Professional and Academic English, Volume 28, Number 2

Journal of the IATEFL English for Specific Purposes Special Interest Group Vol. 28 No 2 December 2021 WHITE PANTONE 213 C ISSN 2520-2545 Copyright Notice Copyright for whole issue IATEFL 2021. IATEFL retains the right to reproduce part or all of this publication in other publications, including retail and online editions as well as on our websites. Contributions to this publication remain the intellectual property of the authors. Anyrequests to reproduce a particular article should be sent to the relevant contributor and not IATEFL. Articles which have first appeared in IATEFL publications must acknowledge the IATEFL publication as the original source of the article if reprinted elsewhere. Published by IATEFL, 2-3 The Foundry, Seager Road, Faversham, ME13 7FD, UK. www.iatefl.org Disclaimer Views expressed in Professional and Academic English are not necessarily those of the editor(s), of the IATEFL ESPSIG, of IATEFL or its staff or trustees. 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Editor-in-Chief Dr Katalin Egri Ku-Mesu University of Leicester, United Kingdom Editors Dr Mona Syrbe Rykkyo University, Japan Dr Julio Gimenez University of Westminster, United Kingdom Editorial Board Dr Mahdi Aben Ahmed Jubail English Language and Preparatory Year Institute, Saudi Arabia Dr Sharif Alghazo University of Jordan, Jordan Patricia Lorena Bustos Gonzalez Universidad de los Andes, Colombia Dr Elis Kakoulli Constantinou Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus Simon Cotterill Birmingham City University, United Kingdom Dr Victor Guillen Solano University of Sheffield, United Kingdom Michelle Joubert University of the Free State, South Africa Andrew Northern Imperial College London, United Kingdom Dr Jemma Prior Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy Dr Veronico Tarrayo University of Santo Tomas, Philippines Anna Whinnett Norwich Institute for Language Education (NILE), United Kingdom Layout design © Express Publishing, 2021 Price £4.50, free for ESPSIG members http://espsig.iatefl.org www.iatefl.org Journal of the IATEFL English for Specific Purposes Special Interest Group Vol. 28 No 2 December 2021 ISSN 2520-2545 5 In memoriam Mark Krzanowski Andy Gillet Mark Krzanowski (1963-2021) ............................................................................................................... 7 Eduardo Garbey Savigne, Ana Margarita Fuertes Elizarde, Isora Enriquez O’Farrill Mark Krzanowski, the IATEFL ESPSIG man in Havana ................................................................ 9 Lena Grannell Memories of Mark Krzanowski ........................................................................................................... 11 Prithvi Shrestha In memory of Mark Krzanowski: A great friend and mentor ............................................... 12 Articles Shuo-Fang Liang and Hongjuan Yu Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university .............................................................................................. 15 Martin Percy and Liliya Makovskaya Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ...................................................................................................................................................... 35 Harriet Lowe An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate students .............................................................................................. 51 Declan Flanagan and Aisling O’Boyle Evaluation of a bespoke work-related English language course for newcomers in Northern Ireland ........................................................................................................................................ 71 From the classroom Gaia Ierace Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom .............. 91 Contents 7 Mark Krzanowski (1963-2021) I was very sad to hear of the death of my good friend and colleague Mark Krzanowski in Ghana on 19 January 2021. I knew Mark for almost 25 years, and he will be greatly missed. He was on holiday in Ghana, where he liked to spend some time every winter. Although he had spent many years in London, he still could not get used to the cold winters, and in the last message I received from him – early January – he said he was hoping never to spend another Christmas in Europe! Mark was born in 1963 in Poland, and after an MA in Applied Linguistics – specialising in teaching, translating and interpreting in English, Russian and Polish – at the University of Warsaw, he came to London in the late 1980s. Initially he worked in various colleges – including Kensington and Chelsea College, Hammersmith and West London College, Hammersmith and Fulham Institute of Adult Education and Language Studies International – teaching Russian and Polish as well as general English and ESP. During that time, he also managed to obtain an UCLES/RSA Certificate and Diploma in Teaching English as a Foreign Language to Adults as well as a postgraduate diploma in management studies. He was well liked, as a colleague from those early days in London pointed out: ‘I met him many years ago at Hammersmith and West London College one summer when we were both VLs on a summer school. He was in the next classroom to me, and we hit it off immediately.’ In 1993, he moved to a full-time position at the University College London (UCL) Language Centre, where he became EAP Coordinator. As well as teaching on a wide range of English courses, he also coordinated the in-sessional EAP provision and managed the Certificate in English for Specific Purposes. I first met Mark towards the end of his time at UCL in about 1995. Andy Gillet English Language and Educational Consultant email: [email protected] IN MEMORIAM MARK KRZANOWSKI 8 In 1997, he moved to the University of Hertfordshire, where I was working, and we worked together closely for the next few years until 2002, when Mark moved to the position of Academic Co-ordinator for ELT at the Department of Professional and Community Education, Goldsmiths, University of London (2002-2005). At Hertfordshire, we worked together on a number of projects, such as designing new foundation and pre-master’s courses and the introduction of a university-wide English language test. Mark was also instrumental in setting up a new MA in ELT and Applied Linguistics and the Cambridge Diploma in English Language Teaching course. Colleagues from Hertfordshire have fond memories of working with Mark with his enthusiasm, passion and energy along with his can-do attitude to life and his big smile. While at Hertfordshire, Mark also acted as a consultant and external examiner for several other institutions and organisations in the UK and abroad. During the next 10 years, Mark had a range of positions in English for Specific Purposes, particularly English for Specific Academic Purposes, with academic and management roles at several universities, including the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, the University of the Arts London, and the University of Westminster. Then in 2017, he became Director of the Centre for Academic English Studies at the University of Surrey in Dalian, Liaoning, China. A colleague says, ‘I worked briefly with Mark on a new EAP curriculum when he became Director of the Centre for Academic English Studies at the Surrey International Institute (SII) in Dalian, China. He was fun, energetic and full of great ideas. While at SII, he worked really hard to make improvements and was well liked and respected by staff and students.’ This continued until 2019, when he became responsible for managing and delivering a new programme for Brunel University’s collaboration with Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications in China, where he spent much of his time until the borders were closed in March 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Mark was also strongly involved with the IATEFL ESPSIG. He was Coordinator from 2004 to 2013 and Editor-in-Chief of the SIG journal, Professional and Academic English, from 2013 until March 2020 and made many friends around the world. ‘It is shocking and devastating to know about Mark´s sudden death. He was very supportive of the Cuban ELT community as professor of the MA at the University of Westminster, where many Cubans have been graduated and as Coordinator of the IATEFL ESPSIG and journal editor.’ I worked with Mark closely in those roles. Mark was also on the Steering Board of the TESOL ESP Interest Section (TESOL ESPIS) as an English in Academic Settings Representative. During the last 20 years, Mark was well known as a conference presenter and encouraged ESP teachers in countries as far apart as South Africa, Cuba, Tajikistan and China. He was a charismatic presenter and touched the professional lives of many. He will be missed. (Reprinted from http://www.uefap.net/blog/?p=1379#more-1379 with the kind permission of the author) Mark Krzanowski (1963-2021) In memoriam Mark Krzanowski 9 In memoriam Mark Krzanowski Mark Krzanowski, the IATEFL ESPSIG man in Havana I met Mark in London in 2003. I was doing my MA at the University of Westminster. Though I had previously heard about his work as editor of the IATEFL ESPSIG newsletter, I had never met him. I was aware he had supported Ms Lourdes Albo, a Cuban teacher and a good friend of mine, to publish an article in the ESPSIG journal. Our meeting was in a cafe near the Angel tube station in London. It was scheduled for 6.00 p.m. He showed up very punctually, and we simply shook hands and introduced ourselves. What first struck my mind was his happy face and his positive welcoming words. After a 20-minute chat, I realized I had met a Polish EFL teacher who was very committed to promote other teachers’ professional development – someone who was very willing to cooperate and upgrade the learning of English. So he became the perfect partner for my ELT plans in Cuba. We managed to plan his coming to Cuba, his participation in the ESP workshops and his support to the Cuban teachers of English. I was really impressed. I had not seen anyone with such vibe, such energy and positive attitude. After that first London meeting, we met in Cuba a couple of times. His first visit to Cuba on this occasion as a University of Westminster faculty and delivered several workshops at the Enrique José Varona Pedagogical University (Havana) and at the University of Medical Sciences of Pinar del Río in Pinar del Río city. Just a couple of years later, we met again when he attended the VillaLingua conference in Santa Clara, where he was the keynote speaker of the conference and presented a paper entitled ‘International Development in English for Specific, Academic and Professional Purposes: Implications for Higher Education Institutions’ in April 2012. His plenary speech opened some teachers’ minds to ESP. He also invited me to attend the ESPSIG pre-conference event at IATEFL, and he also chaired one of the sessions where I presented. Mark was always in good mood to help and support teachers especially those from Africa and Cuba. He was a cooperative and trustful partner. He was highly appreciated by many Cuban EFL teachers. He brought happiness and laughter to all who met him. Mark Krzanowski is gone yet not forgotten. Eduardo Garbey Savigne Chairperson of APC-ELI email: [email protected] This is a humble piece of writing to pay our tribute to a good ELT professional. We feel that our words of sympathy will not be enough. Finding the right words to perfectly honor Mark can be difficult as words fail to express our deep sorrow for the loss of someone who was so active and proactive towards the professional development of teachers of English. The three people who pay their respects, on behalf of the Cuban ELT community, are a testament to the kind of teacher and person Mark was. 16 2 Literature review 2.1 Interaction, communication and L2 WTC Quintessential needs for authentic communication in second language acquisition (SLA) were theorized by the Interaction Hypothesis introduced in Long’s (1996) frequently cited study, in which he contended that ‘negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustment by the NS or more competent interlocutor facilitates acquisition’ (pp. 451 – 452). Gass and Mackey (2015), further elucidated that interaction can help learners notice their problematic use of language and also ‘directs learners’ attention to something new, such as a lexical item or grammatical construction,’ and in turn promotes second language acquisition (p. 186). Owing to the reality that the most prevalent type of interaction that occurs in EFL classrooms is verbal communication, it then becomes imperative that educators raise learners’ willingness to communicate, which, as argued by MacIntyre et al. (2001), is the final step before speaking the target language. On that account, research into WTC has been warranted so as to inform the teaching practicality of this critical factor that is believed to directly influence the processes through which learners become verbally communicative. Although the concept of WTC originated in communication in the first language, the unique state of L2 WTC was highlighted in research by MacIntyre et al. (1998), indicating that it is ‘not a simple manifestation of WTC in L1’ in an L2 context (p. 547). Further research exploring different aspects of L2 WTC has been conducted in different countries. Yashima’s (2002) study with Japanese university students found that learners with higher self-perceived competence had lower anxiety and higher WTC. In their study that targeted students at a Canadian bilingual university, Clément et al. (2003) claimed that WTC is ‘the most immediate determinant of L2 use’ (p. 191). This premise has drawn even more attention to L2 WTC from practitioners particularly in EFL classrooms given that class meetings are quite often the only time when those learners can engage in L2 communication. In the Polish EFL context, Baran-Lucarz’s (2014) research also reported a negative correlation between pronunciation anxiety and WTC across different proficiency levels and incorporated in her study the effects of acquaintance with interlocutors and types of classroom tasks, both of which were found to influence learners’ WTC. In addition to individual and situational variables, Peng and Woodrow (2010) examined the relationship between WTC and contextual factors including classroom dynamics and learner beliefs in their statistical analysis, and proposed an L2 WTC model to be applied specifically to EFL classrooms. Building upon the most select WTC research mentioned above and other pilot antecedents, the present study intends to extend the investigation of interlocutor variables and explore the effects of learners’ perception of L2 communication and teacher influence. Detailed variables examined in this study will be described in the methodology section. 2.2 Classroom speaking tasks Classroom speaking tasks are deemed as important prompts for EFL learners to engage in L2 communication – which is otherwise minimal in their social experience. As pointed out by Davis (2009, as cited in Abdullah et al., 2012), learners’ enthusiasm and willingness to communicate in class activities contribute to creating a conducive learning environment. Therefore, gaining insights into which categories of speaking tasks are preferred by students is essential to promote students’ motivation, which in Peng and Woodrow’s (2010) model increased students’ willingness to communicate through ‘communication confidence.’ Data extracted from Sanchez’s (2017) empirical study about university students’ preferences for class activities showed that pair work such as ‘asking and answering questions in pairs (M = 5.03 out of 6)’ received higher scores than group tasks such as ‘giving group oral Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES 17 presentations (M = 3.93).’ Individual tasks such as ‘recording myself on a video recording and presenting it in class (M = 2.7)’ remained less popular. Adapting some of the task types to fit into this specific learning context, the present study incorporates six categories of speaking tasks. Detailed information of the categorization is included the methodology section. 3 Research questions 1 Is Chinese university students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms related to their perception of L2 communication? 2 Does Chinese university students’ willingness to communicate vary significantly depending on interlocutors, task types, and teacher background? 4 Methodology 4.1 Participants The participant cohort consists of 29 (12 males and 17 females) Chinese first-year university students (17 – 19 years of age) majoring in accounting, hospitality management, and English. The participants were taking a Canadian enhanced academic and communication course at a Sino-foreign university in East China. All of the classes were delivered and assessed in English by both native and non-native English instructors. The majority of the participants were considered low-intermediate in English proficiency level, with 62% of them scoring 40% to 65% of the full mark in the English subject of the College Entrance Examination, while 24% of the students achieved higher scores of over 80% of the full mark . 4.2 Instruments 4.2.1 Questionnaire The questionnaire comprises four themes in connection with learners’ WTC, and the variables included in each theme are specified below. In order to capture how they think about potential factors that influence WTC from learners’ own perspectives, the questionnaire is designed to elicit self-rated scores from our subjects. The sample questionnaire is displayed in Appendix A. 4.2.1.1 Learners’ perception: importance of L2 communication and self-rated WTC Peng and Woodrow’s (2010) model-oriented study probed into the relationships between learners’ beliefs about L2 communication in class and other factors. The present study, in recognition of the criticality of learners’ beliefs, decides to ask another essential and likely more rudimentary question – whether learners themselves perceive L2 communication in class as important or not. It is hypothesized that learners’ awareness of the importance of L2 communication may be a crucial factor, if not a main determinant, that positively correlates with their L2 WTC. Additionally, in order to understand learners’ self-perception of L2 WTC, the questionnaire also requests the participants to rate their overall willingness to communicate in class. These two variables are both measured on a 9-point scale with 1 being the lowest and 9 being the highest score. Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES 18 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES 4.2.1.2 Interlocutors: language level, familiarity, peer WTC In comparison to prior research that took into consideration learners’ self-perceived competence (e.g., MacIntyre, 1998; Yashima, 2002) as a (sub)variable of WTC, the present study takes a comparative view of competency by concentrating on the perceived difference in language level between learners and their interlocutors – that is, how learners’ WTC varies when interacting with interlocutors whom they perceive as having a higher or lower language level than they do. Besides the perceived difference in language level, the present study also includes familiarity with interlocutors as another variable whose importance in general EFL contexts was indicated in Baran-Lucarz’s (2014) study. Note that the idea of ‘familiarity’ is sometimes termed differently in other research such as ‘types of receiver’ in McCroskey (1992) and ‘degree of acquaintance’ in Baran-Lucarz (2014). As the last variable in this theme, how classroom peers’ WTC affects each other is examined. Given that WTC is a psychological state which is hardly possible to be instantly judged by others, in the questionnaire, this variable is approached through inquiring about learners’ perceived effect on their WTC when the whole class demonstrates generally high or low WTC. To distinguish peers from interlocutors, in this study, ‘peers’ are referred to as students in the same classroom whether or not they have direct communication with each other. Peer WTC is categorized under the interlocutor theme because in a macroscopic view both terms refer to those other than oneself, and in practice there exists typical overlap (i.e. a student being both one’s peer and interlocutor). Items regarding interlocutors and the following two themes (task types and teacher background) are all formatted on a 9-point scale on which negative scores indicate decreasing effects, positive scores indicate increasing effects, and the absolute value of a score represents the degree of effect: for example, -4 means ‘tremendously decrease’ and +4 means ‘tremendously increase.’ 4.2.1.3 Task types and complexity The present study, in providing more empirical backing, aims to explore how the following four task types in a speaking class – individual work, pair work, group work, and roll call – impact students’ WTC. In addition to types, task complexity is examined as a further variable. In contrast to single tasks, more complex tasks entail more opportunities for students to develop other skills such as collaboration along with linguistic knowledge when they encounter similar situations in the future. This was supported by Spector’s (2006) argument that complex tasks ought to be presented to learners eventually, and would contribute to their effective learning. To that end, the present study investigates how students perceive the complexity of tasks in terms of the steps of teacher implementation. For example, simple tasks contain one instruction like ‘answer the question(s)’ while complex tasks involve two or more instructions like ‘complete the cue cards and then interview your partners.’ 4.2.1.4 Teacher background As an exploratory variable, the influence of teacher background on learners’ WTC is incorporated in the present study. Some findings in the field have shown that comprehension difficulty/ease can affect the level of WTC, as demonstrated in a case reported in Cao’s (2013) longitudinal study. The present study bases teacher background on their language status – native English teachers, Chinese (shared L1) English teachers, and other nonnative English teachers – with an eye to finding out how different varieties of English used by teachers influence students’ WTC. 19 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES 4.2.2 Interview Another component of this study is the semi-structured interview which involves 12 questions aiming to investigate students’ perspectives about interlocutor/peer influence, teacher background, and task complexity. The interview questions, for providing complementary information, target relevant aspects and follow-ups from the questionnaire. The interview outline was reviewed by an independent faculty member before implementation. Four random participants were invited respectively to a 20-minute interview session. With the participants’ consent, the interviews were audio-recorded for the benefit of data analysis. The sample set of interview questions is displayed in Appendix B. 4.3 Procedure The questionnaire was designed for the purposes of researching students’ WTC. The initial version was revised after being reviewed by an independent researcher. Through an online survey system, the questionnaire was deployed during a regular English class at a point in time close to the end of the students’ first semester at university so that the freshman participants had sufficient learning experience in the target context to make a judgement about the effects of variables under investigation. Upon the completion of collecting questionnaire data, the interviews were arranged within the same week at a secured oncampus meeting room. The interview recordings were transcribed and cross-checked by the researchers before analytical processes were initiated. A mixed method was utilized in the present study, namely quantitative analysis for the questionnaire, and qualitative analysis for the interview. The results and discussion for each component are presented below in corresponding sections. 5 Results and discussion 5.1 Questionnaire The statistical software R (version 4.0.3) and RStudio (version 1.3.1093) were used for data analysis and generating diagrams. The results are presented and discussed below in corresponding thematic subsections. 5.1.1 Learners’ perception To investigate the first theme, learners’ perception, a linear regression analysis was performed to estimate the correlation between learners’ perceived importance of L2 communication and their self-rated WTC in class (see Figure 1). In line with the hypothesis, the results show that these two variables are positively correlated (Pearson’s r=.85). The number of each data point is marked with n, and the regression line is displayed on the scatter plot. On closer inspection, it can be found that while both variables share the same median of7, the mean of learners’ perceived importance of L2 communication (M=7.35) is higher than that of their self-rated WTC (M = 6.93). What is also noticeable is that more than one-third of the participants conceived of L2 communication as extremely important by giving it a score of9. Additionally, of all the participants, only one student rated his perceived importance of L2communication(score=5) lower than his self-rated WTC (score =7). 20 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES Figure 1: The linear regression model (Adjusted R2 =.71) for learners’ self-rated WTC (y-axis) and learner’s perceived importance of communication (x-axis) The positive regression coefficient (R2 = .71) suggests that the more important learners consider L2 communication, the higher their WTC may be. This also lends support to and potentially denotes greater influence of ‘learner beliefs’ than its indirect relationship with WTC found in Peng and Woodrow’s (2010) study. In classes, when teachers direct learners’ attention to the introspection of their perception, they start the process of developing the metacognition of L2 communication that occurs during their interaction with others. From the evidence in this study, this kind of metacognitive awareness, if effectively promoted, can help to increase learners’ WTC. Given its role in determining learners’ WTC, awareness of the importance of L2 communication hence should neither be underestimated nor taken for granted in EFL classroom contexts. 123456789 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n=1 n=4 n=1 n=1 n=4 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=5 n=1 n=1 n=2 n=1 r=0.85, p=5.56e-09 Importance of communication Self-rated WTC 21 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES 5.1.2. Interlocutors The second theme examines how different interlocutor variables influence learners’ WTC. The statistical results are presented in Figure 2. Figure 2: The boxplots of the effects of interlocutor variables on learners’ WTC) Note. HL Interl. = higher-level interlocutor; LL Interl. = lower-level interlocutor; faml. Interl.=familiar interlocutor; unfaml. Interl.=unfamiliar interlocutor; -4=tremendously decrease; 0= no effect; +4=tremendously increase The first variable measured is the effect of interlocutors’ proficiency level in the target language. As demonstrated in Figure 2, with a larger median (Mdn = 2) and mean (M = 1.93), communicating with higher-level interlocutors also has a larger variability (SD = 1.93) in comparison to communicating with lower-level interlocutors (SD = 1.48). This implies that students may have more ambivalent standpoints about interacting with someone whom they believe to be more proficient in the target language than they are. The interview section will present further qualitative data with respect to this inference. In order to find out whether there is a significant difference between communicating with these two types of interlocutors, a further paired t-test was performed. The results are displayed in Table 1 together with other interlocutor variables. The t-test reveals that although the degree of variability appears dissimilar, in terms of the mean value, there is no significant difference (p > .05) between communicating with higher-level and lower-level interlocutors. The finding indicates that distinct as individuals’ perceived effect may be, the statistics endorse no generalization about the whole group of learners. In teaching practice, it means that having students with mixed levels in class may not be as problematic as usually thought to be when it comes to learners’ WTC. n=1 n=4 n=1 n=1 n=4 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=5 n=1 n=1 n=2 n=1 123456789 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r=0.85, p=5.56e-09 Importance of communication Self-rated WTC HL interl. LL interl. faml interl. unfaml. interl. high WTC peer low WTC peer -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC individual pair group roll call complex task simple task -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC CT NNT NT -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC 22 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES Table 1: The paired t-test (two-sided) results of interlocutor variables t df p-value 95% CI Level of Interlocutor 0.37 28 072 [-0.63, 0.91] Familiarity with Interlocutor 2.94 28 .006*** [0.25, 1.40] Peer WTC 2.79 28 .009*** [0.27, 1.73] Note: df = degree of freedom, CI = confidence interval The second variable concerns learners’ familiarity with interlocutors. The descriptive data note that communicating with familiar interlocutors (M = 1.86) benefits learners’ WTC to a larger extent than communicating with unfamiliar ones (M = 1.03). The difference between the mean values has also been supported by the statistical significance (p = .006) found in the paired t-test as exhibited in Table 1. This, however, seems to contradict with BaranLucarz’s (2014) finding that learners tended to experience less pronunciation anxiety when they communicated with unknown others compared with peers they know. In this current research context, Thus, it is argued that a higher degree of familiarity with interlocutor provides our learners with particular advantages of having known each other and thus increases their WTC. On the other hand, also worth noticing is that one-third of the participants (34%) believed that communicating with unfamiliar interlocutors had ‘no effect’ on their WTC, meaning that it neither increases nor decreases their WTC. Unlike what is often observed in class, only 10% of the participants believed that unfamiliar interlocutors ‘slightly decrease’ (score = -1) their WTC. These data patterns are therefore considered worth further exploring during the interviews with participants. The last variable included in this theme pertains to classroom peers’ WTC. The aim is to examine to what extent the perceived WTC that the whole class of students demonstrates affects individuals’ WTC. According to Figure 2, attending classes where peers demonstrate high WTC increases learners’ WTC to the greatest extent (M = 1.9) among the three variables targeted under the interlocutor theme. On the other hand, having peers with low WTC, as expected, was rated lower (M = 0.9) with 10% of the participants claiming it had negative effects and 38% claiming it had no effect on their WTC. The significant difference (p = .009) between the means was found by the t-test as displayed in Table 1. This finding suggests that individuals’ WTC aggregated to constitute the WTC of the entire class has a reciprocal effect on a student’s WTC. This highlights the importance of classroom climate during speaking tasks. More detailed discussion with the support of students’ remarks will also be presented in the interview section. 5.1.3 Task types and complexity The third theme centers around the speaking tasks assigned to leaners in classroom settings. The investigation focuses on types of tasks and their complexity in nature. The data results are displayed in Figure 3. 23 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES Figure 3: The boxplots of the effects of task variables on learners’ WTC Note: df = -4 = tremendously decrease; 0 = no effect; +4 = tremendously increase Of the four task types, individual work has the highest mean (M = 1.83) and the lowest variability (SD = 1.42), though the median is lower (Mdn = 1) than that of pair work and group work (Mdn = 2). Following individual work, group work, which refers to tasks to be completed through collaboration among three or more students, has the second highest mean (M = 1.76). Pair work and roll call, with the same mean (M = 1. 62), have the least – yet still positive – effect on learners’ WTC. In terms of complexity, the mean of simple tasks (M = 1.66) is higher than that of complex tasks (M = 1.28). Further t-tests were performed to examine whether significant difference exists between different task types and complexity. The t-test results are displayed in Table 2. Table 2: The paired t-test (two-sided) results of speaking tasks t df p-value 95% CI Individual – pair 0.95 28 0.35 [-0.24, 0.65] Individual – group 0.25 28 .8 [-0.49, 0.63] Individual – roll call 1.18 28 .25 [-0.15, 0.56] pair – group -0.85 28 0.40 [0.47, 0.19] pair – roll call 0 28 1 [-0.38, 0.38] group – roll call 0.53 28 .6 [-0.40, 0.67] complex – simple -1.11 28 .28 [-1.08, 0.32 Note: df = degree of freedom, CI = confidence interval As shown in Table 2, no significant difference (p > .05) was found between different types of speaking tasks or between complex and simple tasks. On that account, although individual learners may favor certain tasks, there appears no difference as to which specific speaking task increases the whole group of students’ WTC to a significantly greater extent. The same implication applies to whether complex or simple tasks are assigned to learners for classroom practice. This phenomenon may be ascribed to relatively consistent learning motivation and higher-level cognitive maturity of university EFL students who may manage to undertake most tasks regardless of their complexity or how much collaboration is required. The findings n=1 n=4 n=1 n=1 n=4 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=5 n=1 n=1 n=2 n=1 123456789 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r=0.85, p=5.56e-09 Importance of communication Self-rated WTC HL interl. LL interl. faml interl. unfaml. interl. high WTC peer low WTC peer -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC individual pair group roll call complex task simple task -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC CT NNT NT -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC 24 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES suggest that in the teaching praxis it is likely that these two variables demand a lower priority and thus can be more flexibly calibrated in accordance with other factors without compromising learners’ WTC. Explanations reported by the participants for their task preferences will be included in the interview discussion. 5.1.4 Teacher background The last theme is related to the variation of learners’ WTC when they attend classes taught by teachers with different L1 backgrounds. Since the diverse teacher background featured in international joint universities provides students with abundant opportunities to be exposed to varieties of English, how learners’ WTC varies accordingly then deserves in-depth investigation. The teaching faculty, as is the case in the target Chinese EFL context, can be divided into three categories – Chinese teachers, other nonnative teachers (excluding Chinese), and native teachers – based on whether the English language is spoken by the teachers as their first language.. Figure 4: The boxplots of the effects of teacher background on learners’ WTC Note: CT = Chinese teacher; NNT = nonnative teachers (excluding Chinese); NT = native teachers; -4 = tremendously decrease; 0 = no effect; +4 = tremendously increase The questionnaire results show that native teachers were most positively evaluated (M = 1.76) by the participants. What appears interesting, as exhibited in Figure 4, is that the three categories share the same minimum score of -1 (slightly decrease). Moreover, the native group, in spite of the highest mean, has the largest number of (n = 3) negative scores. This may be an indication that learners hold opposing views of the nativeness of teachers’ language status. Also unexpected is that Chinese teachers rank the lowest (M = 1.31) among the three groups, even lower than other nonnative teachers (M = 1.55), which contradicts our hypothesis that a shared L1 is advantageous for raising learners WTC. Further t-tests were performed to see whether there is significant difference between the three teacher groups (see Table 3). n=1 n=4 n=1 n=1 n=4 n=2 n=2 n=4 n=5 n=1 n=1 n=2 n=1 123456789 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 r=0.85, p=5.56e-09 Importance of communication Self-rated WTC HL interl. LL interl. faml interl. unfaml. interl. high WTC peer low WTC peer -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC individual pair group roll call complex task simple task -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC CT NNT NT -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 effect on WTC 25 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES Table 3: The paired t-test (two-sided) results of tracher background t df p-value 95% CI CT – NNT -1.16 28 0.26 [-0.67, 0.19] CT – NT -1.63 28 .11 [-1.01, 0.11] NNT – NT -1.10 28 .28 [-0.59, 0.18] Note: CT = Chinese teacher; NNT = nonnative teachers (excluding Chinese); NT = native teachers; df = degree of freedom, CI = confidence interval The paired t-tests reveal that there is no significant difference (p > .05) between the three groups of teachers. This implies that considering the overall effect on the whole class, learners’ WTC varies to a trivial extent depending on teachers’ L1 background. While the finding has an adverse implication to the strength of a shared L1, the insignificant difference found between teacher groups, meanwhile, yields empirical pushback against the conventional desire for native English teachers as pointed out in Lasagabaster and Sierra (2002). Although no generalized conclusion is possible before sufficient aspects of the teachers’ L1 background (including linguistic variation) are thoroughly investigated, the evidence drawn from the present study adds non-identical patterns of data regarding teacher background to the current research corpus. What underlies learners’ beliefs about how teachers’ language background impacts their WTC will be further addressed in the following interview section. 5.2 Interview To triangulate the research findings, aside from the questionnaire data provided above, this section is to present and discuss the interview results. 5.2.1 Interlocutors In regard to the English level of interlocutors, the interview results are in line with the insignificant difference (p = .72) between communicating with higheror lower-level interlocutors as demonstrated in the questionnaire analysis. Interestingly, despite their general preference for higher-level interlocutors, all interviewees responded that they did not mind communicating with lower-level interlocutors as long as their interlocutors held ‘good attitudes’ and/or demonstrated ‘proactive learning behaviors.’ On the other hand, the benefits of improving ‘grammar,’ ‘vocabulary,’ and ‘oral English,’ and ‘being motivated and led [by others]’, were commonly specified in their narratives about working with more competent interlocutors. However, one respondent’s (Student D) mentioned her worries about being looked down on by higher-level interlocutors. Given that there are no clear opposing views of collaborating with higheror lower-level interlocutors, perhaps more emphasis should be put on establishing a harmonious communicative atmosphere to achieve a higher level of ‘speaking security’ for L2 learners. Student D: ‘Higher level..., because I can learn some vocabulary and grammar rules from them, but my worry is that they may look down upon me.’ Echoing the questionnaire results that there is significant difference (p = .006) in familiarity with interlocutors, the interviewees exhibited disparate attitudes toward communicating 32 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES Appendix B Sample Interview Questions I. Interlocutors/Peers 1. Are you willing to communicate with higher-level students? What is the level your willingness? Why? 2. Are you more willing to communicate with lower-level students? What is the level your willingness? Why? 3. Are you willing to communicate with students you are familiar with? What is the level your willingness? Why? 4. Are you more willing to communicate with students you are unfamiliar with? What is the level your willingness? Why? 5. Do you think your classroom peers’ willingness to communicate influence your willingness to communicate? How? Why? II. Task Complexity 6. Do you prefer more complex or simpler speaking tasks? Why? 7. Which one do you think increase your willingness to communicate, complex or simple speaking tasks (or neither)? Why? 8. Which one do you think decrease your willingness to communicate, complex or simple speaking tasks (or neither)? Why? 9. Which one do you think better improve your speaking abilities in general, complex or simple speaking tasks? Why? III. Teacher Influence 10. Do the following qualities of teachers influence your willingness to communicate in English? How? Why? • speech fluency • pronunciation (accent) • teacher enthusiasm • preparedness (e.g., use of slides, handouts, props) IV. General Comment 11. How important do you think communication in English in class is? Why? 12. Do you have any suggestions or comments about classroom communication or willingness to communicate in English? 33 Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES Shuo-Fang Liang holds an Ed.M. in TESOL from Boston University. His research interests are EAP, L2 speaking, and L2 phonology acquisition. Hongjuan Yu is an associate language lecturer at the School of Languages, Xi’an JiaotongLiverpool University, Suzhou, China. Her research interests are academic writing, EFL pedagogies, and ELT methodology. Author biography 35 ARTICLES 35 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution 1 Introduction This paper aims to explore how disciplinary writing practices are facilitated through socialisation on EAP modules at affiliated British and Uzbek universities based in London and Tashkent. The study was jointly undertaken by EAP practitioners at both campuses to determine how pedagogical assumptions and the expectations of students and educators were likely to have an impact on the learning experience. Different perceptions of education in Uzbekistan and the UK may favour different approaches towards student writing practices, which may in turn be reflected in different approaches to teaching practice and expectations of academic writing practices. EAP courses need to be designed to develop fluency in the component skills of process skills examining deep features of texts, and factor in how these skills can be transferred to other contexts. This paper will therefore explore whether a constructivist pedagogical approach is used to facilitate the acquisition of abilities through creative interaction in both countries, through the application of an Academic Literacies approach, emphasising the social practices involved in the construction of texts. The processes of interpreting or negotiating the title, brainstorming, critical reading, organisation of knowledge and the construction of texts, facilitated by built-in and contingent scaffolding, are likely to lead to transformative practices, and the unidirectionality of the teacher–student relationship can be challenged by empowering students through a student-centred approach. By providing students with rational autonomy, and guiding students on the processes of knowledge construction, learners can successfully be guided to becoming selfdirected ‘lifelong learners.’ This paper explores pedagogical practices within EAP at two affiliated universities in the UK and Uzbekistan to determine whether constructivist approaches successfully facilitate creative interaction, and whether the processes inherent within text construction lead to transformative practices and empower students with the rational autonomy to become selfdirected ‘lifelong learners.’ Students need to transfer the skills, knowledge, strategies, and habits learnt through EAP to other contexts and develop fluency in component skills, which in turn, need to be integrated into process skills. Although students understand what needs to be done, they may struggle to understand why, suggesting a less than robust comprehension of the deep structures and underlying principles necessary to facilitate the transfer of process skills. The study outlines the universities’ attempts to achieve such outcomes. Martin Percy University of Westminster, UK email: [email protected] ABSTRACT Liliya Makovskaya Westminster International University in Tashkent, Uzbekistan [email protected] 36 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ARTICLES 36 2 Literature review 2.1 Dominant models of writing practices in EAP Although it is not necessary to view the tripartite subdivision within EAP of a study skills approach, academic socialisation, and academic literacies (Lea & Street, 1998) as mutually exclusive, the emphasis on one approach is likely to have an impact on practice and to be influenced by the perceptions of educators. The study skills approach broadly works on the assumption that students can master a set of generic cognitive transferable skills, which can then be applied to assignments on a wide range of academic disciplines. This approach could be viewed as a ‘deficit model’ of writing behaviour and attempts to ‘fix problems’, focusing predominantly on surface features of writing. It assumes a didactic approach and is influenced by behaviourist psychology. Academic socialisation does not consider disciplinary discourses and genres to be subject to change and therefore assumes that once the prerequisite skills have been mastered, they can be applied without the need for further modification. Furthermore, despite acknowledging the relevance of the cultural context, the approach views higher education as homogenous and as having generic ‘norms and practices’ which can be acquired and applied across a diversity of faculties within a university (Lea & Street, 1998). Different institutional practices and power relations are not considered to inform practice. Academic socialisation can therefore be viewed as ‘a conceptualisation of literacy based on a belief that there are different literacies in different contexts, so that students need to learn the specific characteristics of the disciplinary culture into which they are entering’ (Ivanic, 2004, p.222). Academic Literacies (AcLits), conceive literacies as social and context dependent practices which are contextualised by power relations, the contested conventions of academic writing within specific disciplines, the implicit epistemologies adhered to within disciplines to inscribe knowledge construction and the centrality of identity and identification in academic writing (Wingate & Tribble, 2012). Both generic and specific disciplinary practices are viewed as significant; hence the use of the plural term ‘Academic Literacies’ (Lillis & Scott, 2007). Therefore, the stance advocated by AcLits in well-established research in the area, could be defined as ‘conceptualising student writing as a socially situated discourse practice which is ideologically inscribed’ (Jones et al., 1999, as cited in Lillis, 2003, p.192) in which the ‘act of writing constructs bodies of knowledge within the different contexts of higher education’ (Goodfellow & Lea, 2005, p.267). The plural term ‘literacies’ denotes a recognition that writing practices may embrace both generic writing practices focusing on grammar, structure, style and common rhetorical features, as well as discipline-specific writing practices involving a range of literacy practices reflecting institutional and disciplinary requirements. Student writing is viewed in terms of contested aspects of ‘meaning-making’ rather than in terms of a deficit model and attempts to identify the gaps between the expectations of academics and the students’ interpretations of what is expected from them (Lea & Street, 1998). The focus is therefore less linguistic than in a study skills approach, but more epistemological. Meaning-making can be defined as the construction of discourse arising from the relationships between the participants, practices, and mode of communication (Lea & Jones, 2011). Pedagogical approaches to writing in AcLits are likely to emphasise co-collaboration among teachers and students in the construction of meaning and what relevant knowledge is understood to be, with an emphasis on value being placed on students’ perspectives and contributions (Lillis, 2003). Recent research studies on AcLits have acknowledged the significance of applying the approach not only to teaching writing within a number of disciplines at tertiary level (e.g. Aiken, 2021; Olsson et al., 2021) but also to improving research activities and productivity among academic staff members (Nygaard, 2017; Kuder & Petric, 2020), which led to an increased number of co-authored publications, an improved quality of scholarly papers, and an increase in conference attendance. ARTICLES 37 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ARTICLES 37 2.2 Constructivist learning theory and its implications for feedback AcLits is informed by constructivist learning theory. Constructivist learning theory assumes that knowledge is constructed by individuals through a phenomenological subjective interpretation of experience. Hence learning is a dialectic process resulting from a synthesis between preconceived ideas and reflections on experience. Although skills may be imparted through direct instruction, constructivist learning theory assumes abilities are acquired through creative social interaction. Symbolic interactionism assumes that meaning is created through interpretation, leading to the construction of a shared reality which in turn shapes behaviour. Within this context, it is necessary to consider how language is used and functions within disciplinary discourse and how social interaction informs practice. An academic socialisation approach assumes that students need to learn through socialisation by means of ‘situated learning’ to acquire appropriate literacy skills (Ivanic, 2004). Vygotsky emphasised that sociocultural learning through socialisation is a significant component of the learning process and identified ‘the zone of proximal development’ where learning occurs. Wood et al. (1976) recognised how scaffolding assists in the learning process and can be gradually removed as learning is internalised. Therefore, built in design and contingent scaffolding could be considered crucial to facilitate learning throughout the processes of constructing a text. 2.3 Social practices and the interrelationship between discourse, text, and criticality Social practice is viewed as the construction of discourse which emerges from the interrelationships between practices, participants, and the mode of communication. Social practice facilitates the acquisition of secondary discourses, which are acquired in the public sphere (Gee, 2008). Writing practices emphasise not simply what people ‘do’ but incorporate how the practices construct individuals as social subjects (Clark & Ivanic, 1997). Hence, discourse is the sociocultural context and social practice which systematically forms texts. The exploration of discourse is likely to facilitate criticality. To initiate disciplinary socialisation, it is therefore important to explore how discoursal features such as social identities, epistemology, power relations and ideological structures are likely to determine the construction of texts (Wingate & Trimble, 2012). Text (written, spoken, visual or multimodal) refers to a means of communication which can be ‘read’ and interpreted by ‘a reader.’ A text only comes into being when it encounters ‘readers’ and does not refer to the format or context so much as the ideas expressed. Different readers are likely to view a text through a multiplicity of different interpretations. Discourses are assumed to be acquired largely through a process of acculturation among novice academic writers attempting to gain legitimate peripheral participation rather than through overt instruction. Atkinson (1997) has suggested that critical thinking could be regarded as a social practice rather than an educational concept. A lack of critical writing skills is often viewed as a deficit and is likely to be interconnected to previous learning experiences. Many of the students taught at the British university are Chinese and it has been suggested that students from Confucian heritage cultures (CHCs) may struggle with western perceptions of critical thinking, although it is a concept which is highly valued in western education. Therefore, students from CFCs are less likely to recognise the significance of a deep approach to learning (Hamberley-Fletcher & Hanley, 2016). A similar attitude towards criticality is evident with students in Uzbekistan. The development of critical thinking skills has not been widely researched in the Uzbek context. However, recent research in the area found ‘a sociopedagogical need to accustom students to critical thinking at all stages of the continuing education system’ (Kudayberganova & Tileyov, 2020, p.173). Toshpulatova and Kinjemuratova ARTICLES 38 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ARTICLES (2020) focused on EAP teachers’ perception of the importance of developing learners’ critical thinking abilities and suggested implementing more discussions, evaluations, reflection, and feedback which would allow students to engage in the productive critical thinking process. A means of facilitating a deep approach through the exploration of discourse is therefore significant in both contexts. Academic Literacies could be defined as an approach which conceptualises student writing as ‘a socially situated discourse practice which is ideologically inscribed’ (Jones et al., 1999 cited in Lillis, 2003, p.192) in which the ‘act of writing constructs bodies of knowledge within the different contexts of higher education’ (Goodfellow & Lea, 2005, p.267). A variety of communicative practices may therefore prove necessary to reflect genres, fields, and disciplines. In short, academic socialisation is an accommodationist approach to writing based on structuralism, whereas academic literacies is a transformative post-structuralist approach, influenced by critical theory. Student writing is viewed in terms of contested aspects of ‘meaning-making’ rather than in terms of a deficit model and attempts to identify the gaps between the expectations of academics and the students’ interpretations of what is expected from them (Lea & Street, 1998). ‘Meaning making’ can be defined as the construction of discourse arising from the relationships between the participants, practices, and mode of communication (Lea & Jones, 2011). 2.4 Didactic and dialogic approaches to feedback The approach used has implications for feedback in terms of what teachers construe its purpose to be and which relationship between writers and readers are being assumed and the implications for identities. Wingate (2015) argues that feedback on surface errors, focusing on spelling, grammar, punctuation, and word choice, is not formative as it does not recognise the real learning requirements of students and cannot lead to transformative practices. Feedback which evaluates performance and guides practice tends to be shaped and aligned with learning objectives. Therefore, formative feedback usually provides justification for the grade received and could therefore be considered retrospective rather than providing guidance on how to improve future performance (Carless, 2006; Chetwyn & Dobbyn, 2011). Hence, formative feedback is assessment for learning as opposed to a means of measuring learning (Ramsden, 2003; Stobart, 2008, as cited in Hughes, 2011). Dialogic feedback throughout the learning process is likely to play a crucial role in the learning process. Kress (2007) recognises the unidirectionality of teacher – student relations to be a common pedagogical assumption. However, for the ‘teacher–student’ interaction to be truly dialogic and transformative, the ‘unidirectionality of the teacherstudent relation’ (Lillis & Scott, 2007. p13) needs to be challenged. Students should be able to justify their choices and teachers to question their assumptions to facilitate constructive learning. 39 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ARTICLES 3 Method This research project has been informed by an interpretive view of educational theory and practice. At both campuses, the study entailed the posting of a questionnaire on Google form, after students had received feedback on the initial draft of their assessed essay, regarding their experiences and reflections on the learning process. Common themes were identified in terms of the processes required to construct the text and the scaffolding and feedback provided. The student questionnaires consisted of mainly open questions exploring the initial decision-making process, and which problems the students had with choosing a topic and narrowing down the focus, finding source material, taking notes, organising content, and writing a plan. They were then asked which aspects of feedback they considered helpful. Their perceptions of the relative merits or oral and written feedback at the stages of choosing the topic, evaluating source material, taking, and organising notes, organising the content, writing a detailed plan and the initial draft of the essay were explored. The student participants were asked which tasks helped them to develop their process skills, which problems they had encountered, how they overcame the problems which they identified, whether they had opportunities to communicate their concerns, and which aspects feedback was provided on. Questionnaires were also distributed to the EAP tutors, relating to their perceptions of student engagement with oral and written feedback on the scaffolded processes and whether they considered it to successfully facilitate the mastery and transferability of requisite process skills. The teacher participants received a different questionnaire focusing on the stages at which they had provided oral or written feedback and asking the participants to evaluate the relative merits and drawbacks of both approaches and student responses. Both questionnaires were researcher-made and aligned with the processes embedded into the structure of the course. In the UK, eight teacher participants and thirty student participants returned completed questionnaires. The students completed the questionnaire on the Google form and the teachers returned the questionnaires by email. In Uzbekistan, twelve EAP teachers and 118 first-year students participated in the study. The online questionnaires were shared with the participants via email correspondence. The student participants at both campuses were informed that the authors were conducting a joint research project into how the feedback and guidance received throughout the writing process ‘had changed their ideas’ regarding academic writing practises, and that their responses would be treated confidentially and anonymised. Ethical clearance was obtained for both studies. Semi-structured interviews with some of the teacher participants followed the completion of the questionnaire, expanding on their responses to the concepts addressed in the questionnaires, and educational artefacts such as feedback provided on texts constructed by students and the grading criteria used for assessment were also examined to triangulate the research. The participants’ responses were subsequently transferred to Excel for ease of interpretation, and then to Nvivo 12 to facilitate the identification of emerging themes and patterns. 3.1 Student assessment in London and Tashkent Student assessment in Tashkent was based on a choice of topic areas for consideration: technology, gender issues, business and society, multiculturalism, or art (i.e. to reflect on an area of significance to their disciplinary area). They were then asked to identify the main arguments within a lecture and a written text in their chosen area and to summarise the arguments to gain mastery in composition skills through evaluating and representing key aspects of the arguments advanced. This was followed by an attempt to synthesise the spoken and written texts, necessitating reflection on the areas of consensus and where conflicting voices can be identified. Students were then expected to reflect on their personal 40 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ARTICLES stance towards the issues under discussion. It was hypothesised that their stances on the issue were undergoing a transition at this early stage in the process, as their pre-existing schema may, through interaction with the texts, have undergone a process of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration (Piaget, 1995). Students were encouraged to discuss and challenge the arguments in seminars, facilitating further reflection. They were then requested to find and evaluate additional relevant sources which reflect the students’ perspectives and to integrate source material into the assessed essay and to reference accordingly. At this stage, gaining fluency through the integration of component skills and their application were significant. Scaffolded learning activities in summary writing, both individually and in small groups, were provided and feedback was given to students both during the classes and asynchronously online. In addition, the students were expected to comment on reflective blogs and provide peer-feedback on its quality on online discussion boards, providing opportunities for a dialogue with others to emerge. They also produced a reflective piece of writing on the learning processes. The students’ written assessment in London entailed the identification of a contentious area within the students’ disciplinary field. The actual title of the essay was subsequently negotiated by the student and the teacher. This usually entailed narrowing down the focus of the study. The students were subsequently encouraged to brainstorm potential positions in relation to the question embedded in the title. To overcome inhibitions, it was often necessary to point out that it was not necessary to know the answer to pose questions. Once mind maps had been drawn up, guidance was provided on key words which could be fed into search engines to locate and identify appropriate and relevant source material. Guidance and support were then provided in relation to critical reading and note taking to draft a plan. Formative feedback was then provided on the plan. Learning is assumed to be a dialectic process resulting from a synthesis between preconceived ideas and reflections on reading. This necessitated dialogue between the students and teachers to enable students to reflect on the learning process and how their ideas were undergoing transformation. The students then constructed their first draft of the essay and were provided with feedback on the draft. Based on the feedback, students would redraft the essay and submit it onto Turnitin. Assessment of understanding was undertaken through a viva examination, necessitating the activation of the higher skills. 4 Findings 4.1 Grading criteria in London and Tashkent Both QAA and CEFR level descriptors are used for assessment purposes at both universities and are explicitly referred to throughout the courses. In London, formative feedback is criterion-based throughout the process of the students’ construction of texts, to raise awareness of component skills which would subsequently be integrated into the requisite process skills. Scaffolding is provided whilst the component and process skills are being perceived as zones of proximal development. At the Uzbek campus, QAA level descriptors were explicitly referred to in relation to the assessed summary-response essay, the blog entries, and the students’ reflections on their experiences. The students are assessed on the clarity of ideas, content relevance and logical organisation of the ideas, which show their ability to demonstrate coherent and accurate presentation of selected information. The use of sources was graded in terms of the appropriate incorporation into the text and compiling a reference list by following the relevant conventions. At different stages during the course, detailed formative criterion-based feedback is provided individually on all the relevant aspects with a focus on those areas which require further improvement. At the British campus, the learners are also encouraged to reflect on their previous learning experience 41 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ARTICLES and consider how the approach may differ from previous perceptions of academic writing practices, to promote efficacy and instil a sense of agency. Students frequently expressed how much they recognised could be gained by an interactive approach and recognised its significance in terms of their personal development, which they were subsequently able to monitor. 4.2. Academic conventions at both campuses The analyses show that in both universities, similar issues regarding features of academic writing style are faced. Students were initially more likely to focus on surface issues, such as grammar, spelling and pronunciation, than deep features. Using boosters for hyperbole rather than hedges (e.g. everybody knows that... or all people in the world...), suggesting a lack of recognition that claims were merely considered plausible in inductive arguments, proverbs, rather than objective truths, representing a problem as a false dichotomy (e.g., as every coin has two sides…) or initiating essays with ‘nowadays, with the rapid development of society’ suggesting rapid socio-cultural transformations denoting progress, were identified as common student practices in both campuses. The assumptions underlying such language use were challenged by the educators, causing students to reflect on their lack of appropriateness, with alternative more appropriate suggestions elicited or provided. This helped focus minds on an exploration of the deep structures of discourse. There is a tendency to consider socially proscribed knowledge to be permissible, but there is often a sense of discomfort with challenging dominant ideologies. However, some idealistic young learners embrace the opportunities to do so. Learners at both universities tend to overuse personal pronouns (e.g. I believe that… or in my opinion..., we all know that ….). However, there is evidence of diachronic change in relation to the use of self-mention expressions in academic writing (Tao, 2021), particularly in the humanities and social sciences, reflecting a transformation to a more subjective approach and a tendency to emphasise the writer’s authorial voice (Dontcheva-Navratilova, 2013, as cited in Tao, 2021). This is increasingly being used to linguistically mark criticality and might suggest a more diverse attitude should be adopted by educators. Critical evaluation of source material is an important component skill within academic writing. In London, many pre-sessional students tend to favour using sources such as ‘China Daily’ and English translations of sources approved by the Chinese Communist Party. This can be problematic in terms of both the style of language and the regurgitating of propaganda. However, a similar problem is noticeable with home students in London, who frequently draw on right wing media sources such as the Daily Mail or the Daily Express. Discussions of how events are interpreted by the media to reflect specific agendas or interest groups are likely to advance students’ critical reading skills. Academic integrity is addressed in a similar manner in both learning contexts. Some international students at the London campuses believe that repeating the words of the author verbatim is a sign of respect, as challenging the authority of ‘experts’ in a field is considered disrespectful. Likewise, learners from Uzbekistan might copy the original words of the author without proper acknowledgement. Discussions of the reasons for the inappropriacy of such an approach could cause some discomfort, with a sense of subversiveness, which students may struggle to overcome. 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Journal of Second Language Writing, 52, 10798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2021.100798 50 Facilitating academic writing practices at a British and an Uzbek tertiary institution ARTICLES Martin Percy is an EAP lecturer and supervisor on the M.A. TESOL at the University of Westminster (UK), an advisor for academics taking the e-portfolio route for the Fellowship of the Higher Education Academy (FHEA), and the External Examiner for all EAP provision at the University of Worcester. His recent publication was an exploration as to whether pedagogical practices at Westminster Business School were likely to facilitate the acquisition of critical writing skills in the construction of academic texts. Liliya Makovskaya is a senior lecturer of Academic English and Developing Professional Identity at Westminster International University in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. She is also involved in teacher training and material design for projects in English language teaching and assessment. Her research interests include assessment in higher education, academic writing, and discourse analysis. Author biography 51 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy 1 Introduction This paper discusses the results obtained from a fully autonomous, self-directed, online course for postgraduate international students, developed to provide support for academic English skills and understanding of academic English cultural conventions. International postgraduate students in the UK are faced with the difficult job of attending to their course content while often having to develop the necessary skills to conform to academic English standards. Specifically, these students must learn unfamiliar conventions of referencing, style, structure and academic lexis in their written production (Bailey, 2015). With ‘writing (…) at the very heart of academic life’ (Surono, 2015), developing their academic writing process is essential for these students. However, opportunities to develop these skills can be limited due to class sizes, resources, or time. This paper proposes that postgraduate students can significantly develop their academic writing skills, their understanding of UK higher education cultural conventions and the study skills needed at postgraduate study through a fully autonomous, online course running parallel to their postgraduate studies. Fully online, autonomous courses are increasingly becoming a staple addition to degree programmes in Higher Education, due to learning flexibility, availability of resources, and more recently as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses could particularly benefit from this style of delivery, especially alongside postgraduate programmes with demanding teaching schedules. This paper investigates the impact and effectiveness of a newly designed, completely autonomous, online-delivered academic English for international postgraduate students’ course on the development of academic English, study skills and academic cultural conventions. The autonomous course was developed from feedback and needs analyses based on previous face-to-face courses to accommodate the shift to online delivery. Using a HTML5 plugin in the open-source Virtual Learning Environment, Moodle, this course was designed using second language learning pedagogies by promoting interaction through meaning-based input, instant errorcorrection, and individualised feedback throughout to support learners’ development of their academic writing. The paper discusses the effectiveness of the course in relation to the results achieved from assessing students’ level of academic writing before and after engaging in the course, along with an end-of-course questionnaire measuring participants’ reflection on learning and study skills. The results from this study provide suggestions on how fully autonomous courses can aid students with heavy workloads while continually developing their academic English in a self-paced learning online environment. Harriet Lowe University of Greenwich, UK email: [email protected] ABSTRACT ARTICLES 52 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES 52 Traditional models of tutor-delivered, timetabled instruction are becoming less prominent in new online learning environments with the contemporary technologies available to facilitate learning (Uçar & Kumtepe, 2018; Allen & Seaman, 2014) and studies investigating the successful nature of online education have been plentiful (e.g. Bolliger & Halupa, 2018; Shelton et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2017; Dziuban et al., 2015; Liaw & Huang, 2013; Weidlich & Bastiaens, 2018). Fitria (2021) proposed that appropriately developed online learning systems can aid institutions in supporting students in the learning process. Generally, these studies agree that effective online learning results from careful planning and curriculum design developed from educational models. These studies have identified that including a variety of learning activities, providing discussion opportunities, and receiving feedback are the most influential factors on student performance and course satisfaction in online environments (Horzum et al., 2015; Kuo, 2014). Research on types of online interaction is one of the more extensive bodies of research, recognising that the presence of a variety of meaningfully integrated interactions increases learning outcomes during online courses (Bernard et al., 2009; Coman et al., 2020; Adnan & Kainat, 2020). The use of online discussions and forums to develop social connections and encourage the sharing of experiences have also been seen to contribute to the online learning experience (e.g. Sutherland-Smith, 2002; Cote, 2000; Boyle & Nicol, 2003), as well as a need for online courses to be adaptive and personalised to ensure sufficient engagement of learners (First & Bozkurt, 2020). Mansureh et al. (2017) provide a synthesis of empirical studies examining issues in online courses and identify three major categories which should be primary focus in course design, specifically, learners, instructors, and content development. This study identifies that online content ‘cannot simply be copied from a face-to-face (…) setting’ (p.11) but must be developed based on strategies to enhance the learning experience through engagement, challenge, and interaction. The studies mentioned promote the need for interactive and engaging content in online courses and show the value of online learning under the right conditions. However, the majority of these studies have investigated content-specific, teacher-delivered online courses. Thus far, there has not been extensive focus on student-directed, autonomous online courses. Additionally, research has not investigated courses which operate alongside degree programmes, such as those which provide academic English or study-skill support. International postgraduate students are required to develop skills in academic English writing along with an understanding of written conventions, aspects of educational and academic culture. For example, advanced critical thinking skills has been regarded as a prerequisite of achieving highly in UK postgraduate degree courses (Masduqi, 2011; Weijun & Fung, 2021). In some cases, these skills may be completely new to students from cultures where conformity to group, teacher-centred instructions and rote-learning have constrained critical thinking (Richmond, 2007; Chandra 2004; Egege & Kutieleh, n.d.). More specifically, these critical thinking skills are also expected to be applied to essay writing (McKinley, 2013), which can present additional challenges, especially in a second language. Both critical thinking skills and developing skills to produce effective written argument are often categorised as ‘complex learning’ (Dunn, 2015) and thus require more than generic writing skills or general English to meet assessment criteria (Clark & Yu, 2020). Since Halliday et al.’s (1964) seminal paper determining specific approaches to language teaching based on usage, research into EAP provision has identified best practices for students to sufficiently develop their English skills to meet the criteria of university-level academic English. Flowerdew and Peacock (2011) suggest that the content of an EAP course should be ‘related to particular disciplines, occupations or activities’ (p.13) and should target appropriate goals. Raising awareness of theme and thematic structure while teaching academic writing at higher levels has been highlighted by many as a contrast to more traditional approaches, developing more nuanced presentation of arguments and ARTICLES 53 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES 53 understanding interconnected layers of meaning in texts (Halliday, 2004; Martin & Rose, 2007). The literature on EAP also highlights the significance of engaging learners in the language learning process and encouraging reflection on errors purposefully (Hyland, 2006) in both general and online contexts (Asoodar et al., 2014). Traditionally, the promotion of interaction and engagement was the role of the teacher, specifically responsible for inciting interest, asking questions and eliciting students’ responses to create an engaged and responsive classroom (Rido & Sari, 2018; Sari, 2018; Nurjanah & Pratama, 2020). This role can continue in synchronous online learning; however, asynchronous, online materials can easily become passive, lacking opportunities for interaction and engagement in online learning environments (Nambiar, 2020; Coman et al., 2020; Ylirisku et al., 2021; Dumford & Miller, 2018). With ever-advancing technology this does not need to be the case. Online software, such as Articulate (https://articulate.com/), Moodle Quizzes (https://moodle.org/), or the H5P plug-in (https://h5p.org/), allows for innovative approaches to support learning, for example, the creation of instant feedback, error-correction, score-influenced pathways, and interactive and engaging content. By using these online platforms with research-based principles and pedagogically informed design, courses can be delivered without a synchronous teacher thus allowing for student-led, self-paced, autonomous learning. Although previous literature investigating online learning is plentiful, it has not yet explored the effects of an online, autonomous course on postgraduate learners’ academic writing skills, including their understanding of educational cultural conventions and how these impact their experience at postgraduate study. To address these current gaps, the present study attempts to investigates the effectiveness of an autonomous, online academic English course in relation to students’ production of academic writing and self-reflection on their learning. The study addresses the following research questions: 1) To what extent do students improve their academic writing production from an entirely asynchronous, autonomous, online course? 2) To what extent does an online autonomous course on academic English contribute to bettering students’ experience at postgraduate study? 2 Method 2.1 Instruction – the online EAP course The online course was adapted from the curriculum and syllabus of a previously delivered face-to-face course in EAP for international postgraduate students. In line with suggestions from the literature mentioned above, the design of this course was informed by contemporary theories of second language learning (Ortega, 2011; Doughty & Long, 2003; Doughty, 2003), curriculum design (Robinson, 2011), remote and online learning (Mansureh et al., 2017), and teaching academic writing (Coffin et al., 2003). To better tailor the course for international postgraduate students at the university in question, a needs analysis (NA) from the face-toface classes was collected as well as feedback from postgraduate Programme Leads on challenges that their international students faced. This was to ensure the content was relevant, aimed at an appropriate level, and applicable to the students taking the course. From these two sources, three key themes, specifically, cultural awareness, language in use, and listening were identified to be essential in the online course. Considering the essentials of both online pedagogy and EAP delivery, the design of the course in the current study followed the principles highlighted previously. The course was built in the university’s Virtual Learning Environment Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) (Joubel, 2021), which students were already familiar with, ARTICLES 54 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES reducing any technical difficulties navigating the course (Nambiar, 2020). Specifically, the materials and content were primarily delivered through H5P, a plugin used to create HTML5 content and applications. The course included 10 self-paced units which focused on different areas of EAP and UK educational conventions (see Table 1). Following discussions on contentbased acquisition (see Madrid & Garcia Sanchez, 2001) each of the 10 units were based on a contextual theme which encompassed the subjects of the international postgraduate students (e.g. business, law, environment, engineering). For example, Unit 6 was focused on developing critical thinking skills, but all the input was related to the context of the ‘environment’. As previously identified, critical thinking is a complex skill which can be difficult for certain international students to acquire. This unit therefore gave students the opportunity to identify criticality in texts, as well as typical vocabulary and techniques for including critical analysis within an essay or academic presentation. In this unit, students shared their critical analysis of a topic through Moodle Forums to provide peer-to-peer feedback and interaction. Each unit included interactive videos, presentations, games, and activities, all of which promoted the use of contextualised and relevant language (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). A combination of written, oral and multi-modal input was used, including audio-visual input such as video lectures, written input including narratives and academic articles with interactive aspects and activities to engage learners in form, meaning and content of the language input. All written instructions were also provided as an audio recording, providing learners with similar opportunities to listen to general English use as in the classroom. This promoted development of both reading and listening skills. H5P and Moodle provided sufficient flexibility and adaptability to ensure the course could follow research-based, pedagogical practices, such as interaction opportunities, being able to include variety in the activities, allowing both immediate and delayed feedback, and allowing learners to follow their own learning path. 55 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES Unit Example content Context / theme 1: Introduction to Academic English Academic features in written and spoken texts University in the UK 2 Paragraphs and topic sentences Business 3: Introductions and conclusions Thesis statements Biology 4: Developing academic skills Identifying signposting in listening Law 5: Citing sources and paraphrasing Reporting verbs Plagiarism English as a lingua franca 6: Being critical Identifying fact vs opinion Environment 7: Academic language Style Passive voice Marketing 8: Conciseness in writing Normalisation Engineering 9: Cautious language Hedging Neuroscience 10: Applying this knowledge Essay planning Proof reading n/a Table 1: Overview of course units The use of H5P allowed for instant feedback on learners’ understanding of this input through identifying correct or incorrect answers. More significantly, automatic, instant, and errorspecific feedback on learners’ written production could be programmed in the plugin to avoid learners missing out on the individualised learning experience. For example, some activities were adaptive to students’ responses, allowing for individualised progress through the unit. Other activities included multiple choice responses, short-answer responses, drag and drop tasks, longer written responses to audio or visual input, and peer correction activities. An example of one of these activities can be seen in Figure 1. As seen in this figure, this particular activity allowed students to check their answer instantly, receiving feedback and additional information depending on their answer. They also have the option to ‘check’ their answer and try again. This format was chosen to promote errors as learning opportunities rather than using them to penalise students. 56 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES Figure 1: Example activity from Unit 5 Activity attempts were recorded in H5P, as well as how many times a student repeated a unit, and how long the student engaged with each unit. Moodle’s ‘Activity Completion’ report provided an overview of all students’ engagement with the course, allowing the authors to check whether students were completing the units, including the order in which they were completing the units. Additionally, each individual unit collected data on students’ responses and answers. The course was available to students for 12 weeks, in line with their postgraduate programme term dates and to replicate the same duration as the face-to-face classes previously provided. However, due to the self-directed nature of this course, students were free to complete the activities as and when they preferred. Some completed the course in the first month of it being available while others spread their learning across the whole term. Some did not complete the course until the last 3 weeks of the course being available. There was significant variation in time taken to complete the course with an average of 18 hours 55 minutes. However, these data cannot be used accurately as the software continues to calculate time whenever the webpage is open, this is regardless of activity on the page. Therefore, a student may have started the activity and then continued with their own study or taken a break and left the webpage open, thus miscalculating time spent on the course. 2.2 Assessing the course To assess the possible effects of the course on students’ written production of academic English, two essay tasks were set at two time points over the course. The first essay was given at the beginning of the course, before students had engaged with any content. The second essay immediately followed the course, coinciding with the end of the first term of postgraduate study. This was followed by a questionnaire to encourage students to reflect on the effectiveness of the course. 57 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES The prompts for both the pre-course and post-course written production were as follows: Data point Description Word limit Total/Av. Word count 1: Pre-course A ‘diagnostic’ writing task at the beginning of the course with an option of 2 essay titles, submitted via Turnitin® anti-plagiarism software. No time limit. Not graded. 600 506,800/581 2 Post-course An end-of-course writing task with 2 new essay title options, submitted via Turnitin® antiplagiarism software. No time limit. Not graded. 600 504,323/579 Table 2: Written production tasks Pre-course Diagnostic Written Production Task Write an academic essay (approx. 500-600 words) on one of the following titles: • Working from home has become more possible with the development of technology and internet communication. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the workfrom-home movement. • More students are choosing to study abroad. Discuss the benefits and drawbacks of studying in another country. Post-course End of course Written Production Task Write an academic essay (approx. 500-600 words) on one of the following titles: • International communication and business have increased the need for a lingua franca, or a single language for communication between people who do not share a native language. Should a single language for global communication be imposed in your field? • Should content on the internet be more restricted? The prompts from the pre-course and post-course data points allowed students to answer the questions from their own experiences, without any prior knowledge of their postgraduate degree content. The prompts for the pre-course provide some further direction, encouraging learners to consider both sides to an argument, thus promoting criticality and the possible use of academic English features to provide this. As critical thinking and writing critically was a focus in one of the course units, and in order to measure the course content directly, the second set of prompts did not include this additional information. This difference may have influenced the findings; however, no correlation was seen in the results. 64 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES students felt they had the opportunity to improve their listening skills (67.7%), academic reading skills (69.5%), and their vocabulary (81.6%). Students were also asked whether they felt they had the opportunity to improve their awareness of both academic and cultural conventions at a UK university, to which 85% agreed. Open-ended comments from this section were also positive: [050 This course on Academic English was very much helpful in improving my vocabulary. [073] The entire module was good and effective and helped me to improve my English language skills [074] overall it was a good module to learn and improve my English and also very interesting. [118] Over all the online academic English section was so help full for me to improve my self confidence as well as that i studied how can i use a proper vocabulary. [374] It was a good experience. I have learned lot of vocabulary mistakes that, i usually make in my daily life. This course skyrocketed my grammatical knowledge as well as increased craving for speaking and writing in English. Regarding the materials, 84.2% of participants agreed that the materials were relevant, interesting and of a sufficient variety. 85.4% agreed that the instructions, materials and tasks were clear and easy to understand. 85.7% agreed that the units were appropriately paced and sequenced. As this course was intended for postgraduate students, the course attempted to develop study skills as well as academic English. 85.9% agreed that this was the case, with 85% agreeing that ‘the online English course raised my awareness of skills and strategies that I can use for my language development in the future’. This was also reflected in the comments: [023] The tasks help me to develop my knowledge in academic English & about content that should include in essay, report & dissertations writing. I also got idea about how to plan my learning and study independently. As mentioned previously, one difficulty with moving to an autonomous English course without an instructor was the potential issues with error correction and feedback. Despite this concern, with the inbuilt feedback in H5P and using forums, 87.3% of participants stated that they still had the opportunity to reflect on and learn from their errors, receiving appropriate and timely feedback which was specific to their mistakes. This continued regarding the autonomous online learning experience, with 78% agreeing that ‘learning was not affected by the absence of a teacher’ and 74.6% agreeing that the course was ‘as beneficial as face-to-face classes’. Overall, 82.8% of students agreed that the course met their expectations and made positive comments in the final ‘Suggestions and comments’ section of the questionnaire, especially in relation to the online delivery of the course: [101] It was a good experience for me throughout the online process. I thoroughly enjoyed doing it. [167] The course was very impressive and useful for every students. these modules are very effective and student can get the interest to learn something new. 65 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES [270] It was a nice experience to do an English course via online platform. The feedback after each activity helped to evaluate our level of knowledge and improving it. The forum activities gave a platform of openness removing the shyness to express our suggestions and opinions to a crowd. [584] The module was very engaging and interesting. even without the presence of a tutor, I was able to understand the different components of the module. I thank everybody who has worked behind this module to bring out this wonderful experience. 4 Discussion and conclusion Owing to the rapid increase in the use of technology-provided learning and the COVID-19 pandemic, online learning has become an essential provision of higher institutions (Bates, 2019). Previous studies have sought to explore the factors underlying the success of online learning (e.g. Horzum et al., 2015; Kuo, 2014) and investigate students’ enjoyment, success and perception of online learning (e.g. Liaw & Huang, 2013; Weidlich & Bastiaens, 2018). This study aims to highlight the benefits of providing learners with online, asynchronous delivery of EAP, integrated with content on educational cultural conventions to better prepare learners’ use of academic English for postgraduate study, and their understanding of conventions expected at UK HE institutions that have previously been noted to negatively impact learners’ experiences in the UK. Despite being provided online, without the presence of a teacher, the benefits of this course were numerous, including more time spent on EAP development, more autonomy and control over learning, along with a significant improvement in academic writing skills. The data from the pre-course and post-course essays shows that an autonomous, online course can provide sufficient opportunities for learning for students to demonstrate improvements in their academic writing when producing a short, academic essay. It also suggests that instant feedback on linguistic items using novel technologies as well as peerto-peer feedback provided through an online forum may positively contribute to improving learners’ academic written production. Data from the questionnaire shows that the online, remote delivery of this course did not have any significant negative impact on learners’ enjoyment or overall learning experience. In particular, students expressed that this course allowed more introverted students to fully engage in the content. The questionnaire data also saw that students felt they had opportunities to develop learning strategies to use in their future studies. From an institutional perspective, successful online courses are an opportunity to better prepare second language speakers at various levels at university without relying on further cost and resources. This type of self-directed course also removes the need for diagnostic examinations, providing opportunities for all international students to continually develop their language skills. Online courses such as this provide learners with more control over their study time, flexibility of learning and more language input. The content of these courses can be individualised to learners’ needs as they complete the course, accommodating different levels and needs of learners effectively. Finally, the use of online-delivered materials eliminates barriers of space and time and therefore can be used both pre-enrolment and in-session. These findings provide scope for further research into fully autonomous, online course effects on second language learning in general, as well as other specific purposes. Although the online course provided listening and reading activities as well as a focus on specific sub- 66 An evaluation of the online, asynchronous delivery of Academic English for international postgraduate studentsy ARTICLES skills of these processes, there was insufficient time to collect data on improvements of these skills. Future studies should investigate the possible effects of autonomous courses on the development of reading and listening skills. Online learning has gained popularity due to its flexibility in delivering education and accessing content and resources in a personalised and adaptive manner. The current study designed an online, autonomous course with the intention to provide learners with selfdirected and self-paced learning to support their academic skills, particularly in writing. This still promoted social interaction, facilitated collaboration and feedback while allowing students to learn in their own rhythm. The data from the current study demonstrates the positive effects of an entirely autonomous and self-guided course on learners’ academic English skills. It also provides evidence that this type of online course can develop students’ understanding of educational cultural conventions and in turn improve their experience of postgraduate study in the UK. 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Author biography 71 Evaluation of a bespoke work-related English language course for newcomers in Northern Ireland 1 Introduction English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) denotes the specific United Kingdom (UK) government English language provision for adult European Union (EU), Commonwealth migrants, refugees and asylum seekers. Such provision facilitates those seeking British citizenship, visas, education and employment to demonstrate sufficient English language and British culture knowledge by completing various secure English language tests (SELT) (GOV.UK, 2020). The Casey Review (2016) identifies ESOL provision as a catalyst for removing barriers to education and employment and a vital enabler of economic and social integration. However, recent shifts in the UK integration policy discourse appears to have notably changed in tone; it has become more elitist and hostile, with an emphasis on attracting the brightest and best and deterring migratory flows (GOV.UK, 2020). It has pivoted from a process, celebrating funds of knowledge, difference and diversity to becoming more assimilationist with emphasis on the obligations and control of immigrants (Anger & Strang, 2010; Brown, 2019; Simpson, 2019). Research on such socio-political discourse evidences negative representations of some migrant groups and more substantial, inherent prejudice against specific immigrant communities. They are deemed deficient, of lesser intelligence than their ‘white’ European counterparts (McGinnity et al., 2018; Taylor, 2014), and it is within this socio-political mire that ESOL education takes place. Given the dearth of research on ESOL course development in the current ESOL landscape (policy, funding, provision) in Northern Ireland, this paper discusses the design, develop and evaluation of a bespoke work-related ESOL course in Northern Ireland. This course was delivered in an adult community education setting between January and April 2019, emphasising English for General Purposes (EGP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) used in City & Guilds Level 1 Certificate in Access in Building Services Engineering. Focusing on learners’ and subject tutors’ perceptions, we report on the extent to which both EGP and ESP course materials effectively motivated and prepared learners for the practical phase of this course. Findings suggest that the learners and subject tutors found the materials engaging, relevant and appropriate for the real-world context of training and employment. We propose that the emergence of bespoke work-related language courses reflects the need to restructure the entire ESOL landscape in Northern Ireland and highlights their importance in this geopolitical context and elsewhere. Aisling O’Boyle Queen’s University Belfast, UK email: [email protected] Declan Flanagan INTO – Queen’s University Belfast, UK [email protected] ABSTRACT ARTICLES 72 As a devolved matter, ESOL provision in Northern Ireland (NI) is in its infancy, in the main due to a long history of violent conflict, referred to as ‘the Troubles’ (Murphy & Vieten, 2017), which saw little inward migration. At present, the migration landscape of NI has much changed. For example, the number of refugees/newcomers resettled in NI under the Vulnerable Persons Relocation Scheme (VPRS) stands at 1,815 (0.08% of NI’s population) - proportionately higher than any other part of the UK (Migration Observatory, 2019; Robertson, 2020). In relation to ESOL provision for such refugees, current UK Home Office guidelines state that individuals are entitled to access a minimum of eight hours of formal ESOL provision or supplementary ESOL provision taking place within supportive community environments (Parizzi & McKeown, 2019). Specifically, NI-ESOL is provided through formal, informal and employability-related learning environments: • Six regional further educational (FE) colleges provide structured, non-accredited (PreEntry) and accredited programmes for (16+ yrs.), including (ESOL: Skills for Life) that lead to formal, recognised qualifications. • Community groups provide informal programmes supporting migrants, refugees and asylum seekers to learn English and encourage progression to vocational/FE courses. • Local councils provide support for those aspiring to gain employment or establish their own entrepreneurial business (Parizzi & McKeown, 2019). With the relative peace and stability in NI, over the past twenty years, the increase in immigration and subsequent demand for adult ESOL provision has increased. Initially, such provision was ad-hoc, non-specific, under-funded and under-resourced, reactive rather than planned (ESOL-NI, 2020). However, NI-ESOL provision has since evolved through greater regional coordination, funding, resources and more qualified teachers and volunteers delivering classes. This provision has allowed some migrants to acquire the necessary communication skills, confidence to pursue vocational/further/higher education, and support to gain employment. However, issues remain regarding learners’ understanding and clarity of entry-level assessments, progression and accreditation required to progress and ESOL provision’s outcome (Court, 2017; Parizzi & McKeown, 2019). O’Boyle (2021) highlights the growing interest in alternative community-based English language programmes throughout NI, which provide non-formal language support within church, community and voluntary settings. Questions do remain however, in relation to access and opportunities for learners to take up whatever ESOL provision is available. While female immigrant learners experience more significant barriers to ESOL provision (e.g. childcare, travel costs and information), there is some evidence that participant attendance at classes is predominately female (Murphy & Vieten, 2017). There is consensus that whilst provision has improved; it may unintentionally exclude male adult learners from participating, which could be detrimental to their sense of self-dignity and motivation – the very anathema of community education (Barret et al., 2017; Robertson, 2020). Adult ESOL male learners are primarily workers and secondarily learners – motivated to learn English for essentially utilitarian goals (Doyle & O’Toole, 2013). Justification for designing and delivering a ‘bespoke’ work-related English language course originates from the barriers to education and employment for such learners within the current NI-ESOL landscape (policy, funding, qualifications, pedagogy and materials). Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES 73 2 NI-ESOL landscape Northern Ireland remains the only devolved nation (England: National Strategy for ESOL 2019; Scotland: ESOL Strategy 2015-2020; ESOL Policy for Wales, 2014) without an ESOL policy, setting out distinct pathways to learning and employment for immigrants (ESOL-NI, 2019). The NI Department of the Economy (DfE) is responsible for funding the NI-ESOL provision and is aware of the concerns that the current provision is no longer fit for purpose (NATECLA-NI, 2020). It poses severe limitations, including recognition of qualifications, previous work experience, skills, training, the absence of qualification-equivalency frameworks and the narrow, current educational, apprenticeship and employment pathways that disadvantage newcomers and immigrants (UNHCR/OECD, 2018; UNCHR, 2019; Law Centre NI, 2018; IHREC, 2021). The DfE has announced intentions to develop an NI ESOL policy in its Departmental Business Plan for 2019/20, ensuring high quality, accessible ESOL provision to facilitate such pathways (DfE, 2019). The contradictory UK government policy concerning ESOL has been exposed, emphasising the importance of English for integration, and yet cutting ESOL funding by 56% in real terms between 2009-10 and 2016-17, leading to increased waiting lists within NI-FE colleges and a decrease in ESOL participation from 179,000 in 2009-10 to 114,000 in 2017-18 (Refugee Action, 2016; APPG, 2017; Foster & Bolton, 2018). Under current VPRS/ESOL provision, an adult learner starting from a pre-entry level of English (A1CERF) would require 1765 hours of teaching or 350 hours per level, equating to five or more years to achieve ESOL Level 2 (equivalent to Level B2 - CEFR) (Cummins, 1981; Schellekens, 2008). Level 2 is deemed the level of functionality desirable for entering the workplace. Expecting adult learners unfamiliar with formal educational settings to attend intensive class-based instruction in their attempt to achieve a perceived competency could be viewed as unrealistic, apathetic and hostile. This situation is reflected in the high demand for ESOL at PreEntry, Entry levels 1 and 2 falling sharply at Levels 1 and 2 (Crick & Lewis, 2019; Higton et al., 2019). The official UK Qualification Comparison Chart states that ESOL-SfL Level 2 is equivalent to GCSEs A* - C and the Functional Skills Level 2 (see Appendix 1). However, in NI, Pre-Entry to ESOL Level 2 qualifications is not officially recognised as an essential skill or entry-level criteria to other vocational courses, employment opportunities or academic routes such as apprenticeships, BTEC or other Level 2-3 qualifications (ESOL-NI, 2019). An alternative pathway for learners is to undertake Essential Skills courses level 1-3; however, in NI, compared to England and Wales, it is problematic to gain admission to such courses as they require at least ESOL Level 2 (Entry level 3 in England) before commencing Essential Skills Level 1 – Literacy courses (Parizzi, 2019). Therefore, it seems inequitable for those who have achieved (SfL) Level 2 to be subsequently notified that such qualifications are not sufficient and additional courses are required. This issue could be detrimental to learners’ motivation and commitment towards vocational, further and higher education, suggesting the higher entrepreneurship propensity amongst immigrants (Mackey, 2019). Wright (2014) dispels the myth that ‘employable’ ESOL learners need to be proficient in all skills, with an onus on reading and writing. Stevenson et al., (2017) state the importance of fast-tracking provision for employability, tailored to individuals’ prior skills rather than assuming any job will suffice. While the NI-ESOL learner population is diverse and includes EU nationals and economic migrants, most learners are newcomers: refugees and asylum seekers (Murphy & Vieten, 2017). It is common to find learners who have received a second/third level education in the same ESOL class as those who have received little or no formal education and may have lowliteracy skills in their first language (Tshabangu-Soko & Caron, 2011). This new classroom diversity has highlighted the inadequacies of the current English language teacher training (CELTA/TAFEL Academy (Level 5). Such provision is deemed a one-size-fits-all, ‘global’ Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in EFL classrooms: A case study of students at a Sino-foreign university ARTICLES 80 Evaluation of a bespoke work-related English language course for newcomers in Northern Ireland ARTICLES While the intention for future work-related English courses may be to use more utilitarian EGP materials, the difficulties and challenges faced using the current materials will be no different when researching alternative EGP materials on the market. The paradox of globalisation is that high-tech production processes make it possible to tailor products to niche market segments and increase rather than threaten diversity (Gray, 2012). However, ELT publishing companies do not see such potential of editing global EGP materials because if sales of a ‘one-size-fits-all’ version/format are robust, the attitude ‘if it is not broken, do not fix it’ will prevail (Gray, 2012). What is certain is that the global coursebook has not yet been replaced. Moreover, it could be argued that some current teacher training programmes (e.g., CELTA) result in a form of English language teaching/learning indoctrination – an acceptance of one pedagogical approach, materials and content over emerging context and genuinely learner-focused alternatives. This issue highlights the need for greater advocacy of materials development, for ESOL teachers to not become entrenched in educational silos or mere dispensers of knowledge, but to become empowered ESP practitioners. This could be achieved by establishing and sustaining networks of ESOL – PLCs, which could create effective learning environments. For example, NATECLA has recently established an ‘all-island of Ireland branch’ – encompassing ESOL practitioners and coordinators, TESOL academics, and FE lecturers throughout the island of Ireland. These and other networks have the potential to cultivate professional collaboration, development and reflective dialogues surrounding ESOL practice, promoting alternative pedagogical approaches, assessment, and ESP materials development. Such networks could help develop, nurture, and identify the fundamental principles and characteristics of ELT materials and further understand different techniques/methods for evaluating materials and principles from which these techniques derive. In addition, it would provide discussion and shared experiences of evaluating, adapting, exploiting, and supplementing published materials based on students’ and teachers’ needs and the teaching context. Hopefully, this will lead practitioners to design materials based on their understanding of current ELT trends, approaches, and methods (Mackey, 2019). Within the NI-ESOL landscape, there is a need to advocate for and provide opportunities for learners to be heard. This means a move away from prioritising blunt forms of formative assessment to ascertain learner proficiency levels. Instead, robust learner in-depth needs analysis, formative assessment practices and trauma awareness are required to make visible the complexities and diversity of learners’ identities, educational backgrounds and learning preferences that will assist institutions in determining the gaps that are preventing learnercentred desired goals. Upon reflection, the initial intention of this evaluation was to conduct a secondary analysis of the EGP and ESP materials; however, due to the learner-centred ethos and approach of this course, it became evident that these learners had to become a crucial part of this evaluation. Their voices, perceptions, and recommendations were necessary to develop further and improve the materials delivered; to best suit their needs (Cooke et al., 2018). Furthermore, their inclusion was imperative to dispel the assumption regarding teachers’ greater knowledge of what is best and to counteract ‘deficient’ stereotypes. This pilot course was pioneering from an NI perspective as it strived to incorporate a ‘post method’ condition, rejecting the adoption of a particular method, regarded as the solution to all problems and was no longer a one-way flow of expertise from the centre to the periphery (Gray, 2012). This course was underpinned by a participatory approach that made it possible to work with diverse learners rather than via global directives. It provided new opportunities for the expertise of a language teacher to become an ESP practitioner. Such opportunities included engaging in multifaceted roles including researcher, course designer and evaluator, materials developer, language instructor, learning assessor, collaborator and 81 Evaluation of a bespoke work-related English language course for newcomers in Northern Ireland ARTICLES motivator. In addition, it presented opportunities for learners to provide technical input, clarification and share their practical expertise of both trades within the class (Bryres et al., 2016). Whilst the ESP materials were positively received – further research and extensive materials development and adaptation are required to make the materials for pre-entry level in terms of content and topics due to learner proficiency levels. This will continue to place limitations on the level of specificity. Such limitations reinforce the challenges of developing ESP materials that reflect both levels of learner proficiency and specificity and the necessity for ESP practitioners to have acquired a sound understanding of the specific subject(s) and an interest in the professional activities of the learners. The necessity to design, deliver and evaluate a bespoke ESOL work-related English language course highlights several issues that are not unique to NI and merely reinforce the ESOL discourses, tensions and issues that have been present for many decades throughout the UK. Unlike ESL, ESOL has the potential to move beyond an educational vacuum and bring about real educational, social, and economic change. However, it continues to be entrenched, marginalised, struggling to establish and define itself as a distinctive skill. Therefore, its conventional perception as a complementary, educational subcategory compared to core academic strands (primary, secondary, tertiary and ESL) prevails. This has been a powerful trend in the British education system and within the current post-Brexit public discourses. The existing provision enables those with low language proficiency levels to be pathologised and viewed as deficient or ‘othering’ with perceived learning difficulties. In addition, Individuals’ funds of knowledge (skills, knowledge, work experiences) are of minimal value and overlooked (McGinnity et al., 2018). These are the consequences of a profession guided, if not dictated, by a UK immigration policy and driven by economic rather than educational outcomes within the NI-FE sector instead of an overarching educational ESOL policy (Mishan, 2019). With NI-ESOL policy and provision in its infancy, it is an opportunity (at present, going awry) to promote greater awareness, discussion, distinctiveness, define boundaries, and provide pathways for ESOL learners to pursue FE and training opportunities. These aspects can only be achieved by the inclusion and input of ESOL practitioners and coordinators throughout NI in all inter-governmental and DfE advisory groups concerning the drafting and completion of a final NI-ESOL policy. Stakeholders need to look to, learn and not simply duplicate from other parts of the UK and internationally in relation to discussing emerging tensions, subsequent solutions to ESOL provision in NI and who gets heard in such debates. This course aimed to provide clarity concerning progression, accreditation and greater learner agency to pursue integration through learner pathways into established vocational training and acquiring qualifications – appropriate to learners’ needs, skills and abilities. Despite this, the DfE has ceased funding further development and delivery of this course, citing an unwillingness to provide vocational training in tandem with ESOL provision. Thus, it appears an opportunity missed. This decision seems regressive, raising questions as to what the eventual NI-ESOL policy will entail and the benefit and purpose of NI-ESOL to these learners. The DfE is aware that for the ESOL policy to have an impact, it will require greater access and flexibility to ESOL courses, employers’ in-house ESOL training, providing ‘fasttrack’, combined FE-ESOL/vocational training internships, apprenticeships, work placements, recognising learner qualifications, confronting misconceptions and changing hiring practices for refugees (Law Centre NI, 2018; IHREC, 2021). The current ESOL profession’s key tension is the balance to be struck between a learner-centred, negotiated pedagogy and the more top-down standardised, performance-based approach favoured within the FE sector (Parizzi & McKeown, 2019). There requires a greater focus on competencies, not qualifications - lowering the English language admission requirements to Entry Level 3 for vocational courses by employers and FE colleges. 82 Evaluation of a bespoke work-related English language course for newcomers in Northern Ireland ARTICLES To become a UK citizen, obtain visas or access education and training through secure SELTs within the current NI-ESOL landscape could be viewed as a subtle yet hostile attempt to exacerbate immigrants’ marginalisation, exclusion and motivation to learning. It is underpinned by economic and political agendas that ignore adult learner needs, lack accountability and infer learning is a choice and that learners take full responsibility for their education. Both policy and provision continue to pathologise and treat immigrants as deficient rather than talented, capable and skilled, alienating rather than facilitating integration in political and social spheres. Therefore, it is time to redefine the term citizenship – what it means to belong and look at it differently. Citizenship could be redefined through the assistance of community education settings and institutions - employing an adequately funded ESOL educational policy/strategy and incorporating a combination of learnercentred approaches to language learning and vocational training opportunities. Community education can facilitate integration through learner pathways that enable learners to gain confidence, learn, integrate, re-skill and fulfil their potential. Subsequently, this would enhance employment opportunities, contribute to their communities’ development, thus creating a more diverse and less divided society, and become invaluable societal agents, newcomers, citizens or simply, people who view Northern Ireland as their new home. 6 Recommendations • Robust needs-analysis, assessment toolkits (initial/ongoing) and good guidance are required to make the complexities and diversity of learners’ identities, educational backgrounds and learning styles visible. 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Language Issues, 25(2), 4-9. 88 Evaluation of a bespoke work-related English language course for newcomers in Northern Ireland ARTICLES Appendices Appendix 1 89 Evaluation of a bespoke work-related English language course for newcomers in Northern Ireland ARTICLES Appendix 2 New Cutting Edge Stater/Elementary/Pre-Intermediate (Cunningham and Moor, 2001) Topics, Language & Input (Grammar and Vocabulary) Unit Topic Grammar Vocabulary 1 Leisure and lifestyle Revision of question forms, Present simple Leisure activities 2 Important First Past simple, Time phrases often used in the past; at, on, in, ago Words to describe feelings: Word-spot: Feel 3 At Rest, At Work Should, shouldn’t, Can, Can’t, have to, don’t have to Daily Routines, Jobs 4 Special Occasions Present continuous/present simple Present continuous for future arrangements Dates and special occasions, Word-spot: Dates 5 Appearances Comparative and Superlative objectives, Describing people Physical appearance, Word-spot: look 6 Time off Intentions and wishes: going to, planning to, would like to, would rather Predictions: will and won’t Holidays 7 Ambitions and Dreams Present perfect and past simple with for Present perfect and past simple with other time words Ambitions and dreams, Word-spot: For 8 Countries and Cultures Using articles Quantifiers with countable and uncountable nouns Geographical features 9 Old and New May might, may definitely, Present tense after if, when, before, and other time phrases Modern and traditional, Word-spot: if 10 Take Care Used to – Past continuous Health and accidents 11 The best things in life Gerunds (ing forms) after verbs of liking and disliking, Liking doing, would like to do Hobbies and interests, Word-spot: like 12 Got to have it Present simple passive Past simple passive Everyday objects 13 Choosing the right person Present perfect continuous, how long, for, since, Present perfect continuous, present perfect simple Personal characteristics, Word-spot: How 14 Money, Money, Money Past Perfect Past time words: already, just, never Money, Word-spot: Make 15 Imagine Conditional sentence with would, Will and would _____________________ 96 Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom FROM THE CLASSROOM When I met my students for the first time, my problem was how to teach them successfully in a learning context where they learnt from home, the social dimension of learning was almost non-existent, and their interaction potential was limited. I knew that, in order to understand how to be successful in my teaching, I had to understand their needs and adjust my syllabus to that end as argued by Biggs (2003). Reflecting on my practise, I realized that to be effective was of key importance. My students had to learn effectively in a short time (six weeks) and be prompt in putting into practice their knowledge because they had to write their research paper successfully in order to pass. Therefore, I adjusted my methodology and my syllabus to respond to the students’ needs in an effective way. The idea was to have a student-centred syllabus where students’ needs, namely identifying and overcoming their difficulties implied a daily adjustment of the syllabus to support them. As suggested by Land and Hanafin (1996), Newby et al. (2000) and Yildirim (2005), their progress was monitored, and results were reached in a collaborative manner. To offer a practical example, at the outset the students were asked whether they had any difficulties in the course that they were keen to share with me and their peers. I prompted them to discuss problems and find a solution together. I stepped back and left the debate arena to students. More open students were very proactive in suggesting solutions to their peers’ problems. I encouraged more reserved and shy students to offer their opinion, too. They did. I could see their confidence growing, week after week, and also a sense of relief because they knew everybody was facing a challenging situation – the writing of a research paper and seeking strategies to cope with it. I could see the benefit of this exchange. As a result, in every lesson, some time was devoted to the Debate Quarter - called so because it lasted 15 minutes. Students were also encouraged to meet online after the lesson and to be in touch with their peers whenever they needed support. I espoused the caring and sharing principle that informs so much of Communicative Language Teaching. In Day and Krzanowski’s (2011, p. 23) words, this principle ‘is conducive to learning and teaching’. Secondly, a methodological approach called task-based learning (TBL) (Willis, 1996) was used. Students engaged in a task cycle where they started with a task orientation, which means that I gave them instructions on the task. Then they worked in pairs and performed the task. When they finished, they reported on their findings to the class, and I encouraged a debate on the task. The choice of TBL allowed time for group work, peer teaching and was beneficial in reinforcing students’ autonomy as suggested by Vygotsky (1978) and Dewey (1938), who see cooperation and learning by doing through tasks as effective strategies to become independent and critical learners. In order to ensure students’ success, I was very careful to design a sequence of activities that moved from easy to difficult so that students benefited from a staged learning process. Kolb et al. (2001) have suggested the idea of a learning cycle because it allows sequencing and staging of tasks. My approach eased students’ access to materials and allowed them to experiment, reflect and plan for the next learning experience. The effect on my students’ learning was that they were able to reflect on an abstract concept, for example. Staged learning implies an element of scaffolding through sequencing and grading since abstract concepts are simplified through exemplification. As a result, students learnt how to move from a concrete task (analysing a cohesive text) to a reflection on the abstract concept of cohesion. Being exposed to an example of a cohesive text, they learnt inductively. They then attempted a working definition of cohesion in the form of a gapped text, for instance. Students assimilated the concept and transferred some of the implications drawn to the analysis of a different text, which meant that the concept had been internalised correctly as suggested by Tarnopolsky (2012, p. 13). This methodological choice – Kolb and his constructivist model of experiential learning – enriched students’ learning process and their ability to transfer skills to various contexts. 97 Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom FROM THE CLASSROOM Throughout the course, students were offered reinforcement and an appropriate scaffolding as suggested in a constructivist approach to learning where the quality of the interaction between students and tutor is bound to determine the effectiveness of the learning process. As stated by Vygotsky (1978) and highlighted by Fry et al. (2008), we learn through interaction. Scaffolding allows us to reach the zone of proximal development and to move one step further in our learning process. In this socio-constructive view, a lot of progress can be made if students are carefully supported. This is the reason why I tried to give students as much support as possible, adding elements of redundancy and repetition that facilitated understanding, as acknowledged by students when they gave me feedback during tutorials. Another approach that enhanced my students’ learning experience was humanistic teaching defined by Veugelers (2011, p. 1) as the need to develop students’ autonomy and creativity but also to empower students considering their whole being – their rationality and their emotions. My claim is that a relaxed atmosphere in a virtual class draws people together, eliminating geographical distance and cultural differences. It fosters interaction, cooperation and wellbeing, which was of paramount importance for the moment of unease and lockdown we were experiencing. Humanist teaching also works well within the constructivist pedagogy that has been outlined so far because the same principles of student-centred activities, peer learning and cooperation are shared by both approaches. In language teaching, the humanistic approach is linked to the work of Krashen (1982) and the idea to offer students ‘a low affective filter environment’. From the very beginning, I tried to create a relaxed atmosphere so that students could interact in an environment that would support students’ engagement and learning. In my experience, this kind of learning environment fosters students’ creativity. It widens their opportunities to offer their personal contribution to the ongoing debate with the tutor and other students. It unlocks what Van Lier (1996, p. 184) calls students’ learning potential. There were moments in my classes, especially at the beginning and at the end, that focused on how students were coping with the learning process. Mutual support was encouraged in the group. One way of encouraging cooperation was to ask each student to contribute with a successful strategy they had used in their academic writing task that could be useful to others. Sharing successful strategies boosted the group’s morale and increased their self-esteem. It provided a supporting environment that reduced anxiety and led to a positive learning experience for each student. Moreover, the emphasis on cooperation and active learning are in line with Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) principles of good higher education that have been so influential and have enriched higher education 4 The teacher as reflective practitioner: shaping an effective learning environment – where and who In order to enhance students’ autonomy and foster success, it is necessary to develop an effective learning environment. This implies working within a strong pedagogical framework. The pedagogic framework of our programme of study implies a blend between theory, practice, and assessment. This is a very effective pedagogy because ‘learning by doing’ supports what Gardner and Lambert (1959) call ‘instrumental motivation’. Students who see the immediate relevance of their learning – in this case producing a PAP on which they will be assessed – have an instrumental motivation because their aim pushes forward their learning. As a result, their interest and motivation to learn become stronger. While in the first week my talking time was much higher than students’ talking time, as weeks went by, students took the stage. Their voices were filling the virtual classroom we inhabited. Learning became more effective. During the tutorials, I could see their draft getting more refined and 98 Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom FROM THE CLASSROOM suitable for academia. Their academic voices were growing stronger in the argument presented in their PAP. This alignment of teaching, learning and assessment had a positive effect because students were extremely motivated. They told me about the meeting they had in their free time, what issues were discussed, what solutions had been put forward. They asked my opinion about their debate. As they proceeded in the writing of their PAP, they saw the relevance of the topics dealt with in class. They asked questions based on their attempts to ground their PAP writing in the conventions of academic writing they were acquiring. However, my reflection was that if there were any problems in understanding the theory, their practical work would be in jeopardy. To ensure adequate student support and guidance, I understood that there were two prerequisites: (a) an open and ongoing dialogue between students and tutor; (b) a prompt adjustment of the syllabus when I realised students had problems in understanding some abstract concepts like coherence or stance. To ensure (a), I established some class routines from the very first lesson. Students were told they would have some time, at the end of the lesson, devoted to any doubts or questions they might have. However, they were also encouraged to interrupt me at any point during our class if they found my teaching hard to follow. To ensure (b), I observed students during their group work, and I promptly readjusted resources to offer students further clarification or created further occasions for practice. My effort – throughout the teaching process – was to make it very clear to them that I knew they had key competences in their L1 they could transfer to L2. I took some opportunities to shift to a learner’s role. As a consequence, they took the teacher’s role. I asked them how they translated some expressions from English to Chinese. At that point, I slipped into the learner’s shoes trying to pronounce a Chinese sentence written in the chat box. My students confidently shifted to the role of experts. This allowed for a very rich cultural exchange that was never simply about language but about culture, mutual respect within a learner-centred and co-learning approach. This choice was extremely effective in promoting an online community of academics where praising their progress was a daily practice for me as well as insisting that their errors were developmental and precious stepping stones in marking their progress. The outcome was a metamorphosis of the group from a timid, worried, and quiet bunch of people to a much more dynamic group of young academics who were willing to ask questions, offer their comments and share their doubts. The foundations to develop their voice as academics were laid. A high percentage of my students got a very high mark in their final exam. I would claim that my effort to acknowledge their strengths, to put their needs at the centre and my insistence to work as a group, fostering mutual support, were some of reasons for their academic success. 5 Online teaching: a prop to stage an environment conducive to learning – the means Current research shows how a constructivist pedagogy focused on constructive alignment (Biggs, 2003) will be enhanced within an e-learning, multimedia context where students will learn at different paces (Tway, 1995), increase engagement through interaction (Bates and Poole, 2003) and become self-directed, creative thinkers (Agnew et al., 1996). As a result, the online environment became an asset for this course. I could observe students while they were engaged in group work. The possibility to monitor how students interacted 99 Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom FROM THE CLASSROOM in the various breakout rooms, an affordance offered by Teams for small group work, allowed me to gain a deeper understanding of their learning needs and to intervene in a prompt way when there was a misunderstanding or the need for clarification. I could evaluate the effectiveness of technology in a specific context-online learning. During observation of groupwork, I listed the doubts and difficulties they expressed. I changed these doubts into challenging questions that I threw at the whole group during the teaching sessions. Room for reflection and critical thinking was offered. Our learning platform became like the Greek agora – a public space where students felt free to utter their thoughts. I waited patiently, witnessing how each idea was reworked and refined by the other participants in the debate in a virtuous circle of exchange. Part of the learning on the course implied reading and working on self-study materials. Therefore, our online platform was instrumental in observing students to make sure they had successfully completed their self-study component so that they could move a step further in the course. Observation and formative assessment became valid strategies to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching. For example, at times, some students working in breakout rooms were not sure about the instructions, so I intervened to repeat them. When we checked the tasks done during group work, I tried to involve all the students, in turn, to make sure they all had the chance to express their views and doubts not only as a group but also as individuals. I also assessed students in a formative way, pointing out parts of study materials that had not been studied in an appropriate way, asking them to reflect on the effect this would have on their final assessment. As I was teaching each group with another tutor, we also took some time to discuss our work and ways to improve it. These discussions were a precious opportunity to foster quality assurance and quality enhancement for our academic professional practice. We were teaching our students how to be academically sound. We felt it was a good idea to bring this dimension of quality assurance also in our daily practise through peer discussion. Another advantage offered by a learning platform like Teams is that it allowed various opportunities for discussion and formative assessment. I asked students to complete sentences or answer questions in the chat box facility offered. This increased the level of interaction during the lessons and allowed me to provide feedback on students’ performance. As a result, students’ learning was consolidated, and I could also verify what they had learnt. I exploited the interactive potential of the chat box for formative assessment. Anderson (2004, p. 38) underlines the importance of formative assessment that is instrumental not only for motivation but also to develop an online learning community. I made a lot of effort to create what Lave and Wenger (1991) would call a ‘community of practice’. This means that students gradually move from the role of ‘peripheral participants’ to the role of professionals. The active participation and the high number of questions my students asked was a sign that they were building a community of practice and gradually evolving towards their role as young academics. As maintained by Anderson (2004), an advantage of online teaching is that it intensifies our interaction potential. I believe that my interaction opportunities were dramatically enhanced by online teaching. I could quickly set up a meeting with my colleagues to make decisions about our teaching. Students could interact with me both in a synchronous and an asynchronous mode through emails. They could also interact with a wide range of content both given by me and stored on Moodle. I interacted with content as well when I decided to change and update my classes adapting them to students’ needs. We took full advantage of the Web’s affordances. 100 Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom FROM THE CLASSROOM Online delivery, due to the Covid 19 pandemic, meant that students were attending classes from home. As a result, they did not have a full immersion situation as they would normally have ‘in presentia’. I reflected on the importance of giving students more opportunities for language practice during tutorials. Tutorials were a good opportunity to offer my students both an opportunity to speak English and ongoing feedback on their academic work. This support turned them into more confident academic writers. Tutorials offered further language support because students were constantly asked to clarify their arguments. They were given opportunities to refine and improve their communication skills. We worked on lexical appropriacy and correct terminology. Strategies to improve their language skills were suggested. Tutorials are extremely valuable because feedback is crucial in the learning cycle. Through feedback, students can apply what they learn and be successful in their learning process. However, at the beginning I felt I was giving too much feedback because I was aware of the intensive nature of the course and the need to be efficient in every aspect of the job to ensure our students’ success. After the first week, I gradually moved away from statements and switched to questioning. I understood the potential of questions to give students more opportunities to speak and reflect. This strategy was successful. Students appreciated my tutorials. One student commented that the questions I asked her in the first submission of her work prompted reflection and gave her a clearer idea on how to proceed. Another student was struggling with conveying her content to a non-specialized audience. I asked her to exemplify and clarify for a non-expert reader like me. She said that my questions helped her to realise that she was taking a lot for granted. Students’ feedback made me realise that it is worth exploring in more detail the potential of technology to offer students what Puentedura (n.d.) calls an ‘augmented and redefined experience’, where technology is not simply a tool but a revolutionary means to learn in a richer and more effective way. 6 Conclusions In this article, I reflected on an EAP teaching experience where my challenge was to enhance students’ autonomy and foster their academic success. A series of strategies was used to achieve this goal. I worked within a student-centred pedagogical model where students learnt through interaction following a constructivist approach aimed at aligning assessment, course objectives and tasks. A humanist ‘caring and sharing’ atmosphere was created. The tutor became a reflective practitioner who was open to daily changes in her syllabus in order to meet students’ needs. Technology provided powerful scaffolding to create an effective learning environment because students tried to work together to compensate for the lack of proximity. An ongoing debate in a virtual agora was encouraged so that the sense of community and exchange of thoughts would not be dissolved by the thousands of miles and the cold screen that set us apart. 101 Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom FROM THE CLASSROOM References Agnew, P. W., Kellerman, A. S., & Meyer, J. (1996). Multimedia in the classroom. Allyn and Bacon. Anderson, T. (2004). Towards a theory of online learning. Theory and Practice of Online Learning, 2, 109-119. Bauman, Z. (2013). Liquid modernity. John Wiley & Sons. Bates, A. W., & Poole, G. (2003). 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Constructivist blended learning approach. De Gruyter Open Poland. Tway, L. (1995). Multimedia in action. Academic Press Inc. Van Lier, L. (1996) Interaction in the language curriculum. Longman. Veugelers, W. (Ed.). (2011). Education and humanism: Linking autonomy and humanity. Springer Science & Business Media. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Longman. Yildirim, Z. (2005). Hypermedia as a cognitive tool: Student teachers’ experiences in learning by doing. Educational Technology & Society, 8(2), 107-117. 102 Enhancing students’ autonomy and fostering success in the EAP classroom FROM THE CLASSROOM Dr Gaia Ierace obtained her PhD at Birmingham University. She is Head of English at the Venturi Art Institute in Modena, Italy. Her research interests include discourse studies, EAP and ESP. Her articles were published in the International Review of Applied Psycholinguistics, Scuola e Lingue Moderne, LANG, SELM, and Al Tuo Fianco. Author biography