpose of the study. It is estimated that one hundred percent of the instrument was retrieved and that it was fully completed. The interview guide questions were the main instrument in gathering the needed data for the study. The questionnaire was adapted from the different instruments such as Individual Performance and Commitment Rating Tool and Classroom Observation Tool and was composed of three parts. Part I of the questionnaire provided significant information about the instructional supervision done by the school head to his/her teachers in terms of classroom observation. The part II of the questionnaire provided insight of the teachers regarding their experiences encountered during observation and the impact of classroom observation on the teaching practices, performance, and learning outcomes. Moreover, part III is the qualitative data of the study wherein sets of guide questions were given to get the courses of action to enhance the capabilities in dealing with observations, improve classroom instruction, and their perception of the instructional supervisory tool. This study gathered information about the impact of revised classroom tools on teaching practices, performance, and learning outcomes. 2.3. Sampling Procedure The researcher used the total enumeration in the conduct of the study in teacher-informants. The researcher got 346 teacher-informants among the five secondary schools in San Rafael, Bulacan. 175 from Carlos F. Gonzales High School, 35 from Salapungan National High School, 74 from San Rafael National Trade School, 34 from Maronquillo High School, and 28 from Lydia Villangca Trade School. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Instructional Supervision Instructional supervision is a professional continuous and cooperative process for the improvement of instruction. It is characterized by guidance, assistance, sharing of ideas, facilitation, or creation to help teachers improve learning situations and quality of learning in the schools. 3.1.1. Planning Table 1 The Instructional Supervision in terms of Planning Item Statement Responses (N=346) Mean VD 5 4 3 2 1 1. Orients new teaching staff. 209 95 27 15 0 4.44 A 2. Develops and promotes innovative and effective teaching-learning, approaches, strategies, and techniques. 195 115 27 9 0 4.43 A World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 230 3. Implements innovative and alternative delivery schemes in teaching and learning. 191 123 22 10 0 4.43 A 4. Implements, monitors, supervise, and assess the school curriculum to assure higher learning outcomes. 202 110 23 11 0 4.45 A 5. Localizes/indigenizes curriculum. 155 142 37 11 1 4.27 A 6. Proposes innovations to improve instruction. 195 111 28 11 1 4.41 A Overall Mean 4.41 A Legend: Scale Verbal Description 4.21 – 5.00 Always (A) 3.41 – 4.20 Often (O) 2.61 – 3.40 Sometimes (S) 1.81 – 2.60 Rarely (R) 1.00 – 1.80 Never (N) Table 1 presents the perceptions of the teachers with regard to instructional supervision in terms of planning. It can be noted from the table that all items indicated therein garnered the highest verbal description of “always”. A closer look at the table shows that the item “Implements, monitors, supervise, and assess the school curriculum to assure higher learning outcomes” got the highest computed weighted mean of 4.45. Meanwhile, item “Localizes/indigenizes curriculum” received the lowest computed weighted mean of 4.27. The overall was recorded at 4.41. These results imply that curriculum and instruction are the meat of the educational process. Real change in education comes with changes in the content that teachers teach, and students learn, and in the instructional methods that teachers use. Both curriculum and instruction in turn are shaped by expectations about the kinds of educational outcomes that students should manifest by the time they graduate from high school. Accordingly, Akwesi (2018) asserted that curriculum implementation is the practical application of theory into practice in a way that the eventual outcome is evidenced through the learners’ performances in and outside the classroom. When teachers deliver both the curriculum contents and instructional strategies in the way and manner they were designed to be delivered, curriculum implementation is said to have occurred [9]. However, the ability and effectiveness of the teacher to carry out curriculum implementation depend to large extent on some variables like knowledge/experience qualification, availability of resources, and motivational issues among others. The findings of the interview supported the results of the study. In the conducted interview, teacher respondents were asked “Is there a difference between your preparation for a usual classroom teaching and your preparation for instructional supervision.” Respondents answered that they prepared for the lessons every day even without scheduled observation. However, they stated that when the observation is announced, they prepared more as compared to their daily activities in class. Further, they stated that planning is very important in every class. They also added that when everything is planned, the class will run very smoothly. 3.1.2. Monitoring Table 2 The Instructional Supervision in terms of Monitoring Item Statement Responses (N=346) Mean VD 5 4 3 2 1 1. Assumes leadership and supervises teachers on the improvement of instructional programs specifically the teaching-learning process. 193 105 40 8 0 4.40 A 2. Motivates and supports teachers to attain peak performance. 200 105 37 4 0 4.45 A 3. Assists teachers in identifying strengths and growth areas through monitoring and evaluation. 185 115 38 8 0 4.38 A 4. Provides professional, technical, and instructional assistance to teachers and school heads. 191 106 44 5 0 4.40 A 5. Promotes DepEd programs and projects to improve teaching and learning. 197 113 32 4 0 4.45 A World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 231 6. Promotes the efficiency of teaching and learning in all classes through observation and visitations. 193 110 34 9 0 4.41 A 7. Evaluates the performance of teachers. 193 109 34 8 2 4.40 A Overall Mean 4.41 A Legend: Scale Verbal Description 4.21 – 5.00 Always (A) 3.41 – 4.20 Often (O) 2.61 – 3.40 Sometimes (S) 1.81 – 2.60 Rarely (R) 1.00 – 1.80 Never (N) Table 2 displays the perceptions of the teachers as regards instructional supervision in terms of monitoring. It can be seen from the table that all items indicated therein including the computed overall mean of 4.41 obtained the highest verbal interpretation of “always”. Further examination of the same table reveals that items “Motivates and supports teachers to attain peak performance” and “Promotes DepEd programs and projects to improve teaching and learning” registered the highest computed weighted mean of 4.45. On the other hand, the item “Assists teachers in identifying strengths and growth areas through monitoring and evaluation” received the lowest computed weighted mean of 4.38. These findings imply that by having good work motivation in performing duties and responsibilities, a teacher will be able to lift and push the spirit to continue to complete the work. In addition to teachers’ motivation, there are some external factors that can support their performance including the leadership of the principal in conducting direction, guidance, and provision of care that is done continuously and sustainably. In the same vein, Abdul Hads and Nurhayati (2015) reported that supervision is the assistance in terms of motivation given to subordinates (teachers) to grow both personally and socially with an emphasis on professional aspects [10]. Thus, it can be interpreted that supervision is a systematic and well-planned effort undertaken by a school administrator to foster, encourage, motivate, and direct the teachers to achieve educational goals effectively through a better learning process. Results of the conducted interview corroborate with the quantitative findings of the study. When the teacher respondents were asked if they experienced instructional supervision, all of them replied “yes”. Further, they added that they firmly believed that instructional supervision provides them guidance and helps them to enhance their teaching practices that ultimately improve their students’ academic performance. Teacher respondents were also asked, “What do you usually feel whenever you are experiencing instructional supervision?” They answered that they felt nervous at the beginning of the observation but as the class goes on they already felt at ease and comfortable. In the conducted interview with the school heads and supervisor, they were asked “How often do you visit classrooms to observe teachers teaching?” They answered, once every quarter or as the need arises. Furthermore, they were also asked, “Would you explain the instructional supervisory roles you have found effective?” They responded to classroom observation as can easily be addressed the needs of both teachers and the students. 3.1.3. Feedback Table 3 exhibits the perceptions of the teachers regarding instructional supervision in terms of feedback. It can be examined from the table that all items reflected therein including the registered overall mean of 4.37 obtained the highest verbal interpretation of “always”. Further examination of the tabulated results shows that item “Conducts learning action cell (LAC) sessions to cater the needs of every teacher” received the highest computed weighted mean of 4.49. Meanwhile, the item “Initiates action research designed to improve instruction and academic performance” obtained the lowest computed weighted mean of 4.24. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 232 Table 3 The Instructional Supervision in terms of Feedback Item Statement Responses (N=346) Mean VD 5 4 3 2 1 1. Conducts post-conference after the classroom observation for future improvement. 201 92 45 5 3 4.40 A 2. Conducts seminars, workshops and other service training programs. 204 94 43 2 3 4.43 A 3. Initiates action research designed to improve instruction and academic performance. 165 116 52 10 3 4.24 A 4. Conducts learning action cell (LAC) sessions to cater the needs of every teachers. 224 77 38 4 3 4.49 A 5. Serves as consultant in the in-service trainings. 169 118 46 12 1 4.28 A Overall Mean 4.37 A Legend: Scale Verbal Description 4.21 – 5.00 Always (A) 3.41 – 4.20 Often (O) 2.61 – 3.40 Sometimes (S) 1.81 – 2.60 Rarely (R) 1.00 – 1.80 Never (N) These findings imply that when providing feedback on a colleague’s teaching performance, it is important to remember that the principal’s role is not to judge or evaluate a teacher’s approach to teaching or teaching style, or to demonstrate everything that he/she might know about teaching. Rather, the goal is to share strategies and perspectives through learning action cells that will help the teacher identify a plan for improving her or his teaching practice. As observers, principals are reflecting back to the teacher what it is like to be a student learning in his or her class. In conjunction with the present findings, Willems (2018) asserted that observation and feedback is a process that is vitally important to the educational environment and it is essential that there is a symbiotic relationship between the two [11]. Teachers observe their students on an ongoing basis and provide feedback according to the success, or otherwise, of learning activities in the classroom. Students observe their teachers on an ongoing basis, while feedback is provided in terms of their response to instructions and effective completion of tasks. Teachers, in turn, are observed by school administrators, whose job it is to evaluate their effectiveness, both for reasons of accountability, and provide recorded feedback on pedagogic practice in the classroom for either summative or formative purposes. If applied well, observation and feedback can encourage continuing professional development (CPD) and provide support and training, however, if the reverse is true they can lead to careers lost and significant issues with self-belief. In the conducted interview with the teacher respondents, they were asked “Do you find instructional supervision helpful in your development as a teacher?” these respondents replied that they strongly believed that instructional supervision is very helpful for them to know their strengths and weaknesses in teaching. Moreover, they added that instructional supervision made them aware of the things that they need to improve to make their teaching more effective. In addition to the above mentioned, in the conducted interview with the school heads and supervisor, they were asked “In your opinion, do you think that these supervisory roles can contribute to the improvement of the teaching practices, performance, and learning outcomes?” They all answered “yes”. Furthermore, they added that instructional supervision can help teachers improve their strategies and skills. Also, supervisory roles can easily identify the strength and areas that need improvement. However, as they were asked “How would instructional supervision be improved in your division/department/school?” They answered, it will improve through attending seminar workshops and evaluating teachers’ performance as the basis for the next instructional supervision. Whereas, ineffective practices such as too much workload needs to be eliminated. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 233 3.1.4. Assessment Table 4 The Instructional Supervision in terms of Assessment Item Statement Responses (N=346) Mean VD 5 4 3 2 1 1. Undertakes periodic evaluation of learner’s achievement as basis for INSET and curriculum adaptation. 202 110 23 11 0 4.45 A 2. Assists, ensures utilization of a range of assessment processes of learners performance. 165 116 52 10 3 4.24 A 3. Leads in the evaluation of learner’s achievement and utilizes results to improve learning. 202 110 23 11 0 4.45 A 4. Evaluates learning outcomes vis – a –vis the curriculum. 202 110 23 11 0 4.45 A 5. Develops, promotes innovative and effective assessment approaches, strategies and techniques. 195 115 27 9 0 4.43 A 6. Assists teachers in identifying strengths and growth areas through monitoring and observation. 185 115 38 8 0 4.38 A Overall Mean 4.40 A Legend: Scale Verbal Description 4.21 – 5.00 Always (A) 3.41 – 4.20 Often (O) 2.61 – 3.40 Sometimes (S) 1.81 – 2.60 Rarely (R) 1.00 – 1.80 Never (N) Table 4 summarizes the perceptions of the teachers about instructional supervision in terms of assessment. It can be observed from the table that all items indicated therein, including the overall mean of 4.40 received the highest verbal description of “always”. Further observation of the table reveals that items “Undertakes periodic evaluation of learner’s achievement as a basis for INSET and curriculum adaptation”, “Leads in the evaluation of learner’s achievement and utilizes results to improve learning”, and “Evaluates learning outcomes vis – a –vis the curriculum” yielded the highest computed weighted mean of 4.45. On the other hand, item “Assists, ensures utilization of a range of assessment processes of learners performance” obtained the lowest computed weighted mean of 4.24.These results imply that the primary purpose of assessment and evaluation is to improve student learning. Information gathered through assessment and evaluations helps teachers to identify students’ difficulties as well as to detect weaknesses in programs. Results also showed that respondents were aware that assessment and evaluations are important tools for adapting curriculum and instructional approaches to students’ needs and for determining the overall effectiveness of programs and classroom practices. Accordingly, Spencer (2017) reiterated that assessment and evaluation strategies are based on the provincial curriculum expectations and on the achievement level descriptions and categories in the achievement chart [12]. Assessment and evaluation strategies are varied in nature, administered over a period of time, and designed to provide opportunities for students to demonstrate the full range of their learning. In addition, teachers will use both their professional judgment and student observations in evaluating specific criteria and achievement. Moreover, Sewagegn (2019) stated that the importance of assessment in assessing the standard of education cannot be overstated [13]. This is especially true when students are adequately evaluated using a variety of effective evaluation methods. 3.2. Teaching Practices Teachers’ practices are important for understanding and improving educational processes. They are closely linked to teachers’ strategies for coping with challenges in their daily professional life and to their general well-being, and they shape students’ learning environment and influence student motivation and achievement. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 234 3.2.1. Differentiated Instruction Table 5 The Teaching Practices in terms of Differentiated Instruction Item Statement Responses (N=346) Mean VD 5 4 3 2 1 1. Uses differentiated, developmentally appropriate learning experiences to address learners’ gender, needs, strength, interest, and experiences. 187 124 30 4 1 4.42 A 2. Vary the complexity along the lines of concrete, symbolic or abstract explorations. 124 175 39 7 1 4.20 O 3. Vary the resources, involving narrative, informational, multimedia, experts and guests. 143 155 39 8 1 4.25 A 4. Vary the context from classrooms, programs, communities, and virtual environment. 141 161 34 9 1 4.25 A 5. Arranges flexible groupings and peer activities. 169 135 33 8 1 4.34 A 6. Provide roles and clear expectations for group members. 172 141 28 4 1 4.38 A 7. Uses problem-based learning, service learning and performance-based experiences. 156 145 38 7 0 4.30 A 8. Expecting student work that reflects multiple intelligences. 167 137 36 5 1 4.34 A Overall Mean 4.31 A Legend: Scale Verbal Description 4.21 – 5.00 Always (A) 3.41 – 4.20 Often (O) 2.61 – 3.40 Sometimes (S) 1.81 – 2.60 Rarely (R) 1.00 – 1.80 Never (N) Table 5 reveals the perceptions of the respondents as regards their teaching practices in terms of differentiated instruction. It can be gleaned from the table that item “Uses differentiated, developmentally appropriate learning experiences to address learners’ gender, needs, strength, interest and experiences” received the highest computed weighted mean of 4.42 with a verbal description of “always”. On the other hand, item “Vary the complexity along the lines of concrete, symbolic or abstract explorations” yielded the lowest computed weighted mean of 4.20 with a verbal description of “often”. The overall mean was recorded at 4.31 which is verbally interpreted as “always”. These results imply that respondents utilized teaching strategies wherein students can demonstrate varying learning abilities, academic levels, learning styles, and learning preferences. Further, these strategies are appropriate for their needs and tailored to meet their unique needs. In conjunction with the present findings, in differentiating instruction, teachers proactively modify the curriculum, teaching methods, resources, learning activities, and student products to address the needs of individual students and small groups of students to maximize the learning opportunity for each student in the classroom. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 235 3.2.2. Integrated Technology Table 6 The Teaching Practices in terms of Integrated Technology Item Statement Responses (N=346) Mean VD 5 4 3 2 1 1. Selects, develops, organizes, and uses appropriate teaching and learning resources, including ICT, to address learning goals. 174 132 33 5 2 4.36 A 2. Incorporates technology-based lessons such as audio-video presentations. 138 161 38 8 1 4.23 A 3. Encourages students to use graphics, audio or video in completing their task. 132 146 57 9 2 4.15 O 4. Encourages students to use a word processing application to write, edit and print their requirements. 117 155 60 12 2 4.08 O 5. Incorporates online news stories into the curriculum. 119 136 77 11 3 4.03 O Overall Mean 4.17 O Legend: Scale Verbal Description 4.21 – 5.00 Always (A) 3.41 – 4.20 Often (O) 2.61 – 3.40 Sometimes (S) 1.81 – 2.60 Rarely (R) 1.00 – 1.80 Never (N) Table 6 shows the perceptions of the respondents about their teaching practices in terms of integrated technology. It can be observed from the table that the item “Selects, develops, organizes, and uses appropriate teaching and learning resources, including ICT, to address learning goals” obtained the highest computed weighted mean of 4.36 which is verbally described as “always”. On the other hand, item “Incorporates online news stories into the curriculum” received the lowest computed weighted mean of 4.03 which is verbally interpreted as “often”. The overall mean was registered at 4.17 with a verbal interpretation of “often”. These results imply that respondents strongly believed that ICTs can empower teachers and learners, making significant contributions to learning and achievement. Moreover, they felt that introduction and use of ICT adequately will be extremely effective in students’ learning and achievement. Studies by Macho (2015), Ghavifekr and Rosdy (2015), and a number of other researchers have confirmed that the use of ICT in education would help enhance students’ learning [14][15]. Previous researchers have shown that teaching with the use of ICT facilitates the learning process in a positive way and makes students more actively engaged in learning (Jamieson-Proctor, Albion, Finger, Cavanagh, Fitzgerald, Bond, Grimbeek, 2018) [16]. Furthermore, educators and instructional designers have been investigating what characteristics make technology an effective vehicle for education. A shift toward ideas about good education and student-centered learning activities intersects with a trend toward greater use of technology. Moreover, technology is considered as one of the essential factors in transforming developing countries for sustainable growth. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 242 These findings imply that instructional supervision greatly influenced the teaching practices and teaching performance of the teachers as well as the learning outcomes of the students. Additionally, this indicates that instructional supervision significantly explains teacher effectiveness in the classroom which has been proven to improve student learning. The findings of this study were in line with the results of other researches in this field. Sule, Ameh, and Egbai (2015) for instance, studied the relationship between instructional supervision and the roles teachers play in ensuring effectiveness in secondary schools [23]. Their study revealed that classroom observations positively contributed to teacher effectiveness in a school. Similarly, Veloo, Komujji, and Khalid (2015) in their study about the effect of clinical supervision on the teaching performance of secondary school teachers, relatedly established that formal observations significantly contributed to improved teacher preparation, lesson development, learner assessment, and classroom control [24]. However, several pieces of literature (e.g. Tesfaw & Hofman, 2016; Milanowski, 2017; Holland, 2018) argue that formal classroom observations have little effect on teaching practices. These scholars meanwhile advocate for more frequent, short, unannounced, informal classroom observations by school authorities to motivate teachers to adopt effective pedagogical practices. They contend that informal classroom observations provide a better picture of the teacher’s competence and his or her pedagogical practices than formal observations. Additionally, these scholars advised that for better results, the frequency and purpose of the walk-throughs or short visits to classrooms should be collaboratively established by the teacher and administrator [25] [26] [27]. Results of the conducted interview conform to the above findings. When the teacher respondents were asked “Does instructional supervision affect your teaching practices, performance, and the learning outcomes? In what way?” These respondents replied that through instructional supervision they became aware and informed of their strengths that they need to sustain and weaknesses that they need to improve. By improving their teaching strategies, the level of their teaching performance will increase and as final results, the level of the students’ academic performance will also increase. 4. Conclusion Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: • There is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and teaching practices. • There is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and teaching performance. • There is a significant relationship between instructional supervision and learning outcomes. • The instructional supervision greatly influenced the teaching practices, teaching performance, and learning outcomes. Compliance with ethical standards Acknowledgements The author wish to thank Dr. Rico Paulo G. Tolentino for imparting his knowledge and expertise, guidance, words of encouragement, and valuable comments and suggestions to make this study a success. Special thanks are also extended to all the respondents for their precious time and cooperation in providing all the necessary information for this study. Disclosure of Conflict of interest I declare no conflict of interest. Statement of informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. References [1] Northern Bedford County School District. Differentiated Supervision and Evaluation [Internet]. 2008 [cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://www.nbcsd.org/cms/lib/PA01001217/Centricity/Domain/40/Purpose_of_Supervision_Evaluation.pdf World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 243 [2] Samoei, C. Instructional Supervisory Role of Principal and Its Influence on Students Academic Achievement in Public Secondary Schools in Nandi North District [Internet]. Kenya: Semantic Scholar; 2014 [ cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/11fa/466e822c6ec0de68e4fc4b0835b2f3ff67de.pdf [3] Mwaniki, S. and Guantai, K. The Influence of Instructional Supervision by Quality Assurance and Standards Officers’ on Teachers’ Instructional Competences in School [Internet]. Kenya: International Journal of Advanced Research; 2018. [cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324648676_THE_INFLUENCE_OF_INSTRUCTIONAL_SUPERVISION _BY_QUALITY_ASSURANCE_AND_STANDARDS_OFFICERS'_ON_TEACHERS'_INSTRUCTIONAL_COMPETENCES_I N_SCHOOLS/link/5bc480f692851c88fd6a6ba2/download [4] Abubakr, A. The Role of Educational Supervisors Towards Improving Teachers Performance [Internet]. Nigeria: Research Gate; 2015 [cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323114130_THE_ROLE_OF_EDUCATIONAL_SUPERVISORS_TOWAR DS_IMPROVING_TEACHERS_PERFORMANCE [5] Reform Support Network. Using Observations to Improve Teaching Practice [Internet]. 2015 [cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://www2.ed.gov/about/inits/ed/implementation-support-unit/techassist/usingobservationstoImproveteacherpractice.pdf [6] Dynarski, M. Teacher Observation Have Been a Waste of Time and Money [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: Brookings; 2016 [cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://www.brookings.edu/research/teacher-observationshave-been-a-waste-of-time-and-money/ [7] Department of Education. DepEd Order No. 42 S., 2017 National Adoption and Implementation of the Philippine Professional Standard for Teachers [Internet]. Manila: Department of Education; 2017 [cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://www.deped.gov.ph/2017/08/11/do-42-s-2017-national-adoption-andimplementation-of-the-philippine-professional-standards-for-teachers/ [8] Will, M. Should Teacher Be Evaluated During Coronavirus School Shutdowns? [Internet]. Bethesda: Education Week; 2020 [cited 2025. September 26]. Available from https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2020/04/20/should-teachers-be-evaluated-during-coronavirusschool.html [9] Akwesi, F.D. Strategies for Relating the School Curriculum to Produce Work. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies. 2018; 10(1): 12-13. [10] Abdul Hads and dan Nurhayati. Mamajemen Mutu Pendidikan. Bandung: Alfabeta. 2010:67. [11] Willems, P. Exploring experienced teachers’ and supervisors’ perspectives on post-observation feedback sessions [MA TESOL Dissertation]. University of Leeds; 2018. [12] Spencer, E. The complexities of change: Formative assessment in school. Curriculum Journal. 2017; 21(2):161177. [13] Sewagegn, A. A Study on the Assessment Methods and Experiences of Teachers at an Ethiopian University [Internet]. International Journal of Instruction; 2019 [cited 2025, September 26]. Available from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332568242_A_Study_on_the_Assessment_Methods_and_Experience s_of_Teachers_at_an_Ethiopian_University/link/5dbc6b9da6fdcc2128f8cee2/download [14] Macho, S. Differences among Standardized Test Scores Due to Factors of Internet Access at Home and Family Affluence. Morgantown, WV, USA: West Virginia University; 2015. [15] Ghavifekr, S.; Rosdy, W.A.W. Teaching and learning with technology: Effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. Int. J. Res. Educ. Sci. 2015; 1:175–191. [16] Jamieson-Proctor, R.; Albion, P.; Finger, G.; Cavanagh, R.; Fitzgerald, R.; Bond, T.; Grimbeek, P. Development of the TTF TPACK Survey Instrument. Aust. Edu. Comp. 2018; 27: 26–35. [17] Huang, C. S., Su, A. Y., Yang, S. J., & Liou, H. H. A collaborative digital pen learning approach to improving students' learning achievement and motivation in mathematics courses. Computers & Education. 2017; 107(1): 31-44. [18] Graham, K. J., & Fennell, F. S. Principles and standards for school mathematics and teacher education: Preparing and empowering teachers. School Science and Mathematics. 2016; 101(6): 319-327. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 227-244 244 [19] Aboltiņa, C. New Learning Environments as a Strategic Choice. European Journal of Education. 2016; 32(4): 369 – 377. [20] Postner E.F. and Reid, G.T. Curriculum Planning and Development. Educational Researcher. 2015; 24(4): 5–11. [21] Bluvenfield, P.C. Parental Effort, School Resources, and Student Achievement. Journal of Human Resources. 2018; 43(2): 437-453. [22] Brookhart, S.M., Guskey, T.R., Bowers, A.J., McMillan, J.H., Smith, J.K., Smith, L.F., Stevens, M.T., & Welsh, M.E. A Century of Grading Research: Meaning and Value in the Most Common Educational Measure. Published in Review of Educational Research. 2016; 86 (4): 803-848. [23] Sule, M.A, Ameh, E., Egbai, M.E. Instructional supervisory practices and teachers’ role effectiveness in public secondary schools in Calabar South Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice. 2015; 23(6): 43-47. [24] Veloo,A., Komuji, M.A & Khalid, R. The effects of clinical supervision on the teaching performance of secondary school teachers. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences2015; 93: 35-39. [25] Tesfaw, T.A & Hofman, R.H. Relationship between instructional supervision and professional development. The International Education Journal: Comparative Perspectives. 2016; 13 (1): 82-99. [26] Milanowski, A. Measuring teacher performance for strategic human capital management. In A. Odden (ed). Strategic management in education, 2017: 67-90 [27] Holland, P.E. Principals as supervisors: A balancing act. National Association of Secondary School Principals. 2018; 88(639): 3-14.