Professional and Academic English, Volume 29, Number 1

Journal of the IATEFL English for Specific Purposes Special Interest Group WHITE PANTONE 213 C ISSN 2520-2545 Vol. 29 No 1 June 2022 Copyright Notice Copyright for whole issue IATEFL 2022. IATEFL retains the right to reproduce part or all of this publication in other publications, including retail and online editions as well as on our websites. Contributions to this publication remain the intellectual property of the authors. Anyrequests to reproduce a particular article should be sent to the relevant contributor and not IATEFL. Articles which have first appeared in IATEFL publications must acknowledge the IATEFL publication as the original source of the article if reprinted elsewhere. Published by IATEFL, 2-3 The Foundry, Seager Road, Faversham, ME13 7FD, UK. www.iatefl.org Disclaimer Views expressed in Professional and Academic English are not necessarily those of the editor(s), of the IATEFL ESPSIG, of IATEFL or its staff or trustees. 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Editor-in-Chief Dr Katalin Egri Ku-Mesu University of Leicester, United Kingdom Editors Dr Mona Syrbe Rykkyo University, Japan Dr Julio Gimenez University of Westminster, United Kingdom Editorial Board Dr Mahdi Aben Ahmed Jubail English Language and Preparatory Year Institute, Saudi Arabia Dr Sharif Alghazo University of Jordan, Jordan Patricia Lorena Bustos Gonzalez Universidad de los Andes, Colombia Dr Elis Kakoulli Constantinou Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus Simon Cotterill Birmingham City University, United Kingdom Dr Victor Guillen Solano University of Sheffield, United Kingdom Michelle Joubert University of the Free State, South Africa Andrew Northern Imperial College London, United Kingdom Martin Percy University of Westminster, United Kingdom Dr Jemma Prior Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy Dr Veronico Tarrayo University of Santo Tomas, Philippines Anna Whinnett Norwich Institute for Language Education (NILE), United Kingdom Layout design © Express Publishing, 2022 Price £4.50, free for ESPSIG members http://espsig.iatefl.org www.iatefl.org Journal of the IATEFL English for Specific Purposes Special Interest Group Vol. 29 No 1 June 2022 ISSN 2520-2545 5 Articles Jolanta Hudson Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic ................................................................................... 7 Akiko Tsuda The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople ...................................................................................................................... 21 From the classroom Hana Gustafsson, Allyson Hoffman, Kari May Fischer Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template .................................... 35 Skyler Schiavone, Stephen Kapala Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes .............................................................................................................................................................. 49 Contents 7 Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic. 1 Introduction I have been teaching English for Academic Purposes (EAP) in-sessional courses for international graduate students since 2016, when I started my career in higher education. I have since taught multiple groups of students, incorporating various technologies into my EAP classroom to provide my students with opportunities to engage in online interaction and asynchronous learning. Additionally, since 2017, I have supported colleagues in my capacity as the school’s Technology-Enhanced Learning and Teaching (TELT) Officer and provided support and staff training on the use of educational technologies. Through my experience using various technologies, e.g., Zoom, MS Teams for learning and teaching, I have effectively incorporated online activities into my EAP lessons. Through my TELT responsibilities I have further accessed a range of relevant technical skills that have benefitted my delivery of EAP lessons in a blended mode. Nevertheless, my training did not fully prepare me for what I faced in March 2020 when we were told to deliver our classes remotely with no opportunities for face-to-face interaction. This marked the starting point for my emergency remote teaching (ERT) experience. In this autoethnographic study, which was crafted during the early stages of the Covid-19 pandemic, I reflect on my experience of teaching English for Academic Purposes (EAP) remotely, as a result of the UK University closures during the pandemic, providing a firsthand view of Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT). I detail my feelings about both my professional and personal situation during the crisis, analysing the challenges and factors that re-shaped me professionally into an online EAP teacher. Furthermore, I reflect on the impact that remote teaching experience had on my perception of the role of an online EAP teacher. The autoethnographic method is used in this study, whereby I am simultaneously the researcher and the person at the centre of the research. The data is collected via my reflections and recollections, some having been inspired by my interactions with students, colleagues, and relatives. Based on the results of the literature review and my knowledge in this area, and considering that the situation is very recent, I believe my reflection on my teaching experience during the pandemic will contribute to research within this area by offering unique experiences and perspectives to reveal the complexity of this phenomenon. Jolanta Hudson University of Glasgow, United Kingdom email: [email protected] ABSTRACT ARTICLES 8 Following the announcement made in March 2020 by the World Health Organisation (2020) declaring the novel coronavirus (Covid-19) outbreak a global pandemic, the vast majority of the universities, colleges and schools around the world closed their doors to students (UNESCO, 2020). According to the BALEAP report (Bruce & Stakounis, 2021, p. 7), ‘the Covid-19 pandemic prompted an emergency response from EAP providers with many having to move their provision online within a short space of time, sometimes even over a weekend’. In my case, I had one night to come to terms with the requirement to teach online, as all the classes at my university were suddenly cancelled (Rapanta et al., 2020). As a result of this sudden closure, I had to rapidly adapt all the learning and teaching materials for online use, so that my EAP students could continue their studies with minimum disruption. Not knowing how long the situation was going to last, I had to accept the situation as the new normal and adjust by making drastic changes to both my professional and personal life with minimal time to reflect on these adaptions. This prompted me to conduct this study to explore how the transition from being a classroomto an online EAP teacher affected my self-perception and shaped me professionally. This paper reflects on my experience of teaching EAP remotely during Covid-19, covering aspects such as how this new experience as well as personal factors such as my TELT background influenced my teaching. My reflections are based on my observations of the transition from classroom to online EAP teacher, my observations of the students in my online classes and are also inspired by my interactions with colleagues. As the situation has occurred recently there is limited research available to explain the bigger picture including the problems and complexities associated with this phenomenon. As the topic of this research is related to my own teaching experiences and self-perception, I felt that an autoethnographic approach would be the most appropriate method to use to gain the insights and the individual experience that is relevant and necessary for this study. Therefore, this study will be mainly based on personal reflections and observations, with reference to very recent publications on remote teaching during the Covid-19 pandemic. 2 Literature review The section begins by defining the terms ERT and online teaching. It then investigates how higher education institutions around the world have responded to the crisis, and how EAP teachers adapted to the new environment. Finally, it considers how the Covid-19 pandemic impacted EAP delivery at UK institutions. Below are the key themes that emerged from the literature which also correspond with the themes identified during the data analysis of my narrative. 2.1 Emergency remote vs online teaching ERT is a new phenomenon in the educational context. Unlike the very well-known online distance learning mode that provides an alternative to classroom-based learning, ERT has been seen as a temporary solution to an immediate problem (Golden, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). The main differences between what is known as ‘online’ and ‘emergency remote learning’ Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic ARTICLES 9 seem to concern planning, timing, flexibility, design and student and staff involvement. While online learning is often associated with developing a course or a set of activities involving careful planning (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Golden, 2020), typically undertaken by a team of experienced teachers or TELT specialists over a longer period (Golden, 2020; Rapanta et al., 2020) and developed as ‘intentional support for other people’s learning, mediated by the Internet’ (Rapanta et al., 2020, p. 924), ERT seems to be an obligation, as is the necessary approach that institutions in crisis need to take to continue the delivery of their courses (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). This means that different strategies and approaches to learning and teaching need to be employed to provide the required support and instruction to students without re-inventing the wheel. 2.2 Responding to current issues in higher education: moving to remote learning and teaching Since March 2020, many radical changes have occurred in higher education and EAP, mainly as a consequence of implementing online courses rapidly (Bruce & Stakounis, 2021; Rapanta et al., 2020) to enable students to continue their courses. However, due to the nature of the situation, education institutions around the world mainly focused on addressing the immediate needs of both learners and teachers, exchanging ideas on how to respond to this new mode of teaching swiftly and effectively, while simultaneously trying to ‘reduce isolation and restore a sense of learning community’ (Prevatt-Goldstein et al., 2020, p. 7) through ‘continued conversation’ (Ni She et al., 2019, p. 33) between students and teachers. However, the shift to remote learning with effective teaching was a significant transition; as Bakogiannis (2021) points out ‘learning environments had to be reinvented, with digitalisation being expanded and online learning becoming the dominant mode’ (p. 48). This shift from face-to-face to online learning forced the universities to take immediate action to adapt to this new context. This sudden shift from face-to-face to remote learning and teaching brought about challenges for many, with minimal (or a lack of) ‘proper institutional direction’ (Antoniou, 2021, p.68), appropriate resources, or training and technical support required for the movement to be successful (Golden, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). 2.3 The changing role of the EAP teacher: adapting to remote teaching To quickly adapt to remote teaching, the vast majority of institutions adopted an ERT approach, and the EAP practitioners forced to follow this approach found themselves in an unusual situation wherein they had to ‘explore ways of supporting students through this process’ (Antoniou, 2021, p.68). This was made particularly challenging because the exam period was imminent; therefore, they had to make swift decisions about appropriate online course design and learning materials. Moreover, a significant number of teachers were unfamiliar with the new online tools (Rapanta et al., 2020), and had to undertake appropriate TELT training to deliver their courses at the required standards (Antoniou, 2021). According to the BALEAP report (Bruce & Stakounis, 2021), many teachers ‘felt they lacked the relevant expertise and training to perform their new role and this impacted their confidence’ (p.32). In addition, others, as reported by Antoniou (2021) needed a longer transition period to feel more comfortable teaching online, which may suggest that in some cases, teachers’ identities and self-esteem might have been affected. Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic ARTICLES 16 Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic ARTICLES technologies. They all seem to be doing fine. I think the big wave of effort is behind me. I can finally breathe and spend more time with my family, even attend yoga sometimes. An Internal Communication email arrived stating: ‘Learning and Teaching remotely will continue for the rest of the academic year,’ it says. ‘Oh well, I expected this, but I think I will be fine as the worst is behind me’, I told myself. 5 Discussion My experience of teaching EAP remotely during the pandemic influenced both my professional and personal life and altered my perception of what it is to be an online EAP teacher, re-shaping me professionally. I initially thought it was going to be an ‘easy ride’ for a TELT specialist like myself with a solid TELT background and years of experience using technology in a language classroom and a passion for experimenting with new applications and platforms. However, the reality was different from the scenario I had envisaged when we were told to close our classrooms and teach remotely. My teaching practices changed dramatically during the pandemic, as moving to remote teaching altered not only my teaching and my work routines, but also affected my personal life. I had to learn to adapt to the new ‘normal’ and adjust my life accordingly, and as can be seen in the narrative, I often prioritised my work commitments over my family and personal life. First, I had to change my timetable to offer my students opportunities for synchronous and asynchronous learning, which, in practice, meant moving from the classroom to virtual learning platforms such as Zoom, Moodle, and Teams (Bakogiannis, 2021; Antoniou, 2021, Golden, 2020). However, as the narrative shows, it soon became apparent that it was not enough to simply move the classroom materials and tasks to a learning platform, such as Moodle or Teams (Antoniou, 2021). Although Zoom could be used for synchronous learning, it was essential to be able to quickly adapt the learning materials, although time was the main constraint (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020; Golden, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020; Rapanta et al., 2020). As the narrative indicates, I had little time to do this as I was juggling both work and family commitments and was spending long hours adapting and developing learning materials. I was not only redesigning the classroom material but also performing many admin-related tasks (Bruce & Stakounis, 2021), which caused a great deal of stress and anxiety and ultimately had an impact on my family and my well-being (Bruce & Staukonis, 2021). The narrative reveals that like many EAP practitioners in the UK, I used the flipped approach, so that I could quickly prepare the learning materials for online use, offering my students opportunities for synchronous and asynchronous learning (Bakogiannis, 2021; Nordman etal., 2020). However, I was not sure whether what I was doing would be successful as I was still learning and experimenting with the software, methods, and approaches for use in my online classroom. Some methods worked, and others did not, and I found myself constantly reinventing the online environment for my class (Bakogiannis, 2021; Hodges et al., 2020). However, as the narrative shows, after the big wave and months of stress and uncertainty, I 17 ARTICLES Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic was able to plan and deliver my classes with greater confidence and experience, aligning with what Antoniou (2021) observed in a similar EAP environment, that the first few months following the start of the pandemic led to a transition period during which teachers would ‘become much more comfortable teaching online’ (p.73). As the narrative identifies, in addition to my teaching responsibilities, I had to provide technical support to my colleagues, who were not familiar with the new software (Golden, 2020), so that they could deliver their courses to the required standards (Antoniou, 2021; Bruce & Stakounis, 2021). Those training workshops enabled me and my colleagues to develop new and/or stronger working relationships and to share useful ideas and experiences (Hendrie & Tibbetts, 2021). I think these ideas and resources may be useful in facilitating the transition from online to face-to-face or hybrid teaching currently being implemented in the institution. ERT has undoubtedly altered my teaching practices, and the key factors that contributed to these changes were: 1) The necessity to make quick decisions due to a lack of time to develop new materials. 2) Providing TELT support to colleagues while engaging in full-time teaching. 3) School closures during the pandemic. 4) Increase in administrative duties. Swift decisions were usually made regarding choosing the right software for my class to provide my students with both synchronous (e.g., Zoom) and asynchronous (e.g., Moodle) opportunities for learning and interaction (Antoniou, 2021; Golden, 2020), and to support the process of adapting existing learning materials for online use. In addition, I had to help my colleagues adjust to this new situation, which those with less TELT experience was a real challenge, and often a very stressful experience (Bruce & Stakounis, 2021, p. 32), especially among those who were unfamiliar with some of the technologies. The closure of my child’s school for a prolonged time, from January to late April forced me to manage both my own work as well as childcare and home-schooling commitments, which often resulted in working outside office hours and spending time developing learning as well as TELT materials, completing various admin tasks such as coordinating the course and assessment activities, reading, and responding to endless emails (Bruce & Stakounis, 2021), while often not fulfilling my parental duties. Working long hours in front of the computer, often left me with no time for personal health and leisure activities, which led to healthrelated problems, such as headaches, exhaustion, fatigue, stress, and anxiety. This new experience of remote teaching has changed my perceptions as an online EAP teacher. What I thought I knew about teaching EAP online was not entirely what I experienced during my ERT experience. As a teacher with a solid TELT background, I was initially confident and believed I was prepared for what was coming. However, I soon realised that teaching online was not the same as teaching remotely in an emergency, as unlike online learning scenarios that can be planned, discussed and developed over time, ERT scenarios require immediate decisions (Golden, 2020; Rapanta et al., 2020) as there was little time for planning, developing learning and teaching materials and selecting online tools. 18 Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic ARTICLES The narrative shows that although I spent a great deal of time adapting to the ERT environment, including developing appropriate materials, I soon realised that, unlike online teaching, ERT is a temporary solution to a crisis (Golden, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020; Sharma, 2020), and I needed more time to plan and redesign the course and develop the kinds of materials that would meet my students’ academic needs to prepare them for their assessments. For example, I realised that is important to choose appropriate online platforms that students are familiar with, so that they do not feel overwhelmed, particularly those students who are less familiar with new technologies (McRae, 2020). This reveals that to provide students with appropriate learning tools it is not necessary to re-invent the wheel, but rather to make the right decisions on learning and teaching. Unfortunately, teaching remotely during the pandemic meant dealing with challenges such as the lack of appropriate resources in place (Antoniou, 2021), for example, alternative learning materials, technical guides, and the appropriate level of support and training in place for a successful move to an ERT environment (Golden, 2020; Hodges et al., 2020). Furthermore, as the narrative indicates, I was also concerned about my student’s academic development as they did not have any opportunities to experience British or university culture due to the lockdown. Therefore, I constantly questioned my teaching and my choice of technologies, as I worried about whether the platforms I chose and the approaches I used were appropriate to support their learning and provide sufficient opportunities to communicate and interact (Bakogiannis, 2021, p. 49). However, I believe that there was no such expectation that the online experiences offered to students in remote classrooms would be carefully planned (Hodges et al., 2020) due to the time constraints, working under exceptional conditions with limited resources and/or experience of teaching courses online. 6 Conclusions The aim of this research was to reflect on my role as an EAP teacher who became a full-time online teacher overnight due to the Covid-19 pandemic; a reality that affected staff at HE institutions around the world. In this study, I aimed to find out how this experience re-shaped me professionally; in particular how it affected my teaching and personal life and how the situation impacted EAP provision in general. The study described my experiences of teaching EAP remotely, which resembles the situation of many teachers who had to move all their classroom-based lessons online unexpectedly. This new experience caused disruption in my personal life, increased my workload, and exposed me to stress and tiredness. However, it has allowed me to contribute to the school objectives, enabled me to strengthen my professional relationships and put my knowledge into practice. I have learnt many things about myself, one of which is my own resilience and my appetite for exploring new technologies and approaches. However, I also learnt about my weaknesses, such as the difficulty in finding the right balance between my personal and professional lives. The identified strengths and weaknesses may sound familiar to many EAP teachers who like me found themselves in a similar situation during the pandemic. Therefore, I believe my observations of the transition from a classroom to an online EAP teacher and my reflection 19 ARTICLES Becoming an online EAP teacher: An autoethnographic reflection on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic on that transition and the challenges of online teaching during that period will contribute to research within this area by offering unique experiences and perspectives to show the complexity of this unique situation. I believe that this study has contributed to a gap in the literature on teaching remotely during the coronavirus pandemic. The conclusions I formed then are still relevant now because many HE institutions are still in the process of transitioning from online to face-toface teaching. However, as the study involved one practitioner only, future ethnographic studies that involve a group of teachers and/or students could provide more insights into this aspect of teaching online EAP remotely. References Anderson L. (2006). Analytic autoethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 35(4), 373–395. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0891241605280449 Antoniou, C. (2021). Responding to the Covid-19 challenges: The case of a small EAP team and ways forward. In L. Blaj-Ward, K. Hultgren, R. Arnold, & B. Reichard (Eds.), Narratives of innovation and resilience: Supporting student learning experiences in challenging times (pp. 68–74). BALEAP: The Global Forum for EAP Professionals. Austin, D. A. (1996). Kaleidoscope: The same and different. In C. Ellis & A. P. Bochner (Eds.), Composing ethnography: Alternative forms of qualitative writing (pp. 206-230). AltaMira Press. Bakogiannis, A. (2021). 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Online university teaching during and after the Covid-19 crisis: Refocusing teacher presence and learning activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2, 923–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y Trahar, S. (2013). Autoethnographic journeys in learning and teaching in higher education. European Educational Research Journal, 12(3), 367-375. http://dx.doi.org/10.2304/ eerj.2013.12.3.367 UNESCO. (2020). Covid-19 Educational Disruption and Response. https://en.unesco.org/ covid19/educationresponse/ World Health Organization. (2019). Coronavirus disease (COVID-2019) situation reports. https: //www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-reports Jolanta Hudson is a lecturer at the University of Glasgow, where she teaches EAP and MSc TESOL modules. She also supervises TESOL dissertations. In addition, she provides support and staff training on the use of educational technologies. She is currently doing her PhD in E-Research and Technology-Enhanced Learning at Lancaster University. Author biography 21 The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople 1 Introduction and teaching situation during the Covid-19 pandemic This study focuses on a university in Fukuoka, the largest city in Kyushu, Japan and a National Strategic Special Zone. According to the Cabinet Office of the Government of Japan (n.d.), the goal of the National Strategic Special Zones initiative is ‘to [ensure] Japan [has] the best climate for doing business’ by focusing on specific business fields and regions and implementing bold deregulations as well as preferential tax treatments. Fukuoka City has a population of 1,600,000 inhabitants and is known as the gateway to Asia, with international flight routes to other Asian countries such as China, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia. It functions as a kind of ‘branch city’ in Western Japan for major corporations headquartered in Tokyo and is also known as a ‘food capital’ that is rich in sea and mountain produce, offering food tours to be enjoyed. With its riverside stalls lined up at night, the city is also a famed sightseeing spot. In addition, Fukuoka frequently hosts numerous international conferences and exhibitions, with the Japan Association for Language Teaching (JALT) set to hold an annual conference in November 2022. With the rapid spread of Covid-19 since the spring of 2020, there have been increasing instances of international border closures, restrictions on outings, and educational institutions going online as they became unable to arrange face-to-face classes. This study is based-on semi-structured interviews conducted with Japanese English-speaking workers in the food service and hospitality sectors of the commercial city of Fukuoka. It attempts to reveal (1) how foreign language needs, particularly those related to English, have changed due to the pandemic; (2) what skills are most important for businesspeople during the pandemic; and (3) how English for Specific Purposes (ESP) programs should be implemented at higher education institutions for students looking to work in such industries. Results show that half of the participants thought the use of English had changed during the pandemic, while the other half thought there had been no change. It was found that reading skills were the most used, and participants reported they did not receive enough English training support at their workplaces. Additionally, regional Asian businesspeople in Japan tend to communicate in English as a lingua franca. In conclusion, to satisfy the needs of local businesses to survive the pandemic era and support regional development, higher education should promote ESP programs and materials based on on-going needs analysis. Akiko Tsuda Nakamura Gakuen University, Japan email: [email protected] ABSTRACT ARTICLES 22 In Japan, the English for Specific Purposes Special Interest Groups (ESP-SIG) of the Japan Association for College English Teachers (JACET) are some of the most active in organizing seminars and workshops, dating back to the late 1990s (Cheng & Anthony, 2014, p. 1). English for Specific Purposes programmes have been well-researched, especially in the context of the medical and engineering fields; however, ESP for the food science/service and hospitality fields, tends to lag behind other disciplines, so they are few ESP specialists for such areas in Japan, probably because they require culture-specific knowledge. In Japan, no national English language education curriculum is prescribed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) in higher education. Therefore, providing English language programmes and materials for either general or specific purposes are left to the discretion of individual universities. It is an unusual case to be a tenured full-time ESP teacher belonging to a specific department at a Japanese college. Except for small or mid-sized colleges, most of the English as Foreign Language (EFL) teachers belong to foreign language education centres. Due to budget constraints, EFL teachers are predominantly employed as part-timers in Japan, which leads them to worry about their job security and does not offer them sufficient opportunities to develop extensive teaching and research experience (Wadden & Hale, 2019). This might be one of the reasons why there are not enough ESP specialists as the majority of EFL teachers at universities lack contact with content specialist professors. Especially during the pandemic, non-Japanese English teachers have tended to be less informed about events from inside and outside of Japan and might have been frustrated due to language barriers. The sudden shift to online education in Japan created great confusion within universities. As Allen (2021) stated, there was a stereotyped image of Japan as a high-tech country while, in reality, not too many university students had their own computers before the pandemic and the majority preferred to use mobile phones instead. Yamamoto (2020) reported that data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) illustrates how slow Japan has been in introducing information and communication technology (ICT) into education. Only 3 % of 15-year-old Japanese students did their homework on a computer, while the average in other OECD state members was 20%. In April 2020, the starting month of the fiscal and academic year in Japan, universities faced a chaotic situation. EFL classes had until then been taught using paper-based textbooks imported from the United Kingdom or the United States. Most computers and tablets sold in Japan were also imported from China, so teachers and students had to wait at home for several weeks to have such materials delivered, while campuses were off limits due to Covid-19 prevention measures. Company employees, pupils, and students were working or studying at home during the state of emergency declared by the Japanese government. A curfew was imposed several times, and, during this period, streets were deserted, and most eateries were closed. As a result, the pandemic seriously affected Japanese businesses. It also caused economic disparity among Japanese students as many of them could no longer work part time to pay for tuition. From April to August 2020, a total of 11,411 students dropped out of university before getting their degrees, namely 0.38% of the entire student body (Shoji, 2020).. The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople ARTICLES 23 2 Existing studies on the English skills of Japanese businesspeople When applying for jobs in Japan, interviewees are sometimes asked to declare the results of English proficiency tests on their CVs. The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) and Cambridge exams are the preferred tests for measuring language skills in Europe, while in Japan the American-run Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) Listening and Reading Test (herein referred to as the TOEIC L&R Test) is more popular, with a high score said to enhance employability. The TOEIC L&R Test is a marksheet-based test with a 45-minute listening section and a 75-minute reading one, scored in 5-point increments, with results ranging from 10 to 990 points. In a joint study with the Institute of International Business Communication—the organization responsible for administering TOEIC in Japan—Koike et al. (2010) conducted a nationwide survey, ‘English Skills: What Do Companies Really Need?’, assessing the language skills of 7,359 Japanese businesspeople as part of a Grants-in-Aid for the Scientific Research project of the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science, the so-called Kakenhi grant. The Kakenhi grant is considered Japan’s only competitive research grant and it supports the academic research that subsequently becomes the base of all academic activities. Through Kakenhi, the Ministry has supported curiosityand mission-driven research for national projects (MEXT, 2021a). The research results often influence the further direction of national educational policy. The survey showed a correlation between TOEIC scores and employability; however, it does not necessarily mean that successful applicants will be immediately assigned to departments that require foreign business travel, as Japanese businesses follow the seniority system and life-long employment, even though this trend has become somewhat obsolete due to the economic slump. Usually, new employees are hired as generalists with a potential to manage global businesses, not specialists. After several years of diverse inhouse training and having been rotated among different departments, if eligible, they will be granted jobs requiring English language skills. Therefore, higher TOEIC scores mean higher employability as generalists who can handle English communication. The survey results also showed no correlation between the TOEIC scores and foreign business travel experience, as TOEIC R&L tests are just multiple-choice ones, and do not necessarily require actual travel experiences and/or intercultural communication. Higher scores indicate the possession of requisite skills for processing significant amounts of English documents. Therefore, college students who have never been abroad obtain higher scores just preparing with TOEIC-specific books. However, based on the TOEIC scores, it was concluded in the survey that the English skills of the professionals at the forefront of global businesses are substantially higher than those of people who do not have a high level of English proficiency. Nonetheless, respondents in the survey were less satisfied with their scores. Those who got fewer than 750–800 points felt the need to post a better score, with almost 70% indicating the need for a score above 800. Using questions with criteria from the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CERF) B1-C2 on the Common Reference Levels, Global Scale, the study concluded that a level equivalent to B2 or above is needed for Japanese international business. The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople ARTICLES 24 The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople ARTICLES The study revealed that high scorers (800 points or above) project their knowledge of English as a key aspect of their employee potential, akin to a powerful weapon. Being able to utilize English grammar and vocabulary makes a strong impression, being suggestive of an educated person who is confident and able to carry out business negotiation. The Japanese teaching system of English language follows a unilateral approach focused on grammar and reading comprehension and fails to develop skills and competences such as presentationmaking and the ability to lead a discussion with teachers. These aspects were heavily criticised by the respondents in the survey. Around the same time when Koike et al. conducted this quantitative research, a qualitative needs analysis study (Tsuda, 2011) focused on English needs in the workplace after graduation, with semi-structured interviews of 16 Japanese university graduates who used English at work. The participants had very diverse backgrounds and included a doctor; engineer; lawyer; legal interpreter; technical writer; local public servant; publishing editor; broadcasting salesperson; high school teacher; manufacturing company HR staff member; freelance English conversation teacher; international student office staff member; energy firm office worker; university-level engineering, education, and English literature faculty members. Five tendencies were identified based on the individual interviews with the graduates: • In many cases, English is needed in the workplace regardless of the language proficiency at university or abroad. • In situations where English is used in the workplace, it is needed to communicate with business partners, and/or collect information. • Vocabulary variety is needed in the four proficiency dimensions (reading, writing, listening, and speaking); however, this need is not met at workplaces of their graduates as, among their generation, English programmes in Kyushu University was thought as English for general purposes (EGP) through the grammar-translation method by professors specializing in American and/or British literature. This was common among national universities in Japan and many national universities have still do not teach ESP. • English is increasingly used in the workplace by non-native English speakers who use it as a lingua franca. • There are few opportunities to study English after graduation, and workplaces do not provide support in this regard, meaning competence is expected at the time of hiring. Respondents also expressed criticism of their university English programme, stating that classes taught by Japanese instructors were ‘an extension of high school’ mainly focusing on ‘read and translate’ tasks, and that instructors had ‘a tendency to teach a narrow field based on their own interests’. The level of satisfaction with the English classes taught by foreign instructors was low. Participants mentioned too large student numbers in English conversation classes and the fact that they were able to speak out only when called upon. The level of English conversation was also said to be at ‘really beginner level’ and a ‘disappointment’. 25 ARTICLES The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople The aforementioned quantitative and qualitative studies are more than ten years old. The changing needs of Japanese companies, along with the fact that international travel has been made difficult by the Covid-19 pandemic, necessitate a fresh study of current English needs. 3 UNICEF recommendations and EFL education during the pandemic in Japan Recommendations by UNICEF (2021) for every child in East Asia and the Pacific in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic are as follows: (1) reopening schools safely; (2) delivering equitable and quality distance learning during full or partial school closures; (3) supporting health, well-being, and protection; and (4) maintaining learning levels. The crisis revealed Japan’s lag in online education. Yakamoto (2020) described the conventional passive attitudes of Japanese students, who still use just pencils and notebooks, not ICTs. Allen (2021) also points out that computer literacy skills of students in Japan are lacking, with Japan lagging behind China and Korea. Before the pandemic, Japanese university students mainly used smartphones as a means of communication and were unable to touch type because they had no computers at home. Thus, the first issue of preparing for distance learning should be the improvement of the Internet environment at home and to ensure students have their own computers. The lack of computer literacy skills among students also goes contrary to employer expectations, who now demand more of new employees, as they can no longer conduct long-term in-house training sessions due to the economic downturn. This had led to a gap between employers and university faculty members, who often ‘recycle’ their syllabi and learning resources year after year. As faculty members and employers lack the opportunity to come together and discuss the future needs of university students and the current needs of businesspeople, this gap continues to widen. When the campuses were closed as MEXT did not promptly provide the details of national policies, learning resources, or universal LMS systems, Japanese universities individually made decisions and EFL teachers, regardless of their status (full-timers or part-timers), provided on-line lessons in a trial-and-error manner (Horita et al., 2021; Millar, 2021; Sugino, 2021). 4 Research design Long (2005) pointed out how, along with the merits of written sources, applied linguists, and experts in the field as sources of needs analysis, ‘experienced in-service informants’ can provide high quality data in sensitive cases where the interviewer and interviewee share cultural attributes. 32 The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople ARTICLES Japanese, British, North American, or Oceanian, so their students lack interaction with other Asian English speakers. In addition, English learning resources regarding business English are usually targeting Europe or North America, not Asia. Wants • systematic ESP courses and authentic materials based on regional needs for college students as pre-experience ESP learners Responses to Question 3 show that approximately half of the interviewees were provided with some language study support. The author assumes that they could not afford to spend time and money on further language study due to the economic slump in Japan. To strengthen the employability of university students who would like to work in the hospitality industries, university teachers should design practical ESP materials and programmes, collaborating with content specialist teachers who know the actual language needs in detail. 7 Discussion Since this was a qualitative study involving only 12 companies and 13 respondents, combining the results with those of a questionnaire survey to understand language needs in more detail would provide more validity to the results. A nationwide quantitative survey among businesspeople revealed that having a high TOEIC score or being highly educated and knowledgeable is regarded as very significant in the global business world; however, in local companies, the in-house means of communication is not English. In many cases, the hired foreign nationals are proficient in Japanese. Moreover, Japanese workers’ English-speaking counterparts are from Asian countries where English is used as a lingua franca, meaning that assertiveness in English communication and flexibility in providing an immediate response are needed more than a high score on a language proficiency test or education in an English-speaking environment. Despite the decrease in overseas business travel and in the number of inbound passengers following the pandemic, English needs in Japan have not decreased significantly, with email, chat application LINE, and international conference platforms such as Zoom being routinely used with foreign counterparts. Many companies encourage employees to work from home. Considering that future employees who have just graduated from university will be accustomed to taking classes online, this trend will continue. After entering the workforce, only a limited number of companies provide language study support to employees (Tsuda, 2012). Higher education institutions should meet the aftergraduation needs for foreign languages. To design better ESP programs for the hospitality industries, ESP teachers should collaborate with content specialist teachers to design authentic materials and activities, keeping in mind that English is used among Asian people as a lingua franca. 33 ARTICLES The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople 8 Conclusion Contrary to the author’s expectation before the research, the use of English in the Japanese city of Fukuoka barely decreased and was not affected by the Covid-19 pandemic. From the semi-structured interviews conducted during this global crisis, it was concluded that (1) even if direct communication, such as conferences, trade fairs or business trips, were not possible due to social distancing restrictions, global business activities could not be stopped. ICT skills for businesspeople as well as English proficiency are ‘musts’ to survive in the global business world; (2) the Japanese English language education system has recently shown a tendency to focus on just oral communication; however, reading and writing are also important skills, on which ESP teachers should focus; (3) for better ESP programmes during higher education, relevant materials and activities should be developed, considering the nature of English as a lingua franca, and language needs analysis should be continuously conducted. Acknowledgments This study was partially supported by Egashira Hospitality Zaidan and the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI 22K00782). A special thanks to the participants, who were willing to give their time for this study. I also wish to express my gratitude to Professor Mochimatsu Yasuhiro, Professor Matsuguma Miki, and Professor Katsugu Kazumitsu for their support as content specialist teachers. References Allen, T. J. (2021). Infrastructure, literacy and communication: The challenges of emergency remote teaching in a university in Japan. In J. Chen (Ed.), Emergency remote teaching and beyond. Voices from world language teachers and researchers. Springer Nature. Anthony, L. (2018). Introducing English for specific purposes. Routledge. Cabinet Office, Government of Japan. (n.d.). The national strategic specific zones. https://www.chisou.go.jp/tiiki/kokusentoc/english/index.html Cheng, A., & Anthony, L. (2014). ESP research in Asia. English for Specific Purposes, 33(1), 1–3. Horita, R., Nishio, A., & Yamamoto, M. (2021). The effect of remote learning on the mental health of first year university students in Japan. Psychiatry Research, 295, 113561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113561 Koiike I., Terauchi, H., Takada, T., & Matsui, J. (Eds.). (2010). Kigyo ga motomeru eigo ryoku [English skills: What do companies really need?]. Asahi Press. Long, M. (Ed.). (2005). Second language needs analysis. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667299 MEXT. (2018). Daigaku nyugakusha kazu nado no suii [Changes in the number of university entrants]. https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20201126-mxt_daigakuc02-000011142_9.pdf MEXT. (2021a). Kakenhi Josei Jigyo (Kakenhi) nitsuite [Regarding Kakenhi grant]. https://www.jsps.go.jp/j-grantsinaid/06_jsps_info/g_210709_2/data/siryou1.pdf 34 The effect of the Covid-19 pandemic on English needs in the workplace: Voices from Japanese businesspeople ARTICLES MEXT. (2021b). Reiwagannnendo no daigakuniokeru kyouikunaiyouno kaigakujokyou nituite (gaiyo) [Regarding the ‘Improvement on universities’ educational content in the academic year 2020 (Summary)’] https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/daigaku/04052801/1417336_00008.htm) Miller, A. L. (2022). Adapting to change: How curriculum change due to the Covid-19 pandemic was handled at 2 higher education institutes in Japan. 4th World Conference on Research in Teaching and Education, Prague, 18-20 March. https://www.dpublication.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/42-6451.pdf Japan Student Service Organization. (2022). Study in Japan. https://www.studyinjapan.go.jp/en/ The Mainichi. (2021, July 14). Tokyo’s daily Covid-19 tally tops 1,000 for 1st time in 2 months, days before Olympics. Mainichi Shimbun. https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20210714/p2a/00m/0na/012000c Tsuda, A. (2011). Needs analysis and curriculum development of English education in an international-focused university. Kaichosha. Shoji, K. (2020, November 7). Japan’s students struggle to embrace online learning amid Covid-19. The Japan Times. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/11/07/national/ media-national/students-online-coronavirus/ Sugino, C. (2021). Student perceptions of a synchronous online cooperative learning course in a Japanese women’s university during the Covid-19 pandemic. Education Sciences, 11(5), 231. https://www.mdpi.com/2227-7102/11/5/231/htm UNICEF ROSA, UNICEF EAPRO, & UNESCO Bangkok. (2021). Situation analysis on the effects of and responses to Covid-19 on the education sector in East Asia. UNICEF for every child: East Asia and Pacific. https://www.unicef.org/eap/reports/Covid-19-education-situation-analysis-asia Wadden, S., & Hale, C. (Eds.) (2019). Teaching English at Japanese universities: A new guidebook. Routledge. Yamamoto, S. (2020.) Coronavirus crisis shows Japan lagging in online education. NHK WORLD-JAPAN News. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/backstories/1137/ Dr Akiko Tsuda is an associate professor at the Nutrition Science Department of Nakamura Gakuen University, Japan. She has taught EGP, ESP and TOEIC to undergraduate and postgraduate students and has designed several EFL coursebooks for Japanese English learners. She was an ad hoc lecturer at the University of Reading in the UK.. Author biography 35 Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template 1 Introduction As the scientific research community is using English for most of its publishing outputs, 98% of all scientific publications are in that language, including in countries where English is spoken as a foreign language (Ramírez-Castañeda, 2020; Gordin, 2015). With scientific publications increasingly written in the English language, it is crucial that novice researchers and students working towards a research degree are provided with opportunities to obtain the relevant knowledge of publishing conventions, as well as skills within scientific writing, so that they can flourish in professional research spaces. At the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in Norway, final-year students working on their project-based master’s theses can elect to take our semesterlength course in scientific communication2. Most students in the course come from engineering disciplines3, with the 5-Year Integrated Master in Electronic System Design, and the 5-Year Integrated Master in Product Development and Production as the most represented In this paper we aim to contribute to pedagogical practice in the teaching of scientific abstract writing in English. We present a tailored pedagogy we have developed for our local scientific communication courses which have a diverse student profile in terms of research disciplines, research stages, and writing challenges. To meet our students’ needs, we have built our pedagogy around four pillars: awareness of the genre based on the course textbook, a flexible schematic map for the top-down planning of the abstract (Conceptual Template), a combined abstract-related genre based on real-life submission scenarios (Abstract Package), and a scaffolded writing path which includes instruction, writing practice, formative feedback, and writing milestones. Thus far, we have successfully implemented our pedagogy with master’s students and partially also with doctoral students. We hope that our approach is transferable to other contexts and can be widely adopted both by teachers of scientific communication and by researchers. ABSTRACT FROM THE CLASSROOM Hana Gustafsson1 Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway email: [email protected] Allyson Hoffman Freelance, United States and Norway Kari May Fischer Learning Enterprises and University of Wisconsin Law School, United States 1 corresponding author 2 SPRÅK3501 Scientific Communication for Engineers https://www.ntnu.edu/studies/courses/SPR%C3%85K3501#tab=omEmnet 3 Of the 154 students total in our Fall 2021 course, 112 (73%) came from either the Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, or from the Faculty of Engineering. 36 study programs. In addition, the course also attracts a variety of students from the faculties of Science, Natural Science, Architecture and Design, and Economics, among others. Given that five-year integrated master’s degrees are a typical academic pathway in Norwegian higher education, these students will likely have written a bachelor’s thesis before entering the master’s writing process. Despite this previous writing experience, many students are not well-versed in the writing conventions required for a research-based master’s thesis. Besides, while some of our students receive writing guidelines from their home departments and project supervisors, the depth and breadth of the guidelines varies. For example, some supervisors provide detailed report or thesis templates for students to fill in with their own content; others refer students to the generic IMRaD structure of scientific research papers. However, most students in our Fall 2021 class did not receive any writing guidelines: only 23 of our 154 students at the beginning of the semester informed us they had been provided with some writing guidelines from their departments or supervisors. Together, these characteristics make for a diverse student body, not only in disciplinary profiles (see Course Profile in Appendix) but also in research stages, knowledge levels, and writing challenges. To cater for the needs of this varied student community in our scientific communication course, we are continuously working to develop a tailored pedagogy. Given the breadth of disciplines represented in the course, we aim to provide students with principles of scientific research writing that are transferable across disciplinary writing conventions and can be easily adapted to different research writing requirements. We also provide opportunities for structured and guided practice, which is reflected in the course design. For the main course topics, we first offer class assignments as the first stage of the students’ writing development path. Although non-obligatory, most students do complete these class assignments as a way of identifying and clarifying their ideas. Students then transfer this foundational work to the related obligatory assignments. For each assignment students receive personalized feedback tailored to their current writing needs. The nature and amount of our feedback is guided by the dynamic model of the writing process formulated by Sarah Haas (Ferrareto & Gustafsson, 2021, pp. 13-14; Haas, 2009) based on student focus groups. Finally, students use one of the obligatory assignments, the Abstract Package, as a basis for the final exam. The abstract Package is one of the key components in our contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of abstracts. We have selected the scientific abstract genre as one of the focal topics of our course, for several reasons. In the short term, the abstract will likely be one of the most read pieces of the student’s project report, as it is filed together with the master’s thesis in the university database (NTNU Open) and can be viewed by anyone using the database. Later, when our students complete their master’s degree, they will be likely required to submit an abstract at least once during their researchor professional career. Moreover, abstracts are a high-stakes gateway to both disseminating and consuming research-generated information. The structure, formulation, and language of an abstract can determine whether a paper is accepted to a conference or a journal, and how much attention it receives online (Jin et al., 2021). It is therefore crucial that our students recognize the importance of the abstract and have the knowledge and skills to produce quality abstracts themselves. Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template FROM THE CLASSROOM 37 In this paper we aim to contribute to pedagogical practice by sharing our tailored pedagogy, our insights into the teaching context which gave rise to it, and the choices we have made as instructors on an established course in scientific communication. While we do mention the key references that have guided our choices, it is not our aim to provide an overview of existing pedagogical approaches to abstract writing. We first discuss some of the challenges our students face, and how we perceive their needs with regard to abstract writing. Then, we present the details of our pedagogy, discuss its strengths and weaknesses, and propose ways of moving forward. 2 Writing an abstract: our students’ challenges With regard to abstract writing, our students face several challenges related not only to the writing of the abstract text itself but also to their understanding of the research process and their role as researchers. As a rule, most of our students struggle to identify the starting point: How does one start on the writing of an abstract? When in the research process is it suitable to write an abstract? Our students primarily understand the abstract as a summary of work that is finished and complete, whether it is a project report (a final document) or the project itself (including results and conclusions). As a result, they tend to be puzzled about the practice of abstract writing when the content is not all in place; for example, when they do not yet have project results or a final version of their project report. They also find it difficult to know what information to include or exclude, given the limited space of the abstract on the one hand and the amount of information in their project reports on the other. Finally, even if the individual elements are well formulated, students often struggle to link them together into the coherent narrative of the scientific abstract, as a logically organized and informative text that accurately represents their research. Most crucially, we have noticed that many of our students do not clearly formulate and highlight the contribution of their project to the research field and may not even be aware that they are making an important contribution. This problem can manifest in the abstract text in one or more ways. For example, the principal research activity of a student’s project may be stated briefly towards the end of the abstract, or it may not be explicitly stated and must be inferred from the individual information elements in the abstract, or it blends with the background information. Here, the use of the passive voice throughout the whole abstract contributes to this confusion; that is, the reader has difficulty seeing what research has been done so far, and what the student did as part of the project. This observation leads us to believe that, in addition to scaffolded writing practice, our students may also need a thinking-writing tool that facilitates both deep insight and clear formulation of what they have done as part of their projects, as well as what it means for the research field. To address these needs, we provide our students with a schematic map for abstract planning and writing, abstract-related genres based on real-life submission scenarios, and a safe space to practice the writing of abstracts. Similar to practice in other genres of writing, such as the persuasive essay and the critical analysis, our scaffolded approach both lowers the stakes and demystifies the writing task. It allows students to get comfortable with the genre conventions, make mistakes, and revise with instructor feedback. The following section describes our pedagogy in detail. Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template FROM THE CLASSROOM 38 Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template FROM THE CLASSROOM 3 Addressing our students’ challenges: developing a suitable pedagogy 3.1 Our starting point: the course textbook In the context of our scientific communication course, the natural starting point for the teaching of the scientific abstract was our course textbook Writing Scientific Research Articles by Margaret Cargill and Patrick O’Connor (Cargill & O’Connor, 2013). This textbook is foundational for writing-related topics in our scientific communication course as it provides clear instruction on the AIMRaD structure of scientific papers, the function of each section, and writing strategies at global and local organization of the scientific paper. The authors also dedicate a short but informative chapter to the abstract, with a focus on science and technology fields. First, the authors stress the importance and function of the abstract: as a convenience and first point of contact for the busy reader (the abstract tends to be the first, possibly the only part of the paper we read), its accessibility (the abstract may be the only freely available part of the paper), and its role as part of abstracting services in searchable databases. Our students can relate to this since finding and reviewing relevant literature is part of their projects. They also recognize the significance of abstracts when they analyze their own literary practices: they themselves begin by reading an abstract before reading the full research article. The authors then describe the scientific abstract as typically consisting of the following information elements (Cargill & O’Connor, 2013; Weissberg & Buker, 1990): some background information (B), the principal activity or purpose of the study and its scope (P), some information about the methods used in the study (M), the most important results of the study (R), and a statement of conclusion or recommendation (C), or P+M, R, C in a condensed version of the abstract. Finally, the authors recommend analyzing relevant published abstracts for these information elements, which elements are typically included and where in the abstract they are present. This, again, is something our students recognize, as they frequently read abstracts of relevant research articles and are aware of these basic information elements. As to the writing process, the authors recommend drafting one sentence per information element, then combining the sentences into a first draft of the abstract, followed by word count check and adjustments based on the requirements of the target journal. The authors also strongly recommend paying close attention to submission guidelines, which often contain instructions for how to structure the abstract, or even provide the structure headings (Structured abstracts, referenced for example in PubMed (2018)). Those of our students who tend to write an abstract rather like an article introduction appreciate this writing strategy; others are already aware of this strategy but need help putting it into practice. In sum, the course textbook forms an important starting point in our pedagogy as it facilitates the students’ understanding of the abstract as a genre and outlines a useful writing strategy. Our next step is to further elaborate these foundational points to provide our students with specific and scaffolded writing guidance from the first to the final drafts of their abstracts. 39 FROM THE CLASSROOM Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template 3.2 The Conceptual Template: top-down planning of the abstract To help our students operationalize the information elements in an abstract, as well as the strategy for abstract writing presented in the course textbook (Cargill & O’Connor, 2013) we have developed a schematic mental map which we call the Conceptual Template. The Conceptual Template is based around the conventional IMRaD structure of the scientific research article (Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion), both in terms of structure and function of each section. In principle, we understand the abstract as a mini-IMRAD genre, where each information element mirrors the corresponding section in the research article. This perspective is in line with accounts of rhetorical moves in abstracts and research articles (Swales & Feak, 2009; Swales, 2004; Hyland, 2004). The Conceptual Template offers the typical information elements of an abstract in their logical order and provides a verbal cue for each element (the verbal cues are listed and explained in Figure 1). The verbal cues are casually formulated, with generic placeholders and personal style, which can and should be adjusted later in the writing process. The firstperson formulation of the cues is also meant to give the students agency, as researchers and as writers, guiding them to formulate exactly what they did—as opposed to what has been done so far in the research field (typically covered in the Background). This way we hope to direct the students’ attention to their own content, so that they create a research space (Swales, 2004) for the questions and methods in their projects, formulate the complete research story of their projects (not only the method and findings), and become aware of their contribution to the research field. Finally, the verbal cues help students select the most crucial information they need for the abstract and exclude information that is relevant but can be nonetheless omitted in the abstract. This way, the cues serve to further specify the guidance provided by the course textbook: Cargill and O’Connor (2013) stress that each information element in the abstract presents only some or the most important information, thus abstracting away from the details presented in the full-length paper. In sum, the Conceptual Template is a generic schema that can be completed according to the conventions of a given research field, while accommodating the specifics of a student’s research project. For example, the starting point in the template (marked by the cue This project VERBs THING) can be modified to include not only specific aims, scope, and activities, but also the preferred or required writing style (This project / This study / This paper / We). Students working on applied projects can choose to adjust the cues for discussion (This means that) and conclusions (Future research should) to discuss the relevance of their research for the industry and other non-academic stakeholders. Similarly, students working on scientific projects within fundamental research (in our case, this is typically in chemistry and biology) can choose to provide more detailed background and previous research, while leaving out comments on the practical relevance of their project. The Conceptual Template thus provides the students with a schema for the complete story of their research, with placeholders for each part of the research story, which can be elaborated as their research progresses. 40 Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template FROM THE CLASSROOM Figure 1: The Conceptual Template: a top-down planning tool for abstract writing This paper VERBs THING (Aim / What the project does) This first part of the template presents the aims of the paper, or states what the paper does. The cue helps students realize that each paper or project “does something with something”, regardless of the discipline or type of research. To illustrate the versatility of the cue we provide specific examples such as this project tests a theory / develops a model / problematizes a key concept. for the purposes of (Why / motivation) This cue directs students’ attention to the “why”, in the sense of motivation for their paper, relevance to the research field, or practical application. We encourage students to be aware (often they are not) of why they are carrying out their projects, and how their findings might be applied, whether they are aiming to solve a real-world problem, or to advance scientific understanding. THING is / is important for (Background) This cue introduces the background section, highlights its function, and directs students’ attention to background information that is essential to include in the abstract. We clarify that the cue is a placeholder for any content they may need to include in the background section, such as previous studies or real-life applications and problems, depending on their field and type of research. However (Gap) This simple but powerful verbal cue guides students to formulate the gap: the need for further research in a specific area, a practical problem, or question that needs to be addressed. This cue marks perhaps the most important point in the formulation of the relevance of the student’s project to the research field. It also helps students grasp the function of the background section. To address this, I VERBed THING (Method) This cue has several crucial functions: it describes the method, it explicitly links the description of the method to the need for the study (the gap) as formulated in the previous information element, and it links back to the first item in the template—the aim statement. This cue performs an important textual coherence function in that it reactivates a more textually distant item. I found (Results) This verbal cue indicates the findings. The personal, casual formulation guides the students to reflect on their active role as researchers, on their own observations, and on the outcomes of what they themselves did in their projects. This means that (Discussion) This verbal cue leads students to reflect on the significance and implications of their findings and clarifies the function of the discussion section. Although the cue may seem trivial, this phrasing succeeds in directing the students’ attention to the interpretation of the results or findings. Future research should (Conclusions and recommendations) This verbal cue guides students to reflect on the relevance of their project for future research in the field, thereby focusing their attention on their own contribution to the research field. 41 FROM THE CLASSROOM Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template 3.3 The Abstract Package: extending the abstract genre Bearing in mind the practical relevance of the abstract, we have also looked to plausible reallife submission scenarios which could help us further define important aspects of the abstract and provide relevant writing guidance for our students. We have taken into consideration two important aspects which can be challenging for novice writer-researchers. Firstly, abstract submissions tend to have strict word count requirements, particularly in submissions through online platforms which allow only the maximum required number of words or characters. Secondly, other textual genres are often required together with the abstract, such as the title and keywords, and a 50-word summary for the conference program (see for example the AILA 2021 World Congress CfP, Sign Language Linguistics Society, 2019). Finally, the awareness of these submission requirements and the skills needed to produce these textual genres are mostly gained through repeated experience of abstract submission, something that our students as yet lack. These aspects of real-life submission scenarios and our students’ need for practice led us to formulate a combined genre for the purposes of our course: the Abstract Package. The package consists of four components: the title, keywords, 300-word abstract, and a 50-word summary for a conference program. For the purposes of our course, the 50-word conference program summary is referred to as the scientific one-liner. We have introduced this term to direct students’ attention to two important aspects of the conference program summary: its structure (one or two sentences) and its function (to provide a quick overview of the conference paper). In the context of our scientific communication course, the Abstract Package is one of the four obligatory assignments the students must complete in order to proceed to the final exam. Although the full length of the Abstract Package is approximately 400 words, it is by no means a simple writing task. Each of the sub-genres in the Abstract Package requires a different level of abstraction from the full details of the research project as well as awareness of the contribution to the relevant research field. To guide students through the writing of this assignment, and to help them produce high-quality abstracts, we have designed a scaffolded writing path. 3.4 A scaffolded writing path: guiding students through the writing process Our scaffolded writing path includes instruction, writing practice, as well as formative feedback, and runs throughout the entire course (fall semester, week 35 to week 47). Individual stages of the path provide the students with a starting point for the drafting of the abstract, the opportunity to develop multiple drafts and to adjust their abstract so that it accurately reflects the current stage of their research project. The path also includes clearly defined writing milestones, some of which are part of the formal course assessment (see Figure 2). 48 Developing a contextualized and scaffolded pedagogy for the writing of scientific abstracts in English: Abstract Package and Conceptual Template FROM THE CLASSROOM Dr Hana Gustafsson is Associate Professor in Applied Linguistics at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Norway. Her research background is in language acquisition from a usage-based and cognitive linguistic perspective. She also has qualifications and experience in TEFL as a teacher and teacher trainer. She received her PhD (2013) from the University of Groningen. Before joining NTNU, she was a postdoctoral researcher at MultiLing, a research Centre of Excellence at the University of Oslo. Allyson Hoffman is a science writer and educator. She earned an MFA in Creative Writing Fiction and a certificate in Professional and Technical Communication from the University of South Florida. In 2019-2020 she served as a Fulbright English Teaching Assistant at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim, Norway. Kari May Fischer served as a Fulbright English Teaching Assistant at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim, Norway from August 2021 to June 2022. She graduated in May 2021 from the University of Wisconsin in Madison with bachelors’ degrees in English Language and Linguistics and Political Science. Author biography 49 Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes 1 Introduction The advent of the Covid-19 pandemic has had a significant effect on all levels of education across the world. Chief among them has been the closure of schools and the movement to online classes and electronic learning as a means to facilitate social distancing and prevent the spread of the virus (UNESCO, 2020). Education online can be facilitated through the means of synchronous classes, where all parties are present at the same time; ZOOM and other video conferences are a notable example (Mardiah, 2020). Asynchronous classes, which consist of archived materials to be viewed at the student’s convenience (Bullock et al, 2008) are another means of conducting remote lessons. In addition, hybrid courses, which include a mix of both synchronous and asynchronous lessons (Perveen, 2016), either in person or online, are another means of facilitating distance education while providing the opportunity for classes to meet in person if circumstances allow. While certain types of classes are perhaps better suited for distance learning than others, the necessity of school closures and temporary re-openings cannot always allow for flexibility in scheduling. Foreign language classes, in addition to all others, have been moved online to synchronous or asynchronous platforms as necessary. Studies have shown that students prefer learning languages in face-to-face settings (deVeas et al, 2020) and that language students find remote lessons challenging, particularly if they lack experience with distance As education across the world has moved online in response to the Covid-19 pandemic, both synchronous and asynchronous lessons have become a necessary element of distance learning. These changes, which represent a major break from past practices for language educationand particularly the use asynchronous lessons, have presented challenges for both language students and teachers. Although there are inherent challenges when teaching online, there are benefits as well. This practice-oriented paper aims to identify the positive features of asynchronous speaking lessons and provide insights into best practices and activity design. Research indicates that asynchronous speaking lessons, by providing students more time for preparation and review, offer structural advantages regarding participation and opportunities for self-directed learning. Additional research indicates the importance of careful selection of technology tools selection and task design. To provide sufficient learning opportunities asynchronous speaking lessons should include rehearsal tasks, peer and self review, as well as timely feedback from the instructor. ABSTRACT FROM THE CLASSROOM Skyler Schiavone Tokyo International University, Japan email: [email protected] Stephen Kapala Nagoya University of Foreign Studies, Japan email: [email protected] . 50 Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes FROM THE CLASSROOM 50 learning formats (Gale & Kapala, 2021). Research further indicates that if classes are online, synchronous lessons are preferable to asynchronous (Ozdal et al., 2021). Despite the lack of favor for online education and asynchronous classes in particular, research indicates that asynchronous lessons can be of significant benefit to language students. This practically oriented paper hopes to explore the potential benefits of asynchronous learning, and how teachers of English-speaking skills classes can structure lessons that create learning opportunities in asynchronous classes. 2 Structural advantages of asynchronous classes While there are limits to what can be done in asynchronous classes there are also several structural advantages that teachers can utilize to create meaningful learning opportunities. By their very nature, asynchronous lessons allow students to choose when and how to study, and the opportunity to select conditions that suit them best. In addition, an asynchronous language lesson will allow students additional time for processing language and preparing either written or spoken output. 2.1 Opportunities for self-directed learning Creating student-centered classrooms has been identified as a desirable condition for language development as it has a positive effect on autonomy and motivation (Brown, 2015). Asynchronous classes allow students a degree of autonomy in planning their learning schedules (Rigo & Mikus, 2021). When studying, students are able to work at their own pace which supports a degree of self-directed learning (Murphy et al., 2011). Thus, well-planned asynchronous assignments which allow students sufficient time for completion have the potential to lead to satisfactory learning outcomes as students are afforded a degree of independence in planning and completing their studies. 2.2 Allows time for planning and increased speaking Asynchronous lessons can provide benefits for language learning as they have additional opportunities to listen to and respond to course materials online (Kerr, 2020). Further, a key feature of asynchronous language classes is that they allow students more time to plan their speaking as opposed to in-class lessons. Research suggested that when afforded this planning time students can produce language of greater variety and complexity (Crookes, 1989). Properly chosen multimedia tools can further support language practice through increased opportunities for speaking and listening (Young & West, 2018) by offering students the chance to watch or listen to answers from their classmates and review their own work. These opportunities are not always present in a traditional face to face class, or synchronous online lesson, and represent a potential benefit of asynchronous lessons. 2.3 Increased participation Asynchronous speaking assignments could provide increased opportunities for students to participate (Yamagata-Lynch, 2014) particularly in classes with greater numbers of students, as all members are given more time to consider the task and prepare their answers. 51 FROM THE CLASSROOM Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes 51 Additionally, an asynchronous speaking assignment will offer all students the opportunity to participate which is not always possible in face-to-face classes. Thus, the conditions present in an asynchronous lesson offer the potential for greater student engagement than what may be available in traditional language class settings. 3 Structural challenges of asynchronous classes While asynchronous language lessons offer potential benefits, there are inherent challenges that must also be considered. 3.1 Risk of student disengagement While asynchronous lessons offer the potential for self-directed learning, there is also the possibility that students who lack motivation or self-discipline will fall behind in their studies (Perveen, 2016) as students are required to manage their own learning. The potential for students to disengage is compounded by the fact that learners might feel isolated and emotionally disconnected (Mardiah, 2020) as asynchronous lessons do not offer the same social interaction as in person classes or even synchronous online lessons. Additionally, students have reported that asynchronous lessons are quite different from traditional learning and considered less effective (Ozdal et al., 2021) and students might be less interested in them to begin. Thus, teachers must consider there is a possibility that students feel lost and disconnected and plan accordingly. 3.2 Inability to use tech tools and complete tasks Issues with internet access and the quality of connection as well as the need to use tools proficiently are all causes student dissatisfaction with online classes (Mardiah, 2020). Asynchronous classes require a significant degree or technological skills, and students might chance for students to gain proficiency before the class. This can cause delays and potentially add to frustration and dissatisfaction students feel with asynchronous learning. 3.3 Delays with feedback The nature of asynchronous lessons allows students to complete assignments without adhering to a strict schedule. However, this can present challenges in receiving timely feedback. This lack of immediateness stands in contrast to research findings which indicate that immediate feedback maximizes learning opportunities (Arroyo & Yilmaz, 2018; Henderson, 2020; Li et al., 2016, as cited in Canals, et al., 2020). This deficiency could result in missed chances for language development as well as enhancing feelings of isolation. 4 Pedagogical recommendations A well-designed asynchronous speaking task should be on a Learning Management System (LMS) chosen by the teacher, which is suitable for the desired class outcomes, and can be easily used by students. The LMS or chosen software must include tools to allow students to review their work as well as that of their classmates, and options for students to comment on each other’s work. 52 Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes FROM THE CLASSROOM In addition, assigned speaking tasks should be conducive to longer answers and presentations. Individual assignments should take priority over pair and group work. For students in EAP/ESP classes, asynchronous lessons are an ideal opportunity to practice speeches and presentations with visual aids as well as practice responses to written and oral communication. In addition, expressing opinions, recounting experiences, responding to texts, and tasks such as comparing, explaining, and giving recommendations are all appropriate. The language goals of the assignment (language functions, target vocabulary, grammar forms, etc.) should be explicitly assigned and measurable via the use of a short rubric. An asynchronous speaking assignment should require elements of self-assessment and peer review (in accordance with the students’ abilities and task requirements). Finally, teacher feedback should be timely and focused on positive aspects of students’ work. 4.1 LMS/classroom technology Instructors must be granted control to select the LMS and tech tools best suited towards achieving their desired outcomes as this could lead to enhanced activity design (Li, 2015). Pre-task training and comprehension checks are highly recommended to ensure students can use the tools to complete necessary assignments (Gale & Kapala, 2021). Finally, the tools chosen for an asynchronous speaking exercise must support review, playback, and commenting features. FlipGrid, YouTube, and Threadit are examples of websites that provide these necessary features, while Schoology and Google Classroom both offer a fully integrated LMS with the necessary tools. These options, among others, will allow students to engage in meaningful language practice which they can review before publishing. They also provide their classmates and teachers the ability to view and comment on student work. 4.2 Task design Asynchronous lessons are largely inadequate to facilitate conversation and turn-based communication, and as such are more suited towards presentations (Kerr, 2020). Speaking tasks targeted towards both negotiating meaning and verifying comprehension are recognized as beneficial and conducive to learning (Garrison & Cleveland Innes, 2005). As such, assignments should include prompts which direct students towards longer speaking turns and the potential for use of previously studied target language. Assignments should provide simple rubrics which explicitly identify language goals (see Appendix A). 4.3 Task rehearsal Recorded asynchronous speaking tasks afford students the opportunity for individual rehearsal before speaking. Individual rehearsals have been correlated with improved communication and increasing learner awareness to both the message and its delivery (Nagasaki, et al., 2021). Furthermore, task repetition has been noted to offer the potential for both planned and unplanned self-correction as well as increased fluency (Lynch & Mclean, 2000). Thus, recorded speaking rehearsal should be included as a part of the assignment. These videos can be submitted directly to the teacher and the evaluation should be based on following instructions and task completion. 53 FROM THE CLASSROOM Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes 4.4 Self-assessment In addition to the benefits afforded by pre-task individual rehearsal, recorded speaking activities offer the opportunity for self-reflection and review. Self-assessment is an integral part of self-directed learning which can also enable students to identify where they can improve the quality of their work (Jamrus & Razali, 2019). Similarly, Brown (2015) noted that self-assessment increases learner autonomy and motivation. Self-assessments should be concise and clearly related to the goals of the activity. Options include checklists, and brief reflections. Additionally, teachers should keep in mind that students might not be familiar with self-assessment activities. Teachers should provide clear instructions and begin with shorter, simple criteria related to the content and language goals of the unit/lesson (see Appendix). 4.5 Peer review Peer review is an additional activity that should be employed in asynchronous speaking assignments. Peer feedback in the form of written comments adds a communicative element that is often lacking in asynchronous classes and creates interaction that is a key part of the educational experience (Garrison & Cleveland, 2005). It has been noted that students respond favorably to peer feedback and that it provides an increase in awareness and the opportunities for skills development (Saito, 2013). Additional research has found that student-student peer review on digital platforms enables students to identify errors and to correct them in future assignments (Dután Quizhpi, 2020). Peer review should be explicitly assigned with a simple rubric related to the goals of the activity. Explicit peer review offers the additional benefits of an active listening exercise which adds a communicative element to the assignment. 4.6 Teacher feedback Feedback is less effective depending on the duration of time between assignment completion and feedback given (Hubackova, 2016). When providing feedback, a teacher should prioritize assignments in the order they were completed to optimize the efficiency of feedback. Non-verbal cues are an important part of communication and provide additional support for second language learners. These types of interactions are not possible in an asynchronous setting. Therefore, teachers should focus on providing positive, supportive feedback to reduce the affective filter and improve students’ linguistic performance. 5 Conclusion While face-to-face lessons may be the preferred option for language education, online classes and asynchronous assignments offer numerous advantages that teachers can use to create learning opportunities. As schools and universities begin the 2022 academic year in a state of uncertainty, synchronous and asynchronous online classes are likely to remain a necessity for students across the world. While many teachers may only view asynchronous lessons as a necessity during the Covid-19 pandemic, there are benefits to continuing their use. 54 Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes FROM THE CLASSROOM References Brown, H. D. (2015). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (4thed.). Pearson Education. Bullock, L. M., Gable, R. A., & Mohr, J. D. (2008). Technology-mediated instruction in distance education and teacher preparation in special education. Teacher Education and Special Education, 31(4), 229-242. https://doi:10.1177/0888406408330644 Canals, L., Graena, G., Yilmaz, Y., & Malicka, A. (2020) Second language learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of delayed immediate corrective feedback in an asynchronous online setting: An exploratory study. TESL Canada Journal, 37(2), 181-209. https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v3712.1336 Crookes, G. (1989). Planning and interlanguage variation. 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Foreign language learners’ perceptions and preferences of synchronous and asynchronous online language learning during Covid-19 pandemic. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 25(2), 699-715. Rigo, F., & Mikuš, J. (2021). Asynchronous and synchronous distance learning of English as a foreign language. Media Literacy and Academic Research, 4(1), 89-106. Saito, Y. (2013). The value of peer feedback in English discussion classes. In N. Sonda & A. Krause (Eds.), JALT 2012 Conference Proceedings. Japan Association of Language Teaching. UNESCO. (n.d.). Education: From disruption to recovery. https://en.unesco.org/covid19/ educationresponse Yamagata-Lynch, L. (2014). Blending online asynchronous and synchronous learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 15(2). Athabasca University Press. http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1778/2837 Young, E. H., & West, R. E. (2018). Speaking practice outside the classroom: a literature review of asynchronous multimedia-based oral communication in language learning. The EUROCALL Review, 26(1), 59-78. 56 Making the case for asynchronous speaking assignments in foreign language classes FROM THE CLASSROOM Skyler Schiavone earned his MS TESOL at the City College of New York. He has over 15 years of teaching experience in North America and East Asia. His research interests include CALL and intercultural communication. Stephen Kapala earned his MAT in TESOL from the University of Southern California. He has worked as an English language educator for nearly a decade in China, Japan, and the United States. His areas of interest include sociocultural learning theory, academic literacy, and sociolinguistics. Author biography Appendix English for Specific Purposes Sample Speaking Assignment Task: Imagine you are working as a tour guide in your assigned location (students can select from; Ayutthaya, Thailand; Hanoi, Vietnam; Kyoto, Japan; Porto, Portugal, or their own idea). You are going to introduce the itinerary for the day and three (3) sites that your tour group will visit throughout the day as well as the day’s plan for lunch and the estimated time to return to the hotel. Language Goals: Use A.M. and P.M. as well as expressions for sequence (first, next, etc.) when you are explaining the days schedule. Content Goals: Provide sufficient information about the sites you will visit – what are these places famous for and what will tourists enjoy. Time: The total speaking time for this assignment should be between two and four minutes. Rehearsal Assignment: Submit a short practice video introducing the sites you will visit as well as lunch but leave out the details about the sites. Self-Assessment: After you submit watch your video – did you use AM/PM and expressions for sequence correctly? Peer Review: Watch and comment on at least three of your classmate’s presentations. For each, comment on the site that looks most interesting to visit and say why. Check your classmates and make sure they used AM and PM correctly. Teacher Feedback: Did the student meet the time requirements? Did the itinerary have at least three sites to visit, with information about each, as well as a plan for lunch? Did the student use AM/PM and expressions for time and sequence correctly? Tourism and Tour Guide Training