Socio-Economic Impacts of Wetland Exploitation in the Municipality of Adjohoun

 Corresponding author: Domiho Japhet KODJA Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Socio-Economic Impacts of Wetland Exploitation in the Municipality of Adjohoun Domiho Japhet KODJA 1, *, Serge DOSSOU YOVO 2, Alladé Pascal Souleymann LIGALI 3, Toussaint KAKA 4, Pascal GBENOU 5 and Cyr Gervais ETENE 1 1 Laboratory Pierre PAGNEY Climate, Water, Ecosystem and Development (LACEEDE), 03 BP 1122, Cotonou, University of Abomey-Calavi, Republic of Benin. 2 Laboratory of Biogeography and Environmental Expertise (LABEE), UAC, Republic of Benin. 3 Laboratory for the Study of Urban and Regional Dynamics (LEDUR), University of Abomey-Calavi, Republic of Benin. 4 National Water Institute (INE), University of Abomey-Calavi, Republic of Benin. 5 National University of Agriculture, Republic of Benin. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 Publication history: Received on 08 September 2025; revised on 14 October 2025; accepted on 17 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.28.1.3547 Abstract An The development of wetlands plays a significant role in promoting sustainable economic activities that benefit local communities while protecting the environment. This study aims to analyze the socio-economic impacts of wetland valorization in the Municipality of Adjohoun. The methodological approach relied on documentary research and field investigations. The climatic data used include precipitation, evapotranspiration, and temperature for the period 1981– 2021. These data were provided by Météo-Bénin, which constitutes the only comprehensive source of information for the study area. Hydrological data collected by the General Directorate of Water (DG-Eau) at the Adjohoun hydrological station between 1981 and 2021 were also utilized. The SWOT model was applied for data analysis and interpretation. The results indicate that, within the study area, wetlands are classified into four distinct categories: lowlands (54%), floodplains (24%), swampy areas (14%), and temporary marshes (8%). In the Municipality of Adjohoun, 86% of respondents believe that ecosystem exploitation gives rise to a variety of socio-economic activities conducted in the field, generating significant impacts. In pursuit of sustainable and integrated wetland management, users have implemented valorization measures such as awareness-raising and the promotion of local products, which are gradually showing their limitations, as noted by 72% of respondents. In light of these findings, several recommendations were formulated to enhance the valorization and sustainable management of wetland ecosystems, ensuring their effective preservation for the benefit of all stakeholders. Keywords: Benin; Municipality of Adjohoun; Socio-Economic Impacts; Exploitation; Wetlands 1. Introduction The environment is a dynamic and ever-changing system formed by the integration of natural and social components [7]. The natural components comprise biotic elements (fauna and flora) as well as abiotic elements (water, air, and soil). The biodiversity of environmental resources plays a significant role for humanity [13]. It is a milieu in which each element coexists with others, and its preservation is essential for our well-being and that of our planet [2]. Wetlands are remarkable spaces, both submerged and emergent, and/or alternating, characterized by a high richness of natural biotic resources [14]. Permanently or seasonally covered by water, in which numerous plants grow, they host varied habitats rich in nutrients. Wetlands thus constitute ecosystems that meet diverse human needs and provide substantial benefits to local populations [16]. They perform major ecological and landscape functions, including flood control, aquifer recharge, trapping of toxic chemical elements, and nutrient recycling [8]. The use of ecosystem World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1231 resources by local populations is considered both a socio-economic and ecological activity, highlighting the need to promote the sustainable valorization of these environments to reduce harmful exploitation practices. Since 1971, the Ramsar Convention has defended the protection of wetland ecosystems worldwide and in West Africa, following the accession of multiple countries. Benin acceded to the convention in 1986 and has designated four sites as Ramsar sites of international importance, covering a total area of 1,179,354 hectares, including Ramsar sites 1017 (Western Complex) and 1018 (Eastern Complex) in the coastal zone, both listed on January 24, 2000, as well as the W Complex and the Pendjari River on February 2, 2007 [5]. This study focuses on Ramsar site 1018, specifically within the Municipality of Adjohoun, which hosts wetlands of critical importance to the local population. Despite the long-standing recognition of the resources and their richness, these environments remain largely ignored and are subject to very few protective or valorization measures [20]. Likewise, the uncontrolled exploitation methods currently employed by local populations to harvest resources, combined with the rapid demographic growth characteristic of Beninese wetlands, place natural resources at significant risk [3]. Furthermore, when evaluating the dynamics of population growth in relation to climatic factors, the consumption or utilization of wetland products may experience fluctuations due to intermittent population needs. This situation affects all types of wetlands and their associated ecosystems. Therefore, to enhance productivity and ensure the preservation of wetlands and the environment more broadly, the valorization of these ecosystems proves essential. These concerns raise the central question of this study: what are the social and economic consequences of wetland exploitation in the Municipality of Adjohoun? 2. Data and methods 2.1. Data 2.1.1. Climatic and hydrometric data The data collection methods employed in this study primarily involved documentary research and field investigations to gather all the necessary data and information. Climatic data from the Cotonou synoptic station—including precipitation, temperature, potential evapotranspiration, wind, and sunshine—covering the period 1981–2021, were obtained from Météo-Bénin. Hydrometric data (daily water levels) were collected from the General Directorate of Water (DG-EAU). These data allowed for the analysis of hydro-climatic patterns and their influence on wetland environments. 2.1.2. Environmental and cartographic data Land use data were sourced from the databases of the National Geographic Institute (IGN). These data facilitated the analysis of vegetation cover around wetlands and its interactions with the surrounding environment. They also contributed to understanding the hydrological functioning of wetlands, which serve as reference points for drainage, water flow, and the availability of surface water, as well as the nature of wetland vegetation. 2.1.3. Socio-economics data Demographic statistics were derived from the results of the national population and housing censuses RGPH 1 (1979), RGPH 2 (1992), RGPH 3 (2002), and RGPH 4 (2013), collected from INStaD. In addition to these sources, data were collected through individual and group interviews, focusing on local populations’ perceptions of climate change, wetland dynamics, and the socio-economic and environmental impacts of wetland exploitation. 2.2. Methods The materials and methods should be typed in Cambria with font size 10 and justify alignment. Author can select Normal style setting from Styles of this template. The simplest way is to replace (copy-paste) the content with your own material. Method and analysis which is performed in your research work should be written in this section. A simple strategy to follow is to use keywords from your title in first few sentences. 2.2.1. Calculation of Rainfall Indices The rainfall index (RI) allows for the identification of dry or deficit periods, wet or surplus periods, and average or normal periods over the study period (1981–2021). It is calculated using the formula: 𝑅𝐼 =𝑋𝑖− 𝑋  𝜎 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1232 where: • 𝑋𝑖: is the annual rainfall for year 𝑖 • 𝑋 : is the interannual mean rainfall over the reference period, • σ : is the standard deviation of the series. According to [22], this index measures the deviation of the studied variables relative to a long-term weighted mean. Negative (deficit years) or positive (surplus years) hydro-climatic anomalies [1] are used to analyze the water status of wetlands over the past 30 years. The WMO interpretation grid [19] was employed to classify years as surplus, average, or deficit (Table 1). Table 1 Interpretation Grid of Standardized Rainfall Anomalies Anomaly Index Characteristics 2.0 and above Extremely wet 1.5 to 1.99 Very wet 1.0 to 1.49 Moderately wet -0.99 to 0.99 Near normal -1.0 to -1.49 Moderately dry -1.5 to -1.99 Very dry -2.0 and below Extremely dry Adapted from [19] 2.2.2. Calculation of the climatic balance A climate is considered biologically dry when precipitation is lower than evapotranspiration and no water reserves are available. The climatic balance reflects the timing of water surpluses or deficits. It expresses the difference between total rainfall and the value of potential evapotranspiration (PET), which represents the surplus available for soil water recharge and runoff [24]. The formula for calculating the climatic balance is as follows: 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐸𝑇 Where: • 𝐵𝐶: Climatic balance • 𝑃: Total annual rainfall • 𝑃𝐸𝑇: Potential evapotranspiration PET represents the climatic demand for water vapor. The climatic balance thus highlights changes in climate through rainfall inputs and losses by evaporation. Interpretation: • 𝑖𝑓 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐸𝑇 > 0, 𝐵𝐶 si surplus • 𝑖𝑓 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐸𝑇 < 0, 𝐵𝐶 si deficit • 𝑖𝑓 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐸𝑇 = 0, 𝐵𝐶 si balanced 2.2.3. Method for determining climatic hazards The probability of occurrence of hydro-climatic risks and their impacts was used to develop a criticality matrix, which provides information on the priority levels of drought risk in the Municipality of Adjohoun. Based on the classification of extreme years [19], four drought risk classes (1 to 4) were defined: normal, moderately dry, very dry, and extremely dry. The analysis and interpretation of these risks are summarized in Table 2. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1233 Table 2 Risk typology Identified Risks Frequency of Occurrence Rating Severity Rating Criticality Description R1 R2 R3 Rn The first step involved identifying and classifying the various drought hazards in the Municipality of Adjohoun based on their probability of occurrence, severity, and criticality (Table 3). Table 3 Criticality Matrix Impact severity Risk probability Limited Moderate Significant Critical 1 (Unlikely) 2 (Somewhat likely) 3 (Likely) 4 (Very likely) Source : [4] The criticality matrix was used to assess the priority level of risks based on their probability (unlikely, somewhat likely, likely, and very likely) and impact severity (limited, moderate, significant, and critical) (Table 4). Table 4 Risk and Action Matrix Risks Criticality Presentation (Color Range) Causes Preventive Actions Corrective Actions R1 R2 R3 Rn Source : [4] 2.2.4. Method for Assessing Vulnerability To evaluate the degree of vulnerability, the sensitivity matrix technique was used, which first involves determining the exposure and impact units (Table 5). Table 5 Sensitivity Matrix Exposure Units Droughts risks Risk 1 Risk 2 Risk3 Exposure index Rank UE1 UE2 UE3 Inpact Index (%) Rank World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1234 2.2.5. Multi-criteria analysis The wetland map was produced using a multi-criteria analysis. The following maps were combined: relief map, water accumulation zones, and the NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index) map. Each dataset was classified according to its importance in determining wetlands [12]. The suitability of each layer was rated on a scale from 1 to 10. The "No Data" value was used to exclude areas that should not be considered. Classification was performed using the Reclassify tool. The Rescale by Function tool was used to reclassify relief altitudes according to the suitability scale, with low-relief areas corresponding to zones of high-water accumulation potential. The final step in producing the wetland map involved combining the different map layers. To account for the varying importance of each factor, the transformed datasets were weighted as percentages. The relief map had a weight of 25%, the water accumulation map 25%, and the NDWI map 50% [17]. This weighting was followed by overlay using the Weighted Overlay tool to produce the final map, where higher values correspond to wetland areas. 2.2.6. Wetland inventory Wetlands were inventoried based on fieldwork. The GPS ESSENTIAL device allowed georeferencing of the wetlands identified during field surveys. The area of each wetland was also determined using information from production groups and tracking, which enabled comparison between theoretical data and field-based observations. The sensitivity matrix will then be used to assess the exposure of certain natural resources and economic activities to hydro-climatic risks, thereby determining their impact rates. 2.2.7. Cartographic data processing The GIS equipment used included a computer for data entry and report writing, GIS software (ArcGIS, QGIS, ENVI, etc.) for map production, and a vector database sourced from IGN, 2018. A GPS device was used to record the coordinates of vulnerable areas, and a camera was used for data collection and photographic documentation. For fieldwork, the materials included a GPS for capturing geographic coordinates, a camera for image collection, and the general map of Benin at a 1:600,000 scale (IGN, 1992) to facilitate comparison between field observations and existing maps. 2.2.8. Sampling The sampling population consisted of agricultural households. To constitute the sample, all eight (8) districts of the Municipality of Adjohoun were considered. Respondents were selected to obtain the most diverse information possible. Selection criteria included: • Engaging in at least one activity related to wetlands; • Having exploited wetlands for at least the past ten (10) years; • Having lived in the area for at least ten (10) years; • Being at least thirty (30) years old. The sample size was determined following [21]. It was calculated with a 95% confidence level and a margin of error of ±5% using the formula: 𝑁 = 𝑘2∗ 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 𝑑2 Where: 𝑁: Sample size per district 𝑘: 1.96, Corresponding to a 95% confidence level 𝑝: 𝑛/𝑁, The proportion of agricultural households in the district relative to the total number of agricultural households in the municipality; 𝑞 = 1 − 𝑝 𝑑 = margin of error, set at 5%. ; A total of 446 individuals were surveyed. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1235 3. Results 3.1. Geographical Location and Biophysical and Human Characteristics of Adjohoun of Wetlands in the Municipality of Adjohoun Located in the center of the Ouémé Department, the Municipality of Adjohoun lies between 6°37'20'' and 6°48'10'' north latitude and between 2°25'15'' and 2°35'20'' east longitude (Figure 1). Adjohoun is bordered to the north by the Municipality of Bonou, to the south by Dangbo, to the east by Sakété, and to the west by Abomey-Calavi. The municipality covers an area of 308 km² and is home to a population of 75,323 inhabitants [15]. Figure 1 Geographical and Administrative Situation of the Municipality of Adjohoun 3.2. Typology of Wetlands in the Municipality of Adjohoun Wetlands are divided into four main categories: lowlands, floodplains, temporary marshes, and swampy areas [11]. Figure 2 illustrates the diversity of these wetlands in the Municipality of Adjohoun. Source: Field Survey, July 2024 Figure 2 Typology of Wetlands in the Municipality of Adjohoun/ World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1236 Analysis of Figure 2 highlights the distribution of the different wetland categories, with a predominance of lowlands (54%) and floodplains (24%). These areas are particularly important for agricultural and fishing activities, providing income opportunities for local communities. The presence of swampy areas (14%) and temporary marshes (8%) also demonstrates the potential for valorization of these natural spaces. Thus, wetland valorization can not only enhance local livelihoods but also contribute to the economic sustainability of the Municipality of Adjohoun (Table 6). Table 6 The wetlands identified in the Municipality of Adjohoun Districts Villages Type Flood start Flood end GANGBAN Agonlin Swampy Area Juillet Octobre Dannou Lowland Juillet Novembre Gangban Lowland Juillet Octobre Lowe Swampy Area Juillet Novembre AZOWLISSÈ Abeokouta Lowland Juillet Octobre Gbada Floodplain Juillet Octobre Gbekandji Lowland Juin Octobre DEME Fanvi Lowland Juillet Octobre Ahlan Temporary Marsh Juillet Octobre TOGBOTA Togbota-ague Swampy Area Juillet Octobre Togbota-oudjra Lowland Juillet Octobre ADJOHOUN Allanzounme Floodplain Juillet Octobre Zoungome Lowland Juillet Octobre KODÉ Gbannan Temporary Marsh Juillet Novembre Hlankpa Floodplain Juillet Octobre Gouke Swampy Area Juillet Novembre AWONOU Abidomey Lowland Juillet Octobre Awonou Floodplain Juillet Novembre AKPADANOU Dekanme Temporary Marsh Juillet Octobre Fonly Temporary Marsh Juillet Octobre Houedo-wo Floodplain Juillet Novembre Sokpetinkon Lowland Juillet Octobre Source: Field Survey, July 2024 An examination of Table VI shows that the majority of identified wetlands are lowlands, including Agbenou, Dogbotonou, Bazoumè, Aichahoun, Tovegbamè, Sô, and Tovè. Areas such as Sissepka, Egamè, Aloluè II, Sokpetinkon, and Hlan were identified as floodplains. Additionally, ponds include Sissepka, Aloluè I, Dovi, and Hounhoun. Locations such as Lolo, Agbaenou, Hlan, and Ganan are swampy areas, while Voti contains a temporary marsh. It is also noteworthy that the flooding period in these zones generally spans from July to November each year, with most wetlands experiencing a flood duration of approximately four months. Figure 3 presents the map showing the spatial distribution of geolocated wetlands in the Municipality of Adjohoun. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1237 Figure 3 Spatial Distribution of Wetlands in the Municipality of Adjohoun 3.3. Forms of Wetland Utilization in the Municipality of Adjohoun In the Municipality of Adjohoun, wetlands are of critical importance to the local community and are utilized through various economic activities. The main activities contributing to the use of wetlands include: • Flood-recession and off-season agriculture Agriculture is one of the main economic activities in the Municipality of Adjohoun. Rice cultivation predominates in floodplain areas, particularly due to the fertility of the soils. Besides rice, wetlands support almost the same crops as those grown on upland areas [25]. This type of agriculture is an important source of income for local farmers and contributes to food security (Figure 4). Photo : KAKA Toussaint, July 2024 Figure 4 shows a rice field in the village of Agonlin. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1238 Figure 4 illustrates rice cultivation in the village of Agonlin. This rice production represents a key strategy for the community of Adjohoun to valorize the municipality’s wetlands. By using these wetlands for agricultural purposes, the community not only develops its economic activities but also enhances the socio-economic benefits associated with the preservation and sustainable management of these ecosystems. Rice cultivation in wetland ecosystems promotes economic growth while maintaining the ecological health of the Municipality of Adjohoun. • Integrated Fish Farming Some communities exploit wetlands for pond-based aquaculture, often integrated with rice cultivation [26]. This approach combines crop and livestock production, thereby maximizing the use of natural resources and increasing yields. Figure 5 shows a fishpond in Allandohou I. Photo : KAKA Toussaint, July 2024 Figure 5 Lowland Fishpond in Allandohou I Figure 5 illustrates a key economic activity linked to wetland utilization. This pond represents an important source of income for local residents, contributing to both their food security and livelihoods. Aquaculture practiced in these areas demonstrates how natural resources can be sustainably exploited while supporting the local economy and environmental conservation. • Artisanal Fishing Some wetlands in the Municipality of Adjohoun are rich in fish, and artisanal fishing is a major activity. It provides livelihoods for a large portion of the population, particularly during periods when agricultural activity is low [24]. Fishing also serves as an important source of income for women in the region. Figure 6 illustrates a fishing session in the village of Houedo-Wo. Photo : KAKA Toussaint, July 2024 Figure 6 Income-Generating and Locally Resilient Aquaculture in the Village of Houedo-Wo World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1245 • Integrating modern agricultural techniques, such as precision rice farming with soil sensors, automated irrigation systems, and drones, to optimize resource use while minimizing environmental impact. • Encouraging intercropping systems to enhance soil resilience, reduce pesticide use, and increase biodiversity. • Implementing rehabilitation projects for degraded wetlands, including planting local vegetation and restoring aquatic habitats. • Adopting adaptive fisheries management, including stock monitoring and the establishment of protected areas for fish population regeneration. • Developing sustainable aquaculture in controlled ponds to reduce pressure on natural habitats and enhance food security. • Encouraging local tourism businesses to obtain ecological certifications and adopt environmentally friendly practices. • Raising visitor awareness of the ecological value of wetlands and best conservation practices. • Promoting collaboration among governments, NGOs, businesses, and local communities for coordinated and effective management. • Creating mobile applications for water resource management, biodiversity data collection, and conservation education. 4. Discussion The aim of this study is to contribute to the understanding of the socio-economic impacts of wetland exploitation in the commune of Adjohoun. According to 82% of producers, several types of wetlands characterize the study area, including lowlands (54%), floodplains (24%), marshes (14%), and temporary swamps (8%). These findings are consistent with those of [22], who report that in West Africa, wetlands include lakes, rivers, floodplains, temporary marshes, swamp forests, mangroves, intertidal areas, and coastal lagoons. Thus, the exploitation of these wetland ecosystems generates significant impacts in the study area due to their multiple functions. According to 85% of producers, this results in high yields due to soil fertility and the availability of diverse natural resources supporting socio-economic activities. This aligns with [6], who indicate that in southern Benin, wetlands impact local communes through their richness and diversity, grouped into four functions: ecological and regulatory, socio-economic, tourism, and domestic/medicinal uses. To address negative impacts and promote sustainable and integrated management, measures for the valorization and management of wetlands have been developed, including the construction of hiking trails, ecological infrastructure, and the promotion of recession rice farming. These results align with the work of [26], who emphasizes that optimizing productive resources in wetlands requires strengthening the capacities of agricultural operators. This synthesis demonstrates that wetlands are not environments to be ignored but rather to be sustainably exploited and valorized. Such exploitation, however, is not without environmental impacts, particularly on the socio-economic sector, which justifies the proposed solutions mentioned above. 5. Conclusion The research on the socio-economic impacts of wetland valorization in the Municipality of Adjohoun contributes to a better understanding of the importance and effects of wetlands. It highlights the presence of several types of wetlands, including lowlands, floodplains, ponds, swampy areas, and temporary marshes. These ecosystems provide both ecosystemic and socio-economic services to the users, who in turn exert significant pressure on these wetlands to meet their diverse needs, often without considering the resulting consequences. For a long time, wetlands in Adjohoun were perceived by local residents and sustainable development specialists as sterile and unhealthy environments, breeding grounds for diseases, mosquitoes, and crocodiles. However, over the past few decades, they have been recognized as among the most important ecosystems on the planet. Their significance stems from numerous benefits and services, including biodiversity richness, habitat for migratory species, water filtration, flood reduction, protection of agricultural lands, increased income for various stakeholders, and reduction of extreme poverty within the community. To demonstrate the true value of wetlands, the community of Adjohoun has engaged in multiple valorization activities, such as recession and off-season agriculture, artisanal fishing, integrated aquaculture, exploitation of timber and natural resources, handicrafts derived from wetland resources, as well as various NGO and government projects. Nevertheless, intensive exploitation of these wetlands has led to environmental challenges, including soil degradation, progressive loss of biodiversity, water scarcity or excess during flowering or maturation periods, hydric stress reducing productivity, and the invasion of wetlands by invasive weeds. In light of these issues, and in pursuit of integrated and sustainable wetland management in Adjohoun, several valorization measures have been proposed, including: raising tourist awareness of the beauty and value of wetlands; constructing World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1230-1247 1246 ecological infrastructures; promoting local handicrafts and culinary specialties; organizing festivals and cultural events celebrating local traditions and wetland-related practices; encouraging recession rice cultivation; installing water management infrastructures; training farmers in sustainable agricultural practices; and fostering partnerships among the government, NGOs, businesses, and local communities to develop integrated projects that combine wetland conservation, sustainable agriculture, and tourism. Compliance with ethical standards Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge their own contributions to the preparation of this article, including data collection, processing, analysis, as well as proofreading and translation into English. Disclosure of conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest among the authors of this article. Statement of informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study References [1] Adigbegnon M, Totin Vodounon SH, Amoussou E, Houndenou C, Boko M. Facteurs climatiques et anthropiques de la désertification dans le domaine du climat de transition au Bénin. In : Les échelles spatiales et temporelles fines. Actes du XXXIe Colloque de Nice, 4–7 juillet 2018. [2] Aspe C, Jacqué M. De l’approche patrimoniale à la gestion durable des forêts : l’entrée « biodiversité » comme nouveau canon d’appréhension du réel. Forêt méditerranéenne. 2012; 33(2):193–200. [3] Attiyimi R. 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