Road Map of Seasonal Wild Edible Plants from the Forest to local markets

*Corresponding author: POTSANGBAM KUMAR SINGH Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Road Map of Seasonal Wild Edible Plants from the Forest to local markets MOIRANGTHEM SONIA DEVI 1, MAIBAM HRIPRIYA DEVI 2 and POTSANGBAM KUMAR SINGH 1, * 1 Department of Botany, Manipur International University, Imphal, Manipur, India. 2 Department of Botany, Manipur College, Imphal, Affiliated to Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur, India. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 Publication history: Received on 20 October 2025; revised on 24 November 2025; accepted on 27 November 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjbphs.2025.24.2.1030 Abstract Utilization of wild edible plants is significant for supplementing food resources and uplifting the economy of the local people. Indigenous peoples of Manipur, Northeast India are collecting and using wild edible plants for different purposes. In the state of Manipur, there is traditional supply chain of wild edible plants. The present paper aims to highlight the common seasonally marketed wild edible plants in Manipur and to map the existing value chains of wild edible plants to enhance the economy of the peoples of our state Manipur. The paper also analyzed the present scenario of the market trends of wild edible plants including market demand and supply chain dynamics. About 80 species were collected from the market survey and categorized 20 species each of the three consecutive months, NovemberJanuary, February-April, May-July, August-October. Some of the species are collected repeatedly from one category to another because they can grow throughout the year also. Keywords: Wild Edible plants; Market; Supply chain; Value chain 1. Introduction From time immemorial, human beings are dependent on various plant resources to fulfill their daily needs. All over the world, people are collecting many wild edible plants including non-timber forest products for various purposes. Interest in the growing potential of non-timber forest products has been inspired by desire to promote traditional values, use of natural products and acceptance of the importance of sustainability [1]. The potential of studies on non-timber forest products have gone beyond the narrow rural focus of previous studies [2]. Non-timer forest products have many values in different uses. They can be used as edible products or medicinal and dietary supplements. Out of these different products, wild edible plants play a very important role in the traditional community by providing food resources as well as sustenance to the local economy. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), wild edible plants are those plants which can grow spontaneously in natural or semi-natural ecosystems and can live independently from human action [3]. WEPs are neither cultivated nor domesticated but locally available as food resources based on traditional knowledge. The mode of use of the WEPs depends on the availability area, their seasonality and specificity in culture and tradition. WEPs play an important role in reducing poverty, improving food security, diversifying agriculture, generating income and preventing malnutrition [4]. Some researchers also highlight the nutritional benefits of WEPs showing presence of minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, fats and fiber. The sate Manipur has diverse ethnic groups and has a long history of utilizing plants according to their traditional practices, consuming various plant parts based on knowledge passed down through generation to generation. These diverse communities have traditional knowledge for using rich forest resources and associated knowledge provide captivating backdrop of ethnobotanical studies. Various ethnobotanical works have been published across the state World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 566 focusing on ethnobotany particularly the traditional knowledge and practices of these different ethnic communities. The first botanical exploration of Manipur was made by G. Watt. who served as a botanist during the boundary survey of (1881-1882) [5]. In the state of Manipur, prominent ethnobotanical work was believed to be pioneered by [6]. After this, numerous ethnobotanists have been working by the growing interest of the wild food plants in the contemporary communities [7,8,9,10, 11, 12]. Identification and proper intervention in their harvesting and supply chains could contribute to the supplementation of food resources, nutritional security as well as the economy of the stakeholders [12]. Wild edible plants play a very important role for household food security and community at higher levels; thus, it is essential that socio-ecological system for gathering and marketing these natural resources be appropriately managed, protected and prevented from overexploitation and deforestation. [13, 14]. It has been estimated that at least one billion people are using wild foods to supplement diets [15]. Increasing the rate of deforestation during the last few years has affected the availability of wild edible plants. Increasing population and lack of communication also contribute to the increased harvesting of wild plants. In many cases, harvesting wild edible plants are not regulated or poorly restricted by those people depending on these plants for their economic sustenance. A value chain has series of steps or value-creating activities that connect the natural sources of the wild plants to the consumers from markets. This connecting series cannot be isolated from one another. In the content of wild edible plants value chain describes the sequence of activities required to make a finished product from its initial starting material such as field crops or gathered wild material [16]. Analysis of value chain is a useful method for understanding how markets operate for a particular good [17]. It helps in understanding the value-added services through which the item comes from the initial production stage to final delivering consumers. Analysis of value chain encompasses all the activities and services required to bring a particular product or services from its conception to destination either local, national, regional or global markets.[18]. The identification of the key actors and their role in the system can be done by development of value chain map. [19]. Understanding value chain actors and enhancing or modifying their role is important for increasing economic contribution of forest resources [20]. Manipur, one of the Northeastern State of India has a diverse community with rich tradition of collecting and marketing wild edible plants for their economic sustenance. The state having different communities such as Meitei, Meitei Pangal, Naga, Kuki, each of them having their own traditional system of collecting, preserving and consumption of the wild edible plants. Figure 1 Map of India showing the Location of State Manipur World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 567 Figure 2 Markets of Bishnupur dist. Figure 3 Khwairamband bazar in Imphal west district In the past, there was closely related and giving corporation between the peoples of hills and involving forming a unique system of corporative marketing. Among different communities of Manipur making trade-partners. Not only this, but channel partners are also formed between members of different communities residing in different geographical areas i.e. hills and plains. In Manipur making of trade-partners commonly known as “Ngai sanaba” occur between the families of hills and valleys. Agricultural and forest products that are harvested by one partner would be sold only with their corresponding partner in another village. A strong economic bond was made to maintain the harmony and cultural relationship between different communities. However, the value chain system something different from the past years due to the present conflict between Meitei and Kuki communities. The Meitei traders could not enter freely to the hilly areas because of the present situation. Thus, the intermediate community i.e. Meitei Pangal take important role for taking the forest products which are harvested by the hilly peoples and lastly those items reach to the plain areas. Presently, the villagers of different communities collect the WEPs from the nearby forest and sell them to village market. Harvest and trade of wild edible plants are closely linked and dependent on each other for sustaining agricultural products. The traders collect the items from the village market or the harvested areas and bring them to the heart of the city and deliver them to the consumers. The objectives of the study are: (i)To identify the common seasonally marketed wild edible plants in Manipur and (ii) To analyze the map of existing value chains of wild edible plants to enhance the livelihood of the local peoples. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Area The present work was conducted in Northeastern state of Manipur. The boundaries of the state are – Myanmar border the state on the east and bounded on the north by Nagaland, Assam on the West and South by Mizoram states of India. Primary data was collected from different markets of different districts. Market surveys were done at the village markets, i.e. Moirang Bazar Ningthoukhong Bazar, Bishnupur Bazar, Nambol Bazar and Imphal Bazar (Khwairamband Market) where WEPs traded. Table 1 shows the name of the study markets with districts. Information about the origin of the item and price of that item were collected from the sellers, collectors, middlemen and consumers. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 568 Table 1 Location of markets where primary data was collected Sl. No. Name of the village with districts Name of the markets 1 Moirang (Bishnupur district) Moirang Bazar 2 Ningthoukhong (Bishnupur district) Bishnupur Bazar 3 Nambol (Bishnupur district) Nambol Bazar 4 Imphal (Imphal West district) Khwairamband Bazar 2.2. Interviews Questionaries were conducted to the collectors to get information about the wild edible plants which were found in the markets. While collecting the information, consider only those plants which were considered as wild edible plants. Market surveys were done by visiting the markets from January 2022 to July 2025. Data was collected for availability, seasonality and supply-chains of different wild edible plants. To supplement the market data several WEPs traders were also interviewed to understand the source, availability, demand and value of the plants. Moreover, several vendors, buyers or community members of that specific place were also interviewed to gather more information about the origin or availability and the trading system of the items. 3. Results and Discussion The information was gathered from scientific research articles and published book chapters. Both online and offline journals were scrutinized. Data was mainly collected through interviews with the local people or stakeholders of those study areas. Value chain analysis was started by understanding the scope of supply chain structure [21, 22]. A supply chain structure was developed by identifying the stakeholder. By analyzing the supply chain, it could be helpful to identify the various marketed wild edible plants. From data analysis, the economic condition of the state can also be understood. In this analysis, the chain of activities that originate from conception to end used customers were strategically relevant to each other. Table 2 List of wild edible plants commonly marketed in the month of November-January Scientific name Vernacular name Family Types of food Processing types Availability [P=plenty, C=common, A=Abundant, R=Rare, L=Limited, Mo=Moderate, M=Moirang, Ni=Ningthoukhong, B=Bishnupur, Na=Nambol, Kh=Khwairamband M Ni B Na Kh Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Tharo Nymphaeceae Vegetable Fresh P C C A R Cycas pectinata Buch.Ham. Yendang Cycadaceae Vegetable Fresh R A A R R Plantago major L. Yempat Plantaginaceae Vegetable Fresh R R R A L Marsilea quadrifolia L. Isingyensang Marsileaceae Vegetable Fresh Mo A A R L Wendlandia tinctoria Bartl.ex DC. Pheija Rubiaceae Vegetable Fresh C C P C P Oenanthe javanica (Blume)DC. Comprek Apiaceae Vegetable Fresh P C C C P World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 569 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze Thoiding amuba Lamiaceae Seed Sun dry C A Mo A P Neptunia Oleracea Lour Ekaithabi Fabaceae Vegetable Fresh P P C C P Stelaria media (L.) Vill Yerum kairum Caryophyllaceae Vegetable Fresh A A R R P Persicaria posumbu (Buch. -Ham.ex D.Don) Phakpai Polygonaceae Vegetable Fresh C R R A R Alocasia cuculata(Lour.) G.Don Honghu kakla Araceae Vegetable Fresh C C C C C Hedychium coronarium J.Koenig Takhelei angouba Zingiberaceae Vegetable Fresh C C A C C Garcinia pedunculata Roxb.ex Buch. - Ham Heibung Clusiaceae Spices Fresh, Sun dry A C A C P Rhus chinensis Mill. Heimang Anacardiaceae Fruits Fresh, sun dry C C A R L Elaegnus conferta Roxb Heiyai Elaeagnaceae Fruit Fresh C C C C P Chenopodium album L. Monsaobi Amaranthaceae Vegetable Fresh R R R A C Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum (L.) Hilliard & B.L.Burtt. Phunil Asteraceae Vegetable Fresh R C C R C Parkia speciosa Hassk. Yongchak Fabaceae Vegetable Fresh, sun dry C C C C P Table 3 List of marketed wild edible plants in the month of February, March-April Scientific name Vernacular name Family Types of food Processing type Availability [P=plenty, C=common, A=Abundant, R=Rare, L=Limited, Mo=Moderate, M=Moirang, Ni=Ningthoukhong, B=Bishnupur, Na=Nambol, Kh=Khwairamband M Ni B Na Kh Hedychium flavum, (J. Koenig) Loklei Zingiberaceae Vegetable Fresh C C C C C Prunus domestica (L.) Heikha Rosaceae Fruits Fresh C C C C C Prunus cerasoides, D. Don Malhei Rosaceae Fruits Fresh C C C C C World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 570 Tetrastigma leucostaphylum, (Dennst.) Monjamhei Vitaceae Fruits Fresh R R L L C Bccaurea sapida, (Roxb.) Motokhei Phylanthaceae Fruits fresh R R L L C Curcuma angustifolia, (Roxb.) Yaipal Zingiberaceae Vegetable Fresh C C A C P Alpinia nigra, (Gaertn.) Pullei Zingiberaceae Vegetable Fresh A C C C P Lentinus squarrosulus, (L.) U-Yen Polypora ceae Vegetable Fresh, sun dry R C C C A Oenanthe javanica, (Blume)DC Comprek Apiaceae Vegetable Fresh P C C C P Allium hookerii, Thwaites. Maroinakupi Amaryllidaceae Vegetable Fresh C C C C P Parkia speciosa, Hassk. Yongchak Fabaceae Vegetable Fresh C C C C P Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum, (L.) Phunil Asteracea Vegetable Fresh R R R R P Persicaria posumbu, Buch. Phakpai Polygonaceae Vegetable Fresh R R R R C Chenopodium album (L.) Monsaobi Amarantheceae Vegetable Fresh R R R R L Amaranthus spinosus (L.) Chengkruk Amaranthaceae Vegetable Fresh R R R R C Table 4 Marketed wild edible plants found in the month of May – July Scientific name Vernacular name Family Types of food Processing types Availability [P=plenty, C=common, A=Abundant, R=Rare, L=Limited, Mo=Moderate, M=Moirang, Ni=Ningthoukhong, B=Bishnupur, Na=Nambol, Kh=Khwairamband M Ni B Na Kh Allium hookerii Twaittes Maroi napakpi Amaryllidaceae Vegetable Fresh C C C C A Allium tuberosumRottler ex Spreng. Maroi nakupi Amaryllidaceae Vegetable Fresh C C A A P Eryngium foetidum, (L.) Awa phadigom Apiaceae V F C C A C P Neptunia oleracea, Lour. Ising ekaithabi Fabaceae V F P C C P P World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 571 Nelumbo nucifera, Gaertn. Thamchet Nelumbonaceae S F P C C A P Euryale ferox, Salisb. Thangjing Nymphaeaceae S F P C C C P Colocasia esculanta, Schott Paan Araceae V F C C C C P Garcinia xanthochymus, (Hook.f.) Heibung Clusiaceae F F C C C C P Centella asiatica, (L.) Peruk Apiaceae V F C C C C C Euphorbia hirta, (L.) Pakhangleiton Euphorbiaceae V F R R R R R Melocanna bambusoides Trin. Moubi wa Poaceae C C P C C C C Crotalaria juncea, (L.) Uhawaimaton Fabaceae R R R R R R R Trapa natans, (L) Heikak Lythraceae Plenty C C C C C C Table 5 Wild edible plants which found in the month of August - October Botanical name Vernacular name Family Types of food Processing type Availability [P=plenty, C=common, A=Abundant, R=Rare, L=Limited, Mo=Moderate, M=Moirang, Ni=Ningthoukhong, B=Bishnupur, Na=Nambol, Kh=Khwairamband M Ni B Na Kh Artocarpus heterophylus Lam Theibong Moraceae Fruit, seed Fresh C C A R R Nelambo nucifera Gaertn. Thamchet Nelumbonaceae Seed Fresh A C C C C Euryale ferox Salisb. Thangjing Nymphaeaceae Seed Fresh C C C C A Rush chinensis, Mill Heimang Anacardiaceae Seed Fresh, sun dry C C C C C Elsholtzia blanda, Benth. Lomba Lamiaceae Spice Fresh, sun dry C C C C C Ocimum americanum, (L.) Mayangton Lamiaceae Vegetable Fresh C C C C C Zizania latifolia Griseb. EsingKambong Poaceae Vegetable Fresh C R R R C World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 572 Schizophyllum commune Fr. Kanglayen Schyzophyllaceae Vegetable Fresh.Sun dry R C C R C Termitomyces eurrhizus Berk. Naril chengum Lyophylaceae Vegetable Fresh R C C R C Auricularia delicata, Bull. Uchina Auriculariaceae Fungi Fresh, Sun dry C C C C C Volvariella volvacea, Bull. Charuyen Auriculariaceae Mushroom Fresh R C C C C Gacinia xanthochymus, Hook.f. Heirangoi Clusiaceae Fruit Fresh R R R R L Averrhoe carambola, (L.) Heinoujom Oxalidaceae Fruit Fresh C C C C C Phyllanthus acidus, (L.) Gihori Phyllanthaceae Fruit fresh C C C C C Table 6 List of the marketed wild edible plants throughout the year with market value Botanical name Vernacular name Family Growth habit Parts used Types of processing Price per unit Allium hookeri, Thwaites. Maroi napakpi Amarillidaceae Herb Whole parts Fresh Rs.10 per bundle Allium tuberosum, Rolter ex Spreng. Maroi nakupi Amaryllidaceae Herb Whole parts Fresh Rs.10 per bundle Eryngium faetidum, (L.) Awa phadigom Apiaceae Herb Whole parts Fresh Rs.10 per bundle Centella asiatica, (L.) Peruk Apiaceae Herb Whole parts Fresh Rs.20 per bunch Ipomoae aquatica, Forssk. Kolamni Convolvulaceae Herb Whole parts Fresh Rs.10 bundle Oenanthe aquatica, (L.) Comprek Apiaceae Herb Whole plant Fresh Rs.10 per bundle Amaranthus spinosus, (L.) Chengkruk Amaranthaceae Herb Young shoot Fresh Rs.20 per bunch Plantago major, (L.) Yempat Plantaginaceae Herb Whole parts Fresh Rs.20 per bundle Juglans regia, (L.) Heijugak Juglandaceae Tree Seed Dry seeds Rs.80/250g Schyzophyllum commune, Fr. Kanglayen Schyzophylaceae Mushroom fungus Whole parts Dried mushroom Rs. 100/250g Lentinus squarrosulus, (Month.) Uyen Polyporaceae Fungus Whole parts Dried food. Rs. 100/250 g Auricularia delicata, Bull. Uchina Auriculariaceae Fungus Whole parts Fresh & Sun dry Rs. 100/250g World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences, 2025, 24(02), 565-576 573 Zanthozylum acanthopodium, DC. Mukthrubi Rutaceae Shrub Leaves & young shoot Fresh Rs.10 per bundle Salvia dianthera, Roth. Kanghuman Lamiaceae Shrub Leaves & young shoot Fresh Rs.10 per bundle Persicaria capilata, Bush. - Ham Phakpai Polygonaceae Herb Leaves & Young shoot Fresh Rs. 10 per bundle Ocimum basilicum, L. Naoseklei Lamiaceae Herb Leaves & young shoot Fresh Rs.10 per bundle Ocimum americanum, (L.) Mayangba Lamiacea Herb Leaves & Young shoot Fresh Rs.20 per bunch Houttuynia cordata, Thunb. Tuningkhok Saururaceae Herb Whole parts Fresh Rs. 20 per bundle Cinnamomum tamala, Bush. – Ham. Tespata Lauraceae Tree Leaves Fresh, sun dry Rs.20 per bunch Figure 4 Habit wise distribution of marketed wild edible plants throughout the season related with the study markets Figure 5 Family wise distribution of the marketed wild edible plants throughout the year