Semantics of the internet: a political history

Hösl, Maximilian A icle — Published Ve sion Seman ics o he in e ne : a poli ical his o y In e ne His o ies P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e Sugges ed Ci a ion: Hösl, Maximilian (2019) : Seman ics o he in e ne : a poli ical his o y, In e ne His o ies, ISSN 2470-1483, Taylo & F ancis, London, Vol. 3, Iss. 3-4, pp. 275-292, h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/24701475.2019.1656921 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/203261 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ Seman ics o he in e ne : a poli ical his o y Maximilian H€ osl WZB Be lin Social Science Cen e , Be lin, Ge many ABSTRACT The his o y o he In e ne has been na a ed many imes. Howe e , poli ical his o ies o he In e ne wi h a non-US-cen ic ocus a e s ill an uncha ed esea ch a ea. This pape con ibu es o closing ha esea ch gap. I econs uc s he In e ne ’s his o y in Ge many h ough he lens o seman ic changes in p ess co e - age on poli ics. In ou in es iga ion, we sough o analyse seman- ic change as a poli ical his o y by d awing on insigh s conce ning he ela ionship be ween seman ic change and poli - ical con lic om he pe spec i e o discou se heo y and heo e - ical e lec ions on poli icisa ion. The s udy ollows ou in ui ion ha seman ic s uggles o he pas lea e aces in wo d con ex s. Con e sely, i unco e s seman ic change by ollowing he aces o seman ic s uggles in hese con ex s. In line wi h his a ionale, we conduc ed a ‘blended eading’o wo d con ex s ha elied on a quan i a i ely assis ed quali a i e ex analysis. The s udy inds ha he In e ne has long been unde s ood p edominan ly as a ool o poli ics in he poli ical public. In he la e 2000s, i s pe - cep ion as a highly poli icised objec o go e nance also became dominan . While he In e ne was always associa ed wi h a medium and a public sphe e, i s cha ac e isa ion changed om ‘web 1.0’ o a ‘web o co po a ions’. ARTICLE HISTORY Recei ed 7 Janua y 2019 Re ised 8 Augus 2019 Accep ed 9 Augus 2019 KEYWORDS Poli ical his o y; seman ic change; In e ne ; discou se; In e ne policy; digi alisa ion 1. The impo ance o na ional in e ne his o ies The sound o a modem is s ange. When I g ew up in he 1990s, his sound was one o he i s hings I associa ed wi h connec ing o he In e ne . Howe e , his pe sonal acous ic associa ion om my adolescence does no i he no ions mos people ha e in mind when hey hink o he In e ne oday, such as communica ing wi h iends on Facebook, sea ching o hings using Google o o de ing p oduc s om Amazon. I, oo, had nea ly o go en abou his modem sound once so inex icably linked o he In e ne . I is no only echnology ha changes o e ime – he associa ions be ween he echnologies we use and ou ideas, p ac ices and pe cep ions o i change, oo. In o he wo ds, he meaning o echnology changes. CONTACT Maximilian H€ osl [email p o ec ed] Reichpie schu e 50, D-10785 Be lin. Supplemen al da a o his a icle is a ailable online a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/24701475.2019.1656921. ß2019 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup. This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/ licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. INTERNET HISTORIES 2019, VOL. 3, NOS. 3–4, 275–292 h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/24701475.2019.1656921 The e is ha dly any sec o o socie y in which hese changes a e mo e ob ious han in he poli ical ealm. I is wi hin his ealm ha socie ies nego ia e he dis ibu ion o echnology- ela ed oppo uni ies and isks and espond o hese pe cep ions by c a - ing public policies. In con o e sies o e In e ne policy, he In e ne has o en been discussed in e ms o echnology o social space and issues such as child po nog aphy and su eillance. Ye he his o y o a ibu ing meaning o he In e ne wi hin he pol- i ical ealm has a ely been he subjec o in es iga ion. The his o y o he In e ne has been old nume ous imes. Schola s emphasise, o ins ance, he sociocul u al in luences on he In e ne ’s design and usage (Abba e, 2000), con ingen his o ical cons ella ions (Cla k, 2016), he In e ne ’s e olu ion o a gene al pu pose echnology (Naugh on, 2016), he his o y o In e ne - ela ed laws and policies (Lessig, 2006; Wu, 2011) and no ma i e change ega ding he In e ne (Schulze 2018). Howe e , as T  egue (2017) shows, he In e ne ’s poli ical his o y is s ill an uncha ed esea ch a ea, mos no ably hose pa s o i s his o y ha a e no US-cen ed. To help close his esea ch gap, we dedica e ou sel es o he case o Ge many. The s udy ocuses on he econs uc ion o a his o y o meaning a ibu ions o he In e ne in he poli ical public. Unde s anding his de elopmen is impo an , because he seman ic changes o a e m a e ins uc i e o poli ical his o y (Koselleck 2004); his ela ionship is ou s a ing poin . We hen u n o discou se heo y and concep s o poli icisa ion o de elop a heo e - ically g ounded idea o wha a poli ical his o y om a seman ic pe spec i e can be. Nex , we pull oge he hese heo e ical e lec ions and use hem o explain ou quan i- a i ely assis ed quali a i e analysis. A he cen e o his app oach is a diach onic com- pa ison o wo d con ex s o ack seman ic changes o he e m ’In e ne ’. Following he p esen a ion o majo pe iods o change, we u n o he summa y o ou indings and hei in e p e a ion and discussion in he ligh o exis ing esea ch. On a mo e gene al le el, he analysis shows a shi om he no ion o ‘web 1.0’ owa ds he no ion o a ‘web o co po a ions’in he poli ical public. Mo e speci ically, we can see a change om he In e ne being mainly unde s ood as a medium qua poli ical ool o i being inc eas- ingly unde s ood as a medium qua ool and objec o go e nance. 2. Seman ic change as poli ical his o y A he hea o his s udy is Koselleck’s(2004, pp. 75–92) insigh ha he change o a e m’s meaning can be an indica o o social and poli ical ci cums ances. He s esses he ela ionship be ween seman ic s uggles and poli ical con lic . Thus, s uggles o e he meaning o he e m ‘In e ne ’can in o m i s poli ical his o y. In o de o econ- s uc his his o y, he e m in ques ion mus be ela ed o empi ical indings and ela ed e ms o a gi en pe iod (Koselleck, 2004, p. 75). We u he explo e how seman ic change can be unde s ood as poli ical his o y by linking a undamen al p op- e y o meaning wi h ideas om discou se analysis and esea ch on poli icisa ion. Meaning is ela ional (DiMaggio, Nag, & Blei, 2013, pp. 586–587; To ing 2005,p. 14.). In o he wo ds, he meaning o phenomena, such as signs, objec s, e en s o indi- iduals, depends on hei con ex ; hey can only be unde s ood in ela ion o o he phenomena in i s se ing. As he meaning o a e m ha signi ies a phenomenon 276 M. H€ oSL e ol es om i s usage in language (Wi gens ein, 1953, PI 43), i depends on he con- ex in which i is used. P o iding con ex is hen an ac o in e p e a ion. Con ex , howe e , is no an objec i e en i y. Fo ins ance, ac o s may consciously o unconsciously in e p e phenomena in a way ha sui s hei in e es s o wo ld iews (see ‘ aming’, Snow & Ben o d, 1998). As he e a e no objec i e con ex s, ac o s o en engage in seman ic s uggles, ha is, s uggles o e he ‘ alid’con ex ualisa ion o phenomena. This is e iden , o example, in deba es on gun con ol: is he possession o guns a h ea o he communi y o a cons i u ional ci il libe y? Howe e , hese seman ic s uggles do no occu in ‘blank space’. In hese s uggles, ac o s d aw on discou ses o hei in e p e a ions, o ins ance he secu i y discou se. Discou ses can be unde s ood as sys ems o s a emen s ha a e ( e)p oduced by p ac ices such as speaking, w i ing o isualising, he eby a ibu ing meaning o phenomena (see Diaz- Bone e al., 2007;Haje ,1995;To ing2005,p.14).Theexampleo guncon olisagood case in poin : gun owne ship can be in e p e ed om a secu i y and eedom pe spec i e. Seman ic s uggles a e hus no me ely si ua ional s uggles o e he con ex o phenomena. They a e ‘ba les’in he s uggle among discou ses o dominance. The dominance o discou ses becomes e iden when he wo ld iew hey imply becomes commonly accep ed, o i ac o s canno a oid e e ing o hem o be hea d o ecog- nised socially (Haje , 1995, pp. 60–72, To ing 2005, p. 15). We in e p e a discou se as a dominan sou ce o meaning a ibu ion whene e ha discou se domina es a phe- nomenon’s con ex . Some imes, ac o s e en pe cei e one con ex as ‘ ixed, na u al o essen ial’(Haje , 1995, p. 272, To ing 2005, p. 15). Howe e , ac o s may poli icise phenomena. They d aw on al e na i e discou ses and challenge ‘na u al’in e p e a ions o phenomena. This is a o m o poli icisa ion, as ac o s discu si ely p oduce con ingency (Haunss & Ho mann, 2015; Palonen, 2003). By making he phenomenon a ma e o seman ic s uggles, hey c ea e unce ain y and di e si y ega ding i s in e p e a ion; hey c ea e a ce ain openness as o which in e p e a ions will p e ail. Thus, an al e na i e discou se may o may no gain domin- ance o e a phenomenon’s con ex . Seman ic change may o may no occu , depend- ing on he ou come o seman ic s uggles. Since hese s uggles may occu a di e en le els, i is use ul o conside a sphe e-based model o poli icisa ion. Hay (2007, p. 79) dis inguishes a non-poli ical ‘sphe e o necessi ies’ om a poli ical sphe e o ‘con ingency and delibe a ion’. In he sphe e o necessi y, phe- nomena appea o be na u al o as de e mined by a e. Pe cep ions hus appea as i unde he dominance o a discou se (see ‘ ixed, na u al o essen ial’Haje 1995,p.272). In con as , in he poli ical sphe e, a ious al e na i e in e p e a ions may be a s ake. Howe e , seman ic s uggles may occu in p i a e spaces, in public o in he exclusi e sphe e o poli ical decision-making. Thus, poli icisa ion may also occu when ac o s ans e phenomena o m he p i a e sphe e o he public sphe e o he go - e nmen al sphe e (Hay, 2007). As we a e in e es ed in seman ic s uggles in poli ical publics, we ocus on he in e sec ion o he public sphe e and he go e nmen al sphe e. In mode n democ acies, hese a e o a la ge ex en media ed publics, ha is, media shape and d i e he ci cula ion o compe ing discou ses and meaning. 1 Consequen ly, one way o esea ch he poli ical his o y o he In e ne is o ocus on seman ic s uggles o e he e m ‘In e ne ’in media-media ed poli ical publics, INTERNET HISTORIES 277 whe e s uggles a e sou ces o seman ic change, elying on compe ing discou ses o de ining he con ex o social and physical phenomena, such as he discou ses o eco- nomics, secu i y and eedom. 3. P e ious wo k Exis ing esea ch sugges s a ious in e p e a ions and discou ses ha may be in ol ed in seman ic s uggles o e he e m ‘In e ne ’.Fi s , a ious no ions o he In e ne may be obse ed. Poli ics and policy discou se may compe e o a en ion, ha is, he In e ne may be seen as a ‘ ool o poli ics’o an ‘objec o go e nance’(Sch€ unemann, 2012). O he in e p e a ions o he In e ne may e e o i s concep ion as an ‘in as uc u e’,a‘public sphe e’,a‘medium’o a ‘cul u e’(Jø gensen 2012, pp. 79–158). Second, speci ic discou ses may s i e o dominance. In he US, Schulze (2018) sees cybe u opianism compe ing wi h cybe ealism. The Ge man case sug- ges s s uggles among discou ses o secu i y, economy and eedom. R€ ossle (2001) ound ha , in he 1990s, news pe iodicals conside ed he In e ne an economic oppo - uni y, empowe ing he indi idual. In he 2000s, membe s o he execu i e b anch pe - cei ed he In e ne as a secu i y h ea (Schulze, 2016). By 2011, he main con lic conce ning In e ne policy, as co e ed by he media, was abou in e nal na ional secu i y and he p o ec ion o ci izens’p i acy om s a e in e e ence (L€ oblich & Ka ppinen, 2014). Howe e , hese indings on he Ge man case only spo ligh a spe- ci ic decade o a pa icula yea , bu hey do no p o ide a his o ical pe spec i e. In con as , we ollow a diach onic compa a i e app oach ha includes bo h he policy and poli ics dimensions o he In e ne . 4. F om heo y o da a o analysis The ocus on seman ic s uggles sugges s changing wo d con ex s as a uni o ana- lysis. A e u he ou lining his a ionale, we desc ibe he selec ion and pa i ioning o he ex co pus used o he empi ical analysis. Finally, we explain a blended ead- ing app oach o co pus explo a ion. Since we can only b ie ly desc ibe he s eps aken, we e e o he isualisa ion o he wo k low in he online appendix o his pape o a quick bu de ailed o e iew. 2 4.1. Wo d con ex s as clues o seman ic s uggles In acco dance wi h ou heo e ical conside a ions, we ega d seman ic change as shi s in wo d con ex s, whe e con ex is ope a ionalised as wo ds occu ing nea a a ge e m in a gi en ex (Ju a sky & Ma in 2019, pp. 106-125). As explained be o e, he In e ne has been subjec o ongoing seman ic s uggles. His o ical s uggles lea e aces in wo d con ex s in a ious ypes o ex , o example in news a icles. Con e sely, ou esea ch s a egy iden i ies his o ical de elopmen s and seman ic s uggles by ollowing he aces obse able wi hin he wo d con ex s o he e m ‘In e ne ’in ex ual da a o e ime. 278 M. H€ oSL 4.2. Poli ical publics: ope a ionalisa ion and da a Since he public sphe e is o a la ge ex en media-media ed, we ely on media da a. Unlike social media da a, news a icles a e sui able o ou in es iga ion because hey a e a ailable o e long pe iods o ime. Howe e , news co e age canno ep esen he en i e public opinion ega ding he In e ne ; a e all, he e is he pa liamen a y public o social media publics. Ne e heless, i ‘p o ides clues as o wha eli es a e hinking and doing’and i ‘bo h e lec s and ep esen s one s eam o in luence in he o ma- ion o eli e and public opinion’(DiMaggio e al., 2013, pp. 573–574). The e o e, analy- sing p ess co e age is one way o obse e s uggles o e meaning among eli es, and i indica es de elopmen s in he b oade public. The sphe e-based model o poli icisa ion sugges s ocusing on a poli ical public. To ob ain a p oxy o such a sphe e, we limi ed he Ge man Re e ence Co pus (DeReKo) o epo ing on poli ics in in luen ial Ge man na ional pe iodicals (De Spiegel,Die Zei , S€ uddeu sche Zei ung,die ageszei ung). We elied on he opical classi ica ions o docu- men s as p o ided by he co pus me ada a. Using his classi ica ion, we il e ed he co pus o include news on poli ics only. In addi ion, a sea ch que y o he e m ‘In e ne ’(including wo d compounds) u he educed he co pus. A e il e ing, he co pus encompassed 26,158 a icles co e ing he yea s 1995 o 2016. 3 4.3. The blended eading o wo d con ex s Ou inqui y oscilla es be ween quan i a i e and quali a i e ex analysis. S ulpe and Lemke (2016) e e o his app oach as ‘blended eading’. As a i s s ep, we used quan i a i e ools o explo e he il e ed co pus and o de ec pa e ns. I is a p oced- u e ha Mo e i (2000) calls ‘dis an eading’in con as o ‘close eading’( eading ex s in dep h). In a second s ep, we used hese pa e ns o guide he close eading. The documen -le el analysis, in u n, in o ms he in e p e a ion o he quan i a i e- le el pa e ns. This app oach p o ides a means o sys ema ically explo ing and analysing la ge ex co po a. This add esses he p oblem ha diach onic compa a i e discou se ana- lysis o en in ol es la ge amoun s o ex (Hamann & Sucke 2018). In addi ion, he quali a i ely plausibilised quan i a i e indings p o ide indica ions o domin- an pa e ns. We s a ed wi h a equency analysis o he e m ‘In e ne ’in he ex co pus o iden i y pe iods o a en ion. As he co pus is limi ed o co e age on poli ics, his dis- ibu ion indica es media and poli ical a en ion de o ed o In e ne opics. We hen pa i ioned he co pus in o subse s in acco dance wi h he iden i ied pe iods. Nex , we analysed each o hese pe iods o co-occu ence p o iles o he e m ‘In e ne ’. A co- occu ence p o ile is a anking o wo ds co-occu ing wi h he e m ‘In e ne ’(co- occu en s) based on he log-likelihood a io o s a is ical signi icance. The window size o he wo d-associa ion calcula ion was ixed a 10 wo ds a ound he a ge wo d. 4 The ad an age o his app oach is ha he compa ison o hese p o iles e eals con ex change o e he iden i ied pe iods. The wo ds in he p o iles a e aces guiding he quali a i e analysis. These aces a e ollowed a documen le el, whe e we examine hem as key wo ds in con ex INTERNET HISTORIES 279 (KWIC), ha is, we look a ac ual ins ances o wo d co-occu ences (Manning & Sch€ u ze, 1999, p. 31). Theo e ical concep s and in e p e a ions iden i ied by he exis - ing li e a u e suppo he KWIC analysis. They also help o selec a icles o close ead- ing. Finally, hey a e use ul o unco e ing dominan and subo dina e pa e ns, especially ega ding wha we canno obse e in he quan i a i e cons ella ions. 5. A poli ical his o y o he in e ne In his sec ion, we p esen he indings o he equency and co-occu ence analyses and hen p esen h ee pe iods o he In e ne ’s poli ical his o y. We i alicise co-occu - en s o ‘In e ne ’in b acke s, which we can link di ec ly o ia documen -le el analysis o indings. This does no mean ha all a icles con aining a speci ic co-occu ence a e solely ela ed o he in e p e a ion s essed in his pape , bu he da a does allow o such an in e p e a ion. I should also be no ed ha in he ollowing sec ions we ocus on an a ea o discu si e p oduc ion among poli ical and media eli es. This a ea is no cong uen wi h discu si e p oduc ion wi hin Ge man socie y a la ge. Howe e , i does p o ide insigh in majo discu si e shi s. 5.1. Quan i a i e pa e ns: poli ical a en ion o he in e ne and changing wo d con ex s Ou analysis o he equency dis ibu ion o ‘In e ne ’in he ex co pus and he appea ance o wo ds in he co-occu ence p o iles sugges s h ee majo pe iods: 5 (1) a pe iod o ini ial ise in he poli ical public’s a en ion o he In e ne (up o he yea 2000) and successi e decline, in which mino changes o he wo d con ex o ‘In e ne ’ occu (1995–2003) –37% o he wo ds changed in he op 30 anks o he co-occu - ence p o iles; (2) a pe iod o eco e ing a en ion, su passing he a e age usage o he e m ‘In e ne ’in 2006, ma ked by majo con ex ual changes –53% o he wo ds changed in he op 30 ankings, compa ed o he p e ious pe iod; when compa ed o he subsequen pe iod he igu e is only sligh ly smalle a 50%; (3) a pe iod o s eep ise in a en ion om 2007 o 2011, ollowed by a successi e down u n up o 2016. In his las pe iod, we obse e only mino con ex ual changes: 27% o wo ds changed in he op 30 ankings. I we compa e he co-occu ence p o iles o he i s and las pe iods, 73% o 76% o he wo ds changed, espec i ely. Consequen ly, we ind majo con ex ual changes be ween hese pe iods. The a ia ions in public a en ion and con ex ual change can be in e p e ed as pe i- ods o poli icisa ion and seman ic change. We examine his inding mo e closely by zooming in on he pe iods. The ollowing sec ions s a wi h he dominan iew o he In e ne ; hey mo e on o i s poli ics and hen i s policy dimension. 5.2. The in e ne as a medium o poli ics (1995–2003) In he i s pe iod, a poli ics discou se domina ed he con ex o he In e ne . I was associa ed wi h websi es and compu e s. While many ac o s became awa e o egula- o y issues ega ding he In e ne , he con o e sies o e hese issues did no ha e 280 M. H€ oSL much in luence on he wo d con ex o ‘In e ne ’. This began o change in he ea ly 2000s, when su eillance became a mo e salien issue. 6 We ind ha jou nalis s ela ed he In e ne o he no ion o a medium and a public sphe e. In he 1990s, jou nalis s desc ibed he In e ne p ima ily as a new, global medium wi h a ne wo k cha ac e [Medium, global, wel wei , Kommunika ion, Ne z]. I is depic ed as a i ual online space o websi es [online, Websei e, Homepage, i uell]. Use s accessed his space wi h compu e s and ‘su ed’ o e ie e in o ma ion [Compu e ,su en, In o ma ion]. This cha ac e isa ion o he In e ne s ayed much he same in he ea ly 2000s, bu i began o become associa ed mo e wi h da a and p ac- ices such as publishing and dissemina ing in o ma ion [Da um, e € o en lich, e - b ei en]. These cha ac e isa ions a e eminiscen o wha O’Reilly (2005) labelled ‘web 1.0’. Jou nalis s e e ed o o he no ions o he In e ne – o example, ela ing i o in as uc u e o cul u e –bu he co-occu ence p o iles show ha hey did so less salien ly (Rosen hal, 2000). In e ne in as uc u e, such as da a ansmission p o ocols, was a mo e salien opic in he go e nmen al sphe e o he 1980s (We le, 1999); his sugges s ha by he 1990s, i s in as uc u al cha ac e was al eady mo e o less aken o g an ed. Al hough jou nalis s e e ed o academics and hei s essing he sel - egula o y cul u e o he In e ne communi y ( az, 1996), explici ly associa ing he In e ne wi h a communi y had no ye become a ma e o impo ance o he p ess. The analysis sugges s ha he In e ne was pe cei ed as a new medium o poli ics in he b oade poli ical public. Poli icians and he go e nmen began o use i o pol- i ical pu poses [Pa ei, i uell, Homepage, Websi e, S oibe , e € o en lichen]. In he 1990s, he use o he In e ne in US poli ics was also a s ong associa ion, especially ega d- ing he publica ion o an in es iga i e epo [S a , Clin on]. Some poli icians began o use he In e ne o in e nal pa y communica ion, o communica ion wi h ci izens and o elec ion campaigning. Jou nalis s compa ed hese e o s (De Spiegel, 1996). The in e p e a ion o he In e ne om a poli ics pe spec i e con inued o be salien in he ea ly 2000s. By con as , o he possible in e p e a ions – o ins ance, he In e ne as a ool o p o es o democ a ic pa icipa ion –did no ha e a simila impac (De Spiegel, 2000; Sch€ a e , 1999). Since many pe cei ed he In e ne as a new medium o poli ics, policy discou ses only had a mino in luence on he wo d con ex o ‘In e ne ’. None heless, jou nalis s did co e con o e sies ha ini ially e ol ed a ound ques ions o whe he he In e ne could be egula ed a all due o i s ansna ional na u e, and how i should be legally de ined. Fede al and s a e poli icians in Ge many s uggled o e his de in- i ion and, consequen ly, o e ju isdic ional esponsibili y (Da ns € ad , & M€ ulle on Blumenc on, 1996; Esslinge , 1996). The In e ne hus en e ed he poli ical public as an objec o go e nance. F om ea ly on, con o e sies had a isen o e illegal con en (e.g. child po nog aphy, poli ically ex emis con en ) and su eillance, bu only he o me le aces in wo d con ex s o he e m ‘In e ne ’in he 1990s [ ech s]. 7 Al hough he p ess did ecognise he con lic be ween da a p o ec ion and su eillance measu es in he 1990s – o ins ance, ega ding a p o ision o elecommunica ion su eillance and c yp og aphy – his con lic only became mo e s ongly linked o he In e ne in he a e ma h o he e o is a acks o Sep embe 11, 2001 in New Yo k Ci y (9/11) [Da um]. The deba es INTERNET HISTORIES 281 s essed a key con lic unde lying many In e ne issues ela ing o discou ses o secu - i y and eedom. In he mid-1990s, a dispu e be ween wo minis ies was emblema ic o his con lic . Whe eas he Minis e o he In e io demanded ‘de ence measu es’ o add ess he In e ne ’s‘massi e isk po en ial’(De Spiegel, 1996), he Minis e o Jus ice pe cei ed he In e ne as a space o eedom ha should be subjec o pe - sonal esponsibili y (Da ns € ad , & M€ ulle on Blumenc on, 1996). A concep ion o he In e ne as a space o chaos ( equi ing o de ) was pi ed agains i s concep ion as a space o (endange ed) eedom. This key an agonism e-eme ged in succes- si e pe iods. 5.3. The in e ne as a medium o e o is agi a ion (2004–2006) In he second pe iod, he e o ism discou se shaped he meaning o ‘In e ne ’. The In e ne became mo e associa ed wi h sel -publishing p ac ices and ideo con en . While policy con o e sies a ec ed he seman ics o ‘In e ne ’, i s no ion as an objec o go e nance was s ill ela i ely subo dina e. The co-occu ence p o ile shows ha jou nalis s con inued o cha ac e ise he In e ne as ‘web 1.0’, al hough by now sel -publishing and ideo con en had become highly associa ed wi h ‘In e ne ’[Video, bloggen]. This obse a ion indica es a change in pe cep ion owa ds unde s anding he In e ne as ‘web 2.0’(O’Reilly, 2005). Again, his cha ac e isa ion shows ha he In e ne was s ill p ima ily conside ed a medium and a public sphe e and ha i was less associa ed wi h o he no ions. Wi h he e o ism discou se domina ing he co-occu ence p o ile, he In e ne was o en seen o be a medium o Islamic ex emis s. This con ex ualisa ion was al eady es ablished in he ea ly 2000s [Al], bu only la e did i become dominan . A e he mili a y in e en ion in I aq (2003) by a US-led ‘coali ion o he willing’, a pe iod o ins abili y ollowed in ha coun y [I ak]. Te o a acks ollowed in Mad id (2004) and London (2005). These e en s ein o ced he epo ing on e o ism. The e o e, he wo d con ex ep esen s he con lic be ween Wes e n democ acies and Islamic ex emism. Te o is g oups such as al-Qaeda dis ibu ed ideos o execu ions, s a e- men s and p onouncemen s ia he In e ne [Al, Mussab, I ak, ia, e € o en lichen, e - b ei en, ku sie en, Video]. Thus jou nalis s indi ec ly in e p e ed he In e ne as a ool o Islamic-ex emis agi a ion –indi ec ly because his in e p e a ion was a by-p oduc o hei co e age o e o ism and no a p oduc o epo ing on con o e sies o e ex emis s’In e ne usage. Bu hese seconda y meaning a ibu ions supe seded many salien associa ions o p e ious pe iods; al hough indi ec , hey p o ided a sup- po i e en i onmen o ac o s d awing on he secu i y discou se o meaning making. Rela i e o he no ion o he In e ne as ool o poli ics, he co-occu ence p o ile sugges s ha i s no ion as an objec o go e nance s ill had no gained mo e ac ion. Ne e heless, jou nalis s ea ed issues o s a e su eillance mo e salien ly, while ques- ionable con en appa en ly emained o hei ada . Con o e sies o e su eillance e ol ed a ound policies on he subna ional, na ional and EU le els [Tele on, online, Compu e ]. On he subna ional le el, he Ge man Cons i u ional Cou e oked a new policing ac ha would ha e legalised p e en i e su eillance. The cou saw he ul- ing as a ma e o inding he ‘ igh balance be ween secu i y and pe sonal eedom’ 282 M. H€ oSL ins i u ionalised in Ge many: p i acy is a no m de i ed om Ge man Basic Law (G undgese z); da a p o ec ion o ices we e es ablished as ea ly as he 1970s. Thi d, he pe iod in which he secu i y discou se in e p e a ion o he In e ne became se iously challenged (2007–2011) is linked o a compa a i ely s ong and ecognised ci il soci- e y consis ing o long-es ablished ac o s and newe ones in he ea ly and mid-2000s as well as he empo a y success o he Pi a e Pa y, pa ly acili a ed by he Ge man elec o al sys em. Fou h, he s ong public ou c y ollowing he Snowden e ela ions is also case-speci ic and ela ed o he wo pa icula i ies jus men ioned. Howe e , con- clusions ega ding na ional pa icula i ies need o be subs an ia ed u he by com- pa a i e analyses o na ional poli ical his o ies o he In e ne . 6. Conclusion In esponse o T  egue ’s(2017) conclusion ha non-US-cen ic poli ical his o ies o he In e ne a e s ill an uncha ed esea ch a ea, his pape aimed o con ibu e o his ield by analysing he poli ical his o y o he In e ne h ough he lens o seman ic change in he Ge man poli ical public. The s udy buil on Koselleck’s insigh s on he ela ionship be ween seman ic change and poli ical ci cums ances o inqui e in o he poli ical his o y o he In e ne . I concep ualised his poli ical his o y as a his o y o seman ic s uggles in he poli ical public sphe e by d awing on discou se heo y and heo e ical e lec ions on poli icisa- ion. This heo e ical lens sugges ed conduc ing a blended eading o wo d con ex s o ‘In e ne ’in he p ess co e age on poli ics. This speci ic lens and me hod allowed us o obse e con ex ual changes o e 26 yea s and o link hem o his o ical de elop- men s. In doing so, we could add a diach onic pe spec i e o he exis ing esea ch on he in e p e a ion o he In e ne in he Ge man public sphe e. We also we e able o link he seman ic changes o ‘In e ne ’ o changes in i s discu si e en i onmen . As a esul , we ound he discou ses o economy, secu i y and eedom o be a y- ing in weigh o e ime. Al hough jou nalis s p edominan ly associa ed he In e ne wi h a medium o poli ics, economic discou se was mo e p onounced in he 1990s; a e 9/11, he emphasis shi ed o he secu i y and eedom side o he iad wi h an emphasis on secu i y. F om 2007 o 2011, he secu i y discou se became se iously challenged; he pe cep ion o he In e ne as an objec o go e nance became domin- an a he same ime. The an agonism be ween secu i y and eedom con inued o be in luen ial while he impo ance o he e m ‘In e ne ’dec eased. Ins ead, we see a ise in he no ion o a ‘web o co po a ions’ ans o ming ‘classic’In e ne policy issues o add ess online pla o ms. And since 2011, he concep o ‘digi alisa ion’has expe i- enced a enaissance in he economic pe spec i e on digi al issues. While pas associa ions be ween he sound o a modem and connec ing o he In e ne elici nos algia, he ise o he no ion o a ‘web o co po a ions’and digi alisa- ion ha e mo e a - eaching implica ions. The shi we obse e ega ding he dominan seman ics o he In e ne and i s discu si e en i onmen limi s he ocus o how we unde s and he In e ne by d awing a en ion away om al e na i e isions. I limi s ou capaci y o heo ise ou digi al socie ies in mul i ace ed ways and, acco dingly, he capaci y o shape ou digi al u u e. INTERNET HISTORIES 289 No es 1. See appendix, sec ion 1. 2. We used he web applica ion Cosmas II o ou analysis (Belica, 1995). Heye e al. (2017) inspi ed ou esea ch s a egy; see appendix o de ails on he me hodical p ocedu e and choices. 3. See appendix o de ails on he selec ion o he da a ype. 4. See appendix, sec ion 6, o de ails on he co-occu ence analysis. 5. See appendix, sec ions 4, 5 and 6, o co esponding ables. 6. Rep ession by au ho i a ian egimes had signi ican in luence in each pe iod examined [china, chines, Zensu ]; howe e , i was beyond he scope o his pape o include ha opic. 7. Ea ly deba es conce ned le -wing ma e ial hos ed by he p o ide XS4ALL. 8. Fo ins ance, he Ge man Fede al Cou o Jus ice’s‘au o comple e uling’o 2013 and he Eu opean Cou o Jus ice’s‘ igh o be o go en uling’o 2014 and he ‘sa e ha bou uling’o 2015. 9. See appendix, sec ion 7, o some e idence o a mo e gene al shi in he public agenda. 10. See also appendix, sec ion 7, o some e idence o he g owing ele ance o he e m ‘digi alisa ion’ ela i e o ‘In e ne ’. 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