IPSAS Adoption in African Countries: Talking or Walking the Talk

Chatti, Amel; Ayadi, Salma Dammak; Jeriji, Maher Article IPSAS Adoption in African Countries: Talking or Walking the Talk Journal of Accounting and Management Information Systems (JAMIS) Provided in Cooperation with: The Bucharest University of Economic Studies Suggested Citation: Chatti, Amel; Ayadi, Salma Dammak; Jeriji, Maher (2024) : IPSAS Adoption in African Countries: Talking or Walking the Talk, Journal of Accounting and Management Information Systems (JAMIS), ISSN 2559-6004, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Vol. 23, Iss. 3, pp. 530-550, https://doi.org/10.24818/jamis.2024.03004 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/310903 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 530-550, 2024 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24818/jamis.2024.03004 IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk Amel Chatti1,a, Salma Dammak Ayadib and Maher Jeriji c a Tunis Carthage University, LIGUE, Higher Institute of Accounting and Business Administration, Tunisia b IHEC, University of Carthage, LIGUE, Higher Institute of Accounting and Business Administration, Tunisia c IHEC, LEFA, University of Carthage Abstract Research Question: How has the diffusion of IPSAS in the African region been influenced by contextual factors, external pressures, and the current status of adoption and implementation across African countries? Motivation: Africa seems to be the region where these standards have been most widely adopted. This region was at the forefront of the adoption of these standards. We have therefore chosen to plot the diffusion curve of these standards, for subsequent analysis. Idea: This paper examines the various phases of the IPSAS dissemination process in developing countries, particularly in the African region. Data: The data are secondary data collected from Studies published by professional accounting bodies such as IFAC and ACCA, as well as publications by international organizations (IMF and World Bank) were also taken into account. Tools: a qualitative method, in line with that conducted by Polzer et al. (2020), based on a literature search using the internet search on "Google" and "Google Scholar". The keywords inserted included "IPSAS and developing countries" and "IPSAS and emerging economies". The references of each resource were used to identify additional resources. Findings: IPSAS adoption in Africa takes many forms, it is indeed a priority for most of these countries. However, the diversity of implementation plans, and the absence of a centralized, coordinated approach, has made monitoring and forecasting progress rather difficult. 1 Corresponding author: Université Tunis Carthage, Avenue Fattouma Bourguiba, 2036 La Soukra, Tunis, Tunisie. Tel: (+216) 36101010, email addresses: [email protected] Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3 531 Contribution: This research contributes to the IPSAS adoption research by examining the dissemination of these norms in African region. This article examines the diffusion and adoption of IPSAS (International Public Sector Accounting Standards) in the African region. We constructed the diffusion curve of these standards to ensure their successful dissemination. Additionally, we conducted an assessment between the announcement of the adoption decision and the actual implementation of these standards. Keywords: IPSAS adoption, IPSAS diffusion, innovation, public sector, African region. JEL codes: M410. 1. Introduction IPSAS are useful for improving governance and accountability in the public sector (Manes-Rossi et al., 2016). Migration to these standards helps strengthen the public sector by reducing the effect of sovereign debt and fiscal crises undermining its sustainability (Christiaens et al., 2015; Manes-Rossi et al., 2015). Against this backdrop, developing countries have attempted to modernize their accounting systems, initially by moving to accrual accounting and then by adopting IPSAS. This reform of public accounting in these developing countries is essentially inspired by the "best accounting practices" of Western countries (Polzer et al., 2020). Their adoption has been seen as essential not only for good governance and accountability, but also for economic growth (ACCA, 2017). However, the difficulties associated with their implementation have been recognized (Bakre et al., 2017; Hopper et al., 2017; Lassou, 2017), and their relevance has been questioned (Hepworth, 2017). Indeed, several studies argue that IPSAS are unsuitable for the specific contexts of developing countries (Polzer et al., 2020). This leads us to question the progress of IPSAS implementation in those countries declaring their adoption. In other words, whether the countries declaring adoption of IPSAS are really implementing them. Thus, we propose to study the diffusion of IPSAS in developing countries. Polzer et al., (2020) argue that IPSAS adoption is largely driven from outside the country, and that effective implementation and results are often disappointing, except for Anglo-Saxon countries. The authors explain this by the fact that IPSAS privileges the interests of international financial organizations (e.g., the World Bank and the IMF), and by the fact that political decision-makers and standard-setting bodies (e.g., the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) and the European Commission), as well as professional accounting firms and associations (e.g., the European IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk 532 Vol. 19, No. 3 Standards Association, the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA), overlook country-specific factors relating to the social and cultural context, as well as their genuine accounting needs. Africa seems to be the region where these standards have been most widely adopted. This region was at the forefront of the adoption of these standards. We have therefore chosen to plot the diffusion curve of these standards, for subsequent analysis using a theoretical framework that combines neo-institutional theory (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983) and diffusion theory (Rogers, 2003; Abrahamson, 1991). The aim of this paper is to explore the context in which IPSAS diffused in the African region. We study the various pressures exerted on this region and we examine the current state of IPSAS adoption and implementation in African countries. Our study shows that the adoption of IPSAS in Africa is closely tied to political and economic reforms initiated since the 1980s. Despite this strong foundation, challenges such as lack of political support, insufficient capacity, and incompatible public finance systems hinder implementation. The gap between decision-making and execution highlights the complexity of aligning national policies with international standards. Tailored strategies, including capacity-building and pilot programs, are essential for managing this transition successfully. This research makes a significant contribution to the study of the adoption of International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) by examining their dissemination within the African region. In a context where transparency and financial accountability are increasingly demanded in the public sector, the adoption of IPSAS becomes essential for improving public resource management. This research enriches the literature on IPSAS adoption in Africa by providing an overview of the challenges and opportunities related to their dissemination. It also highlights the importance of a systematic and contextualized approach to facilitate the successful adoption of international accounting standards. In section 2, we present the theoretical framework of our analysis and show how different theories can be combined to enhance our knowledge of public-sector accounting reforms. Section 3 will be devoted to the methodology. Section 4 examines the dissemination of IPSAS in the African region, through an analysis of documents and a synthesis of previous research. Section 5 discusses the findings. Section 6 concludes. 2. Theoretical framework Research on public sector accounting reforms is largely based on neo-institutional theory, while emphasizing the influence of external institutional factors (Polzer et al., 2020). Indeed, several researchers have analyzed the types of pressure exerted Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3 533 on governments that have driven the adoption of IPSAS (Modell, 2013; Modell et al., 2017). On the other hand, diffusion theory makes it possible to explore the challenges that IPSAS may have encountered in the process of their implementation and during their propagation in various contexts. Recent studies have expanded on these frameworks to include the role of digital transformation and sustainability in accounting reforms (Benito et al., 2021; Brusca & Martínez, 2022). According to neo-institutional theory, the organization engages with its external environment, particularly in its day-to-day operations, to ensure its success and survival (Meyer & Rowan, 1977). External pressures relating to the environment in which the organization operates can take different forms, ranging from coercive to normative and mimetic, depending on the organization's position and influence, the knowledge available and the availability of resources (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). Indeed, while coercive pressure is linked to state intervention and excessive dependence on external resources, mimetic pressure concerns the imitation of other successful organizations, particularly in a context of environmental, regulatory and technical uncertainties. Normative pressures, however, are more subtle, as they emanate from the profession and academia (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). The dissemination of IPSAS in developing countries is often linked to coercive pressures (Adhikari et al., 2013). In addition, accounting firms represent important intermediaries in this dissemination practice in developed countries, as well as that of developing countries (Jackson & Lapsley, 2003). Recent research highlights the role of international financial institutions not only as coercive actors but as collaborative facilitators in the transition to global standards (Papi & Zorzi, 2023). These institutions are now working more closely with local governments to ensure smoother adoption and better alignment with local needs. 2.1 Neo-institutional theory in public sector accounting reforms Neo-institutional theory has been widely used to analyse the dynamics of public sector accounting reforms, in particular to understand the influence of external institutional pressures on organizations. Meyer and Rowan (1977) argue that organizations engage with their external environment to ensure their legitimacy, success and survival. This interaction is particularly relevant in the public sector, where reforms are often driven by the need to conform to global standards and practices. Coercive pressures are among the main drivers of IPSAS adoption, particularly in developing countries. These pressures often emanate from international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, which tie financial aid or debt relief to the adoption of international standards such IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk 534 Vol. 19, No. 3 as IPSAS (Adhikari et al., 2013). For example, many African countries have adopted IPSAS under the influence of these organizations, as they are seen as a means of improving financial transparency and attracting foreign investment. Mimetic pressures arise when organizations imitate effective models or practices adopted by others, particularly in situations of uncertainty. In the context of IPSAS, this could involve governments adopting standards because other countries, particularly those perceived as leaders in public sector management, have done so. Modell (2013) highlights how countries in transition or those facing significant economic challenges often look to more stable economies as models for reform, leading to the mimetic adoption of accounting standards. Standard-setting pressures come from professional bodies and academic institutions that advocate certain standards as best practice. In many cases, accounting professionals trained or influenced by Western accounting practices play a crucial role in promoting the adoption of IPSAS in their countries. DiMaggio and Powell (1983) emphasize the role of education and professionalization in the dissemination of standards aligned with global standards, as evidenced by the push for IPSAS by professional accounting organizations in both developed and developing countries. Diffusion theory, on the other hand, enables us to understand the reform process, since it describes it in terms of six steps: “preconditions”, “knowledge of reform innovations”, “persuasion”, “decision”, “implementation” and “confirmation” (Rogers, 2003, as extended by Ezzamel et al., 2014). The first four stages are largely related to neo-institutional theory, since they are linked to the interactions of organizations with their external environment. Thus, we will try to identify the nature of the pressures exerted on African countries that have adopted the IPSAS framework. Then, to focus on the last two stages, we will attempt to assess the status of IPSAS implementation in African countries. 2.2 Diffusion Theory in Accounting Reforms Diffusion theory provides a framework for understanding how innovations, such as IPSAS, spread across different contexts. Rogers (2003) identifies six stages in the diffusion process: "preconditions," "knowledge of reform innovations," "persuasion," "decision," "implementation," and "confirmation." This theory is particularly useful in analyzing the challenges faced during the adoption and implementation of IPSAS in various regions. The early stages of diffusion, including "preconditions" and "knowledge," are closely related to neo-institutional theory, as they involve the organization's interactions with its external environment. In the case of IPSAS, the preconditions often involve the existence of external pressures, such as those from international Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3 535 organizations, which create a favorable environment for the adoption of new accounting standards (Ezzamel et al., 2014). The "persuasion" stage involves stakeholders within the country being convinced of the benefits of adopting IPSAS. This stage can be challenging, especially in regions where there is skepticism about the relevance of international standards to local contexts. Adhikari et al. (2013) show that in many developing countries, while external requirements may lead to the adoption of IPSAS, these standards often remain isolated from actual practices, as local stakeholders are not fully persuaded of their utility. The later stages of diffusion, "implementation" and "confirmation," are critical for assessing the actual impact of IPSAS adoption. These stages involve the practical application of the standards and the evaluation of their effectiveness. In the African context, challenges such as limited technical expertise, inadequate infrastructure, and resistance to change can hinder the successful implementation of IPSAS. The confirmation stage, where the organization evaluates the outcomes of the adoption, often reveals gaps between the intended benefits of IPSAS and the realities of their implementation (Modell et al., 2017). 3. Methodology In order to study the various phases of the IPSAS dissemination process in developing countries, particularly in the African region, we opted for a qualitative method, in line with that conducted by Polzer et al. (2020), based on a literature search using the internet search on "Google" and "Google Scholar". The keywords inserted included "IPSAS and developing countries" and "IPSAS and emerging economies". In carrying out this search, we noticed that IPSAS is most widely adopted in the African region. The choice of this region was motivated by the fact that it was at the forefront of IPSAS adoption. We then refined our search using other keywords, namely "IPSAS Adoption Africa". The references of each resource were used to identify additional resources. Studies published by professional accounting bodies such as IFAC and ACCA, as well as publications by international organizations (IMF and World Bank) were also taken into account. 4. A look back at the IPSAS dissemination phases in Africa 4.1 Prerequisites for IPSAS adoption The 1980s are considered a "lost decade" for Africa. Indeed, the African continent suffered many economic crises as a result of several factors: dependence on a limited number of primary products, the burden of external debt, rapid population growth, persistent drought and devastating internal conflicts. In addition, rising oil prices and IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk 536 Vol. 19, No. 3 falling commodity prices have also had a devastating effect on the performance of African economies (Karyeija, 2012). In response to these crises, a number of programs have been adopted since the 1980s to move Africa towards sustainable development and economic growth, and to establish the basis for the structural transformation and integration of African countries into the global economy (ECA, 2003). We cite a few examples of programs adopted by this region from 1980, based on the report drawn up by the Economic Commission for Africa in 2003. First, in 1980, African leaders adopted the Lagos Plan of Action. This plan was designed to restructure the economy, focusing on the twin principles of national and collective self-sufficiency and autonomous development. In 1991, the United Nations Plan of Action for African Economic Recovery and Development (UNPAAERD) was adopted. This is a program aimed primarily at the transformation, integration and diversification of African economies, in order to reduce their vulnerability to external shocks and strengthen them as partners in world trade. Furthermore, in 2000, the United Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted. The priorities set out in the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) include good governance, economic growth, resource mobilization, global partnerships, environmental protection, poverty reduction and investment in human resources. According to Karyeija (2012), the public sector reforms undertaken by African countries during the 1990s were both administrative and political. Indeed, African governments, under pressure from internal and external forces, moved towards liberalization of the political space. As a result, democratic systems with ambitious political, institutional and economic reform programs were put in place, with the aim of changing the role of government and creating an enabling environment for an effective civil service (ECA, 2003). Nevertheless, stronger incentives such as the performance and discipline incentives that exist in a market environment needed to be put in place to improve macroeconomic stability and public service efficiency. Thus, efforts to reform the public sector from the 2000s were largely in line with the New Public Management paradigm (ECA, 2003; Karyeija, 2012). Indeed, donor agencies supporting reforms in developing countries have seen good management of public administrations as a crucial aspect of good governance, with an emphasis on accountability and responsiveness to customer needs (ECA, 2003). In this respect, the African continent, more than any other region, has been involved in almost half of all public financial management projects since 2000, and received the lion's share of World Bank funding equal to 37% of the total between 1990 and 2006 (World Bank, 2008). Christiaens et al. (2015) claim that most African countries adhere to the cash accounting system and explain this by some institutional factors. According to these Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3 537 authors, the majority of African countries have a bureaucratic and centralized system and as these countries have been heavily colonized, accounting traditions have become weak under the consequent influence of varying traditions (English, French, etc). In order to make governments more accountable to their citizens, public sector accounting needed to be reformed. Several African countries opted to migrate to accrual accounting from the traditional cash-based system, as they lacked a rigorous accounting framework for the public sector, which probably contributed to the high levels of waste and corruption in some of these countries (Jreisat, 2010). Consequently, the adoption of accrual accounting in these countries was seen as an important and radical reform of government financial management. In this context, it is expected that government managers will be more accountable by having full knowledge and control of all costs, which will promote effective and efficient decision-making (ECA, 2003). 4.2 Knowledge of IPSAS standards According to the Association of Chartered Accountants' 2017 report, statements of support for IPSAS have encouraged a trend towards adoption in developing countries, particularly in Africa, South-East Asia and South America. Indeed, in a context where the need for greater financial responsibility on the part of governments has been accentuated by the global financial crisis, financial information drawn up on a cash basis has become insufficient and incapable of preventing sovereign liquidity crises. Then, to attract foreign direct investment, these countries have launched financial management reform programs, including the adoption of accrual accounting as part of a broader framework of reform programs. As a result, several African countries have expressed the need or intention to formally adopt these standards as part of financial management reform programs to modernize and improve their public financial reporting (Müller-Marqués Berger, 2018). These programs, as well as incentives for IPSAS adoption in Africa, have been funded by donors (ACCA, 2017). The African Union (AU) has played a key role in the dissemination of IPSAS in the region. Indeed, their adoption was mandated by the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the African Union in January 2013. Thus, in line with this decision, the African Union implemented IPSAS on an accrual basis in 2014, largely with a grant from the World Bank as part of its support for African Union capacity development (AU, 2018). IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk 544 Vol. 19, No. 3 Moreover, the fact that decisions about reforms do not necessarily lead to their implementation in practice and confirmation lies at the heart of diffusion theory (Polzer et al., 2020). In this context, previous work based on diffusion theory, has shown that reform implementation is determined by at least three different contextual factors: the complexity of reforms, the commitment of adopters, and the consistency of reforms with adopters' values (Adhikari et al., 2013; Ezzamel et al., 2014; Jackson and Lapsley, 2003). In this respect, it is "naive" to expect the results of adopting a modern accounting system in "remote" areas to produce better governance, when most of the people in such areas have limited access to education and modern technologies (Fahmid et al., 2020). Indeed, in these territories, not only people do not understand accounting information, but they also have minimal knowledge of the modern developed world and no access to it. The adoption of IPSAS-compliant accrual accounting or other systems used by developing countries has been achieved without taking into account the major institutional and structural problems facing these countries. These policies also neglect local democracy and are concerned only with strengthening the economic and political positions of multinational and international financial authorities over developing countries (Narula and Dunning, 2000). As a result, public sector accounting reforms in developing countries often fail to achieve their objectives (Hopper et al., 2012). To remedy these shortcomings, which stem from the "monoculture" approach adopted by international donors, a better, more practical and more effective approach is needed to ensure that the new systems are useful and implemented effectively and efficiently in emerging economies. International donors and financial authorities recognize that their top-down approach of imposing "best practice" on developing countries has had limited impact (Sarker, 2006). 5. Discussion This section presents critical recommendations and considerations to ensure the effective adoption of International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) in developing countries. These insights highlight both the success factors and potential pitfalls of implementing New Public Management practices in resource-constrained contexts. 5.1 Stakeholder Engagement and Commitment Continuous stakeholder engagement and commitment is a key success factor for IPSAS adoption. The successful implementation of IPSAS requires ongoing knowledge sharing, education, and dedication from critical stakeholders, including Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3 545 politicians, government auditors, ministries, and local authorities (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006). Citizen representation and involvement is also essential to foster public accountability and transparency (Roberts, 2009). 5.2 Adequate Financial and Human Resources Successful public sector reforms, such as IPSAS adoption, necessitate sufficient financial support and human capital. Developing countries often lack the resources to adequately train staff, provide necessary technology, and build the required infrastructure for effective implementation (Al-Noaimi et al., 2022). Securing adequate funding is a critical precursor for IPSAS adoption to yield intended benefits. 5.3 Strengthening Institutional Capacity Developing countries must prioritize strengthening the institutional power of the state to maintain government authority, legislate effectively, and hold officials accountable (Polzer et al., 2020). Robust institutions are a prerequisite for IPSAS to function as intended and drive transparency and accountability in public financial management. 5.4 Simplifying Reporting Requirements IPSAS-based reporting systems, while robust, can be overly complex for widespread use in developing countries with limited education and technical expertise (Ball, 2012). Simplifying reporting requirements to align with local contexts is essential for IPSAS to be accessible and effective across all levels of government. Unless these factors are carefully considered, the potential benefits of IPSAS adoption will be constrained. Successful examples of accrual accounting or IPSAS implementation in developed countries must be understood within the context of their unique social, political, and economic environments. Developing countries must design tailored strategies that account for their specific circumstances to realize the full value of IPSAS. 6. Conclusion The adoption of International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) in Africa is a complex process that is intricately linked to the broader political and economic reforms undertaken on the continent since the 1980s. These reforms, aimed at addressing governance issues, economic crises, and political instability, have laid the groundwork for structural transformation and integration into the global economy. IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk 546 Vol. 19, No. 3 Programs such as the Lagos Plan of Action, UN-PAAERD (United Nations Program of Action for the Economic Recovery and Development of Africa), and the Millennium Declaration have been instrumental in creating an environment conducive to the adoption of IPSAS. These initiatives underscore the importance of aligning accounting reforms with broader developmental strategies, as noted by Jochimsen and Nuscheler (2011), who emphasize the interdependence of institutional reforms and economic policies. Despite the foundational support provided by these reforms, the actual implementation of IPSAS faces numerous challenges. Key issues include a lack of political support, insufficient capacity, and incompatible public finance systems. While there is a positive attitude towards IPSAS in many African countries, aligning national policies and practices with the standards remains problematic. The complexities of this process are highlighted by the gap between decision-making and implementation, reflecting the difficulties inherent in diffusion theory when applied to accounting reforms (Rogers, 2003). This gap reveals the need for a more nuanced understanding of how reforms are adapted and implemented in varying political and economic contexts. For practitioners, these findings underscore the necessity of addressing the specific challenges faced by African countries in IPSAS adoption. Practitioners must advocate for tailored strategies that account for local conditions, including capacitybuilding initiatives and political advocacy to secure the necessary support. Additionally, implementing phased approaches and pilot programs could help manage the transition effectively. Standard setters should consider providing more context-specific guidance and support to help countries navigate the complexities of IPSAS implementation. This includes offering resources and tools designed to address the unique challenges faced by developing countries, as suggested by Heald and Georgiou (2011). This study is limited by its focus on theoretical and macro-level factors influencing IPSAS adoption. Future research should explore the micro-level factors, such as the role of individual actors and specific institutional dynamics, in more detail. Additionally, comparative studies across different regions and countries could provide a deeper understanding of how local contexts influence the success of IPSAS adoption. Further research could also investigate the impact of political and economic instability on the effectiveness of accounting reforms and explore strategies for mitigating these effects. By expanding the scope of inquiry, researchers can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that drive or hinder IPSAS implementation in diverse settings. In conclusion, the IPSAS adoption journey in Africa reflects both the aspirations and challenges of public sector reform in the region. Although progress has been made, overcoming existing obstacles and ensuring effective implementation will require continued effort and adaptation. Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3 547 References Abrahamson, E. (1991) “Managerial fads and fashions: The diffusion and rejection of innovations”, Academy of management Review, vol. 16, no. 3: 586-612. ACCA, (2017) IPSAS implementation: Current status and challenges, available online at https://www.accaglobal.com/gb/en/technical-activities/technicalresources-search/2017/october/ipsas-implementation--current-status-andchallenges.html Adhikari, P., & Mellemvik, F. (2010) “The adoption of IPSASs in South Asia: A comparative study of seven countries”, Research in Accounting in Emerging Economies, vol. 10: 169-199 Adhikari, P., Kuruppu, C., & Matilal, S. (2013) “Dissemination and institutionalization of public sector accounting reforms in less developed countries: A comparative study of the Nepalese and Sri Lankan central governments”, Accounting Forum, vol. 37, no. 3: 213-230 Al-Noaimi, H. A., Durugbo, C. M., & Al‐Jayyousi, O. R. (2022) "Between dogma and doubt: A meta‐synthesis of innovation in the public sector", Australian Journal of Public Administration, vol. 81, no. 1: 201-223. Andrews, M. (2012) “The logical limits of best practice administrative solutions in developing countries”, Public Administration and Development, vol.32, no. 2: 137-153 AU. (2018) “Joint Meeting of African Union and International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board on IPSAS”, available on-line at https://au.int/en/newsevents/20180430/joint-meeting-african-union-andinternational-public-sector-accounting-standards Bakre, O., Lauwo, S.G., & McCartney, S. (2017) “Western accounting reforms and accountability in wealth redistribution in patronage-based Nigerian society”, Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, vol. 30, no. 6: 1288-1308. https://doi.org/10.1108/AAAJ-03-2016-2477 Ball, S. J. (2012) Foucault, Power and Education. New York, NY: Routledge. Bellanca, S., & Vandernoot J. (2014) “International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) Implementation in the European Union (EU) Member States”, Journal of Modern Accounting and Auditing, vol. 10, no. 3: 257-269 Benito, B., Brusca, I., & Montesinos, V. (2007) “L'harmonisation des systèmes gouvernementaux d'information financière: le rôle des IPSAS”, Revue Internationale des Sciences Administratives, vol. 73 Benito, B., Brusca, I., & Montesinos, V. (2021) “Digitalization in public sector accounting: Current trends and future prospects”, Public Money & Management, vol.41, no.5: 346-355. Brusca, I., & Martínez, J. C. (2016) “Adopting International Public Sector Accounting Standards: a challenge for modernizing and harmonizing public sector accounting”, International Review of Administrative Sciences, vol. 82, no. 4: 724-744. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852315600232 IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk 548 Vol. 19, No. 3 Brusca, I., & Martínez, J. C. (2022) “Sustainability and public sector accounting reforms: The integration of financial and non-financial information” Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, vol. 34, no. 2: 135-153 Chan, J.L. (2008) International Public Sector Accounting Standards: conceptual and institutional issues. In The Harmonization of Government Accounting and the Role of IPSAS, M D´Amore (ed). McGraw-Hill Chan, J.L. (2006) IPSAS and government accounting reform in developing countries. In: E. Lande and J.-C. Scheid, Eds., Accounting Reform in the Public Sector: Mimicry, Fad or Necessity, 1-15 Christiaens, J., Vanhee, C., Manes-Rossi, F., Aversano, N., & Van Cauwenberge, P. (2015) “The effect of IPSAS on reforming governmental financial reporting: An international comparison”, International Review of Administrative Sciences, vol. 81, no.1: 158-177 DiMaggio, P.J., & Powell, W.W. (1983) “The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields” American sociological review, 147-160 ECA. (2003) “Economic Commission for Africa: annual report, 2003”, available online at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/527706 Ezzamel, M., Hyndman, N., Johnsen, A., & Lapsley, I. (2014) "Reforming central government: An evaluation of an accounting innovation”, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, vol. 25, no. (4-5): 409-422. Fahmid, I.M., Harun, H., Graham, P., Carter, D., Suhab, S., An, Y., Zhen, X., & Fahmid, M.M. (2020) “New development: IPSAS adoption, from G20 countries to village governments in developing countries”, Public Money & Management, vol. 40, no. 2: 160-163. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962. 2019.1617540 Fernandez, S., & Rainey. H.G. (2006) "Managing Successful Organizational Change in the Public Sector", Public Administration Review, Vol. 66, no. 2: 168-76. Heald, D. and Georgiou, G. (2011) "The Macro-Fiscal Role of the U.K. Whole of Government Account", Abacus, vol. 47: 446-476. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-6281.2011.00348.x Hepworth, N. (2017) “Is implementing the IPSASs an appropriate reform? ” Public Money & Management, vol. 37, no. 2: 141-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09540962.2016.1266174 Hopper, T., Lassou, P., & Soonbayoren, T. (2017) “Globalisation, accounting and developing countries”, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, vol. 43:125-148. Hopper, T., Tsamenyi, M., Uddin, S., & Wickramasinghe D. (2012) Handbook of accounting and development, Edward Elgar Publishing, (Eds.) Cheltenham. Hughes J. (2013) “A compilation and certification program for developing countries”, International Journal of Governmental Financial Management, vol.13: 1-14. Accounting and Management Information Systems Vol. 23, No. 3 549 Jackson, A., & Lapsley, I. (2003) “The diffusion of accounting practices in the new “managerial” public sector», International Journal of Public Sector Management, vol. 16, no. 5:359-372. Jochimsen, B., & Nuscheler, R. (2011) "The Political Economy of the German Lander Deficits: Weak Governments Meet Strong Finance Ministers", Applied Economics, vol. 43, no. 19: 2399-2415. Jreisat, J. (2010) “Comparative public administration and Africa”, International Review of Administrative Sciences, vol. 76; no. 4: 612-631. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852310381205 Karyeija, G.K. (2012) “Public Sector Reforms in Africa: What Lessons Have We Learnt”, Forum for Development Studies, vol. 39, no. 1: 105-124. doi:10.1080/08039410.2011.635378. Lassou, P.J.C. (2017) “State of government accounting in Ghana and Benin: a “tentative” account”, Journal of Accounting in Emerging Economies, vol. 7, no. 4: 486-506. https://doi.org/10.1108/JAEE-11-2016-0101 Manes-Rossi, F., Cohen, S., Caperchione, E., & Brusca, I. (2016) “Harmonizing public sector accounting in Europe: thinking out of the box”, Public Money and Management, vol. 36, no.3: 189-196, doi: 10.1080/09540962. 2016.1133976. Manes-Rossi, F., Jorge, S., Jesus, M.A., & Caperchione, E. (2015) “Introduction to a symposium on new challenges for public-sector accounting: IPSAS, budgetary reporting, and national accounts”, International Journal of Public Administration, vol. 38, no. 4: 237–239. doi:10.1080/01900692.2014.999574 Massey, A. (2019) “Persistent public management reform: An egregore of liberal authoritarianism? », Public Money & Management, vol. 39, no. 1: 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2018.1448160 Meyer, J.W., & Rowan, B. (1977) « Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony”, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 83, no. 2: 340-363. Modell, S. (2013) “Making Sense of Social Practice: Theoretical Pluralism in Public Sector Accounting Research: A Comment”, Financial Accountability & Management, vol.29: 99-110. https://doi.org/10.1111/faam.12004 Modell, S., Vinnari, E., & Lukka, K. (2017) “On the virtues and vices of combining theories: The case of institutional and actor-network theories in accounting research”, Accounting, Organizations and Society, vol. 60: 62-78 Müller-Marqués Berger, T. (2018) IPSAS explained: A summary of International Public Sector Accounting Standards. West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Narula, R., & Dunning, J. H. (2000) “Industrial development, globalization and multinational enterprises: New realities for developing countries”, Oxford Development Studies, vol. 28, no. 2: 141–167. Papi, L., & Zorzi, G. (2023) “International financial institutions and the role of collaboration in public sector accounting reforms”, Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 25(1), 78-92. IPSAS Adoption in African countries: Talking or walking the talk 550 Vol. 19, No. 3 Polzer, T., Gårseth-Nesbakk, L., & Adhikari, P. (2020) “Does your walk match your talk? " Analyzing IPSASs diffusion in developing and developed countries” International Journal of Public Sector Management, vol.33, no.2/3:117-139. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPSM-03-2019-0071 Roberts, A. (2009) The Quality of Democracy in Eastern Europe: Public Preferences and Policy Reforms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rogers, E. M. (2003) Diffusion of innovations, New York: Free Press, 5th ed. Roje, G., Vašiček D., & Vašićek V. (2010) “Accounting regulation and IPSAS implementation: efforts of transition countries toward IPSAS compliance”, Journal of Modern Accounting and Auditing, vol.6, no.12: 1-16. Sarker, A.E. (2006) “New public management in developing countries: An analysis of success and failure with a reference to Singapore and Bangladesh”, International Journal of Public Sector Management, vol. 19, no. 2: 180–203. UNCTAD, (2018) “Annual report”, available on-line at https://unctad.org/system/ files/official-document/dom2019_en.pdf. World Bank (2008). The World Bank annual report 2008: year in review (English). Washington, DC: World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ en/452391468323718231/The-World-Bank-annual-report-2008-year-inreview