Emotional intelligence and parenting style as predictors of bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos state

 Corresponding author: Jamihat Abatan Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Emotional intelligence and parenting style as predictors of bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos state Jamihat Abatan * Al-Hikmah University, Ilorin, Nigeria. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 Publication history: Received on 30 August 2025; revised on 16 October 2025; accepted on 19 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.28.1.3562 Abstract This study investigated emotional intelligence and parenting style as predictors of bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State. The study employed descriptive research of correlational type. The participants of this study included 200 systematically selected adolescents within Ikorodu, Local Government Area, Lagos State. They consisted of 114 male and 86 female participants. A self-developed instrument named emotional intelligence and parenting style as predictors of bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State, was used to collect the needed data. Pearson product moment correlation and regression analysis were used in testing the research hypotheses. The results of the study showed that there was a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying behavior among adolescents (r cal. = 0.57, df = 199 < 0.05); it also indicated that there was a significant relationship between parenting style and bullying behavior among adolescents (r cal. = 0.50, df = 199 < 0.05); it was revealed that emotional intelligence and parenting style when pulled together have a significant joint contribution to the prediction of bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State (F 2/200 = 9.22, p< 0.05); and it also showed that each of the independent variables (Emotional Intelligence and Parenting Style) made a significant relative contribution to the prediction of bullying behavior among adolescents. In terms of the magnitude of contribution, parenting styles made the most significant contribution (Beta = 0.44; t= 7.28; p< 0.05) to the prediction, followed by emotional intelligence (Beta = 0.13; t=0.13; t=1.46 p< 0.05). Based on the above findings, a number of recommendations were put forward. They include parents and guardians ought to invest energy with their adolescents and parents and guardians ought to engage with their adolescents so they might be kept from developing different bullying behavior. Keywords: Emotional Intelligence; Parenting Style; Bullying Behavior; Regression Analysis; Social Learning Theory; Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning; Thorndike’s Law of Effect; Bandura’s Observational Learning 1. Introduction Parenting a teenager is exciting, rewarding and challenging. Challenges related to raising a teenager suggest that the responsibilities of parents are probably too many to count. Among them one can include having to think about developmental milestones as well as contemplating appropriate and acceptable ways of assisting children to reach these milestones at a normative pace (Rubin & Chung, 2006). Lesch and Jager (2013) add that both parents and Emotional Intelligence are vital social resources for adolescents, and that relationships between adolescents and their parents are important for global self-worth and well-being. According to Mohammadi, Samavi and Azadi (2013), parenting styles are effective factors which contribute to good and bad development of children and adolescents. Researchers have found that there are four parenting styles that may be classified as authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and uninvolved (Jago, Davison, Brockman & Page, 2011). World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1414 In addition to the four broad styles of parenting, Barnhart, Raval and Jansavari (2013) add that parents from varying cultures socialize boys and girls differently. Through socialization children do not only learn values and norms of society, but they also learn how to cope with life challenges and situations. According to Mohammadi, Samavi and Azadi (2013), coping positively in life can be considered as a result of resilience. Ballenge-Borwoning and Johnson (2010) explain that the resiliency process describes ways in which an individual adapts to traumatic life events. Common elements in resilience include the acceptance of the presence of risks or adversity as well as protective factors that allow a person to cope successfully and adapt while overcoming risk and attaining positive results (Kabiru, Beguy, Ndugwa, Zulu & Jessor, 2012). Research focusing on resilience has produced literature that evaluates how parents promote resilience in their children. The major finding of researchers was that parenting styles have an influence, positive or negative, on their children’s resilience (Hoffman, 2010). Emotional intelligence is the degree to which a person can identify and understand emotions in themselves and other people (Schutte, et.al 2002). Similarly, Sung (2010) is of the opinion that other people view it as a skill that they employ to succeed as it helps the development of both personal growth and interpersonal relationships. Salami (2011) adds that a student with a high level of emotional intelligence will have self-acceptance, relate well with others, have autonomy, and master their environment. Studies on human development have recorded that the developmental period of adolescents is characterized by negative emotions, self-perceptions, and heightened emotionality among adolescents. Therefore, emotional intelligence serves as a protective factor for adolescents going through difficult challenges in their lives. Reports exploring emotional intelligence started appearing in the twentieth century when Edward Thorndike studied what he termed social intelligence in 1920, with the aim of describing socially competent behavior (Chapin, 1942). Emotional intelligence has been defined by Birney, Downey, Hasen, Johnston, and Stough (2010) as a set of abilities that are involved with the regulation, management, control, and use of emotions in decision-making. Salovey and Mayer viewed emotional intelligence as an entity of social intelligence, while the Bar-On model of intelligence maintains that those who are emotionally intelligent can make sense of and express their feelings while understanding others, which helps them cope with daily challenges (Bar-On, 2006). According to Goleman (1995), the transition from childhood to adolescence is filled with varying emotions, and adolescents with better emotional competency can cope better with the temptations of drugs, sex, and alcohol. Not only is emotional intelligence negatively associated with negative behavior such as bullying and poor academic performance (Kokkinos & Kipritsi, 2012), but learners who have scored high in emotional intelligence show less anxiety, social stress, and depressive symptoms (Ruiz-Aranda, Salguero, Cabello, Palomera & Fernandez-Berrocal, 2012). A study by Brackett, Mayer, and Warner (2004) revealed that low levels of emotional intelligence are linked to higher possibilities of social deviance. Their study suggests that when people can make sense of their feelings, they are able to make sense of other people’s feelings, making it easier to communicate effectively, thus surviving in their environment. There are different reports on the role of parenting styles in adolescents’ lives globally, and different countries perceive parenting styles differently (Michiels, Grietens, Onghena, & Kuppens, 2008). Not only does parents’ behavior towards their children affect the adolescent’s psychological health (Flecther, Steinberg & Sellers, 1999), but they also assist their approach to dealing with overwhelming situations (Werner, 1989). Dwairy et al. (2006) also reported that Arab societies employ authoritarian parenting, which does not link to negative consequences on the mental health of adolescents as it is with Western liberal societies. In other situations, indulgent parenting is related to the same or has better effects on children whose parents employ authoritative parenting. Additionally, it was reported in Mexico that adolescents whose parents use authoritative and indulgent methods scored higher on competence and adjustment than adolescents whose parents are neglectful, like the Arab people, who live in North and East Africa and the Middle East and tend to be authoritarian compared to those residing in the West (Dwairy & Achoui, 2006). In these cultures, the family has more influence on the individual. Children are taught to value and be loyal to families. The socialization process emphasizes punishment to enforce the upholding of values, norms, as well as preferred behavior. In South Africa, Bhana, Petersen, Mason, Mahintsho, Bell, and McKay (2004) found that some parents communicated in passiveaggressive and manipulative ways. Large numbers of students in the world are experiencing bullying in their schools, and this remains a significant problem in the education system. Bullying and victimization in schools have been linked to a decrease in academic achievement (Kearney, 2008). In a school setting, bullying is defined as repeated and continuous actions directed toward one or more students, and it is an aggressive behavior that can be physical, verbal, or relational (Carrera, DePaima, & Lameiras, 2011) (Sheema, 2016). World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1415 A study examined that a percentage of 10% to 30% of youths and children experience bullying at distinct prevalent rates (Solberg & Olweus, 2003). Additionally, a study by Berger (2007) indicated bullying and victimization degrees at 9% to 32% and 3% to 27% correspondingly. Furthermore, a World Health Organization (WHO) survey of 35 countries reported that the extent of bullying and victimization is 11% among school children (Craig & 2 Harel-Fish, 2004). In America, a study showed that between 15 to 20% of students encountered regular bullying in school (Mitsopoulou and Giovazolias 2013). In China, in contrast to the public`s concern and huge policy needs, the knowledge of school bullying and violence is under investigation, and it is reported that 87% of the 1st to 9th-grade students reported being bullied, and 49% reported bullying others (Ziqiang, Guirong, & Haibo, 2017). In a large multi-country survey spanning 66 countries (Due & Holstein, 2008), results indicate that the prevalence of bullying among school children varies widely across settings from about 7 to 70%. Bullying is prevalent in Nigeria. However, actual statistics are hard to come by. The dearth of data has made it difficult to appreciate the prevalence of bullying behavior in Nigeria (Umoh, 2000). According to the Federal Ministry of Education (FME, 2007), since the last decade, several cases of violence against children, such as torture, kidnapping, shooting, sexual harassment, rape, corporal punishment, and so on, have been reported in various newspapers, magazines and television station all over the world. However, there is a lack of documentation about most of the violent acts. This lack of documentation and the increasing violence rate against children were part of the reasons for the global in-depth study of violence against children by the UN Sectary-General as directed by the General Assembly Resolution 57/90 of 2002 to provide a global picture. Parenting styles are the standard strategies that parents use in their child‘s training, rearing, and upbringing with the inculcation of values and norms of society in order to be useful to society. The popular argument of nature and nurture in the training of a child remains an issue. Some argue that an environment has the ability to shape a child‘s behavior, personality, and self-concept. While others believe that these are inherent in the child, for most people, a child‘s parents are the most influential in their lives up till adolescence (Vigdor, 2006). Most children are dependent upon their parents for food, shelter, finance, and companionship. Parent love, as well as punishment, can exert a great influence on children when handled properly (Baumrind 1991). This study examined emotional intelligence and parenting styles as predictors of bullying behavior among secondary school students in Ikorodu, Lagos State, it addresses the question of whether or not strict autocratic parenting really hinders the child from exhibiting bullying behavior. Conversely, it seeks to find out whether or not loose Laissez-faire parenting could actually make the adolescent exhibit bullying behavior or, perhaps, it is a balanced, democratic parenting style that really provides healthy behavior. Parents may find it difficult to train their children to meet up positively with this challenging and dynamic society and stand out to become world citizens. The task of adolescent training may be difficult due to economic crises, social instability, and the weakening of major institutions, including the state systems of public education and the family. Emotional intelligence can be seen as the influence exerted by emotions in encouraging a person to change his/her attitude, values, or behaviors to conform to the group. A person affected by emotional intelligence may or may not want to belong to this group. They may also recognize dissociative groups that they do not wish to belong to and, therefore, adopt behavior in opposition to those of the group. This consists of destructive actions that are harmful to others in society. This behavior includes illegal activities as well as harming people in interpersonal manners such as theft, threats, fighting, vandalism, rudeness, drug addiction, littering environment, anger issues, verbal abuse, walking out of teachers, examination malpractices, and truancy. From observation, adolescents excessively display bullying behaviors toward others and to society at large. Researchers have hypothesized that autocratic parenting would lead to higher levels of bullying behavior, but it was found in contrast that parenting styles that were based on non-involvement, i.e., Laissez-faire, have more effective than the styles that include harsh punishment coercion (Burt & Donnellan, 2009). 1.1. Statement of the Problem The unwholesome behavior that emanates from adolescents causes a burden to parents, school administrators/teachers, and society; wade into research of this nature to find out maybe parenting styles like democratic, autocratic, and Laissez-faire have a way of causing bullying behavior and emotional intelligence as a factor, making adolescents adopt certain behavior in order to fit in with others could influence bullying behavior. According to Berger (2000), delinquent behavior among students has assumed a worrisome dimension in our society. One would wonder what could have been the cause of these recurrent behaviors; democratic parenting predicts many positive outcomes for children and adolescents when compared with autocratic and Laissez-faire in some cases. The ability of World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1416 parents to choose the right parenting style. A study with toddlers, mothers, and their children was videotaped while they performed various tasks by Dishon and Dodge (2006). Adolescents usually exhibit high emotional tension, and it is often said that adolescents are in a period of storm and stress. They are usually restless and display a high level of energy at this stage. Therefore, adolescents’ lives today are far more complex and demanding than in the past. Bullying behavior among students has been a thing of concern to parents, schools, and society at large. The incessant stealing, lying, sexual promiscuity, thuggery, rape, drug addiction, cultism, absenteeism, verbal abuse, and examination malpractices are some of the bullying behaviors observed among students in Ikorodu Lagos state. This has attracted the attention of many people who are concerned with the training of these bullying students. These behaviors posed a threat to the smooth administrative function of schools with students under their care. Bullying affects students themselves. Hence, they do not concentrate on their studies, which is the primary objective in secondary school. Some parents find it difficult to deal with the delinquent behavior of their children and usually go further to seek alternative remedies in handling this behavior. Society is not left out, too, as people complain about this unwholesome behavior emanating from young people and are looking for ways to curb it. Children of domineering parents may turn out to be meek, timid, and fearful people or cheat and rebel against all their parents stand for. This may cause a lack of discipline and control in adolescents later in life. In view of these, the study seeks to find out the influence of parenting styles and emotional intelligence as predictors of bullying behavior among adolescents, with the hope of finding solutions to the problem at hand. Many research on emotional intelligence, parenting style as well as bullying behavior has been carried out. To the best of the researcher`s knowledge, no one has combined all the stated variables. 1.2. Purpose of the Study The main purpose of this study is to investigate emotional intelligence and parenting style as predictors of bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State. Specifically, the study intends to examine: • The relationship between emotional intelligence and bullying behaviors among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. • The relationship between parenting style and bullying behavior level among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. • The joint contribution of emotional intelligence and parenting style to predicting bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. • The relative contribution of emotional intelligence and parenting style to predicting bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. 1.3. Research Hypotheses • Ho1: There is no significant relationship between Emotional Intelligence and bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State. • Ho2: There is no significant relationship between Parenting Style and bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State. • Ho3: There is no significant joint contribution of emotional intelligence and parenting style to the prediction of bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. • Ho4: There is no significant relative contribution of emotional intelligence and parenting style to predicting bullying behavior among adolescents in Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria. 1.4. Significance of Study It is common knowledge that there are security challenges, examination malpractices, thuggery, rape, cultism, and stealing, among other bullying behaviors, which are usually perpetrated by adolescents, most of whom are of secondary school age. The research of this nature is relevant to parents who would find it useful to evaluate different parenting styles and their influence on adolescents‘ behavior and may choose the one that is appropriate for the upbringing of their children. Principals and teachers will also find this research work useful because it will afford them the opportunity to see how parenting styles and emotional intelligence are related to bullying behavior so that they will understand how to handle bullying behavior among students. School psychologists or counselors handling bullying problems of students would also be able to identify various behaviors exhibited by adolescents and advise students based on the different emotional intelligence that would benefit World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1417 them academically, socially, and morally. The study would be relevant to policymakers and government, for example, the Ministry of Education and Juvenile Remand Home for junior offenders like Boaster Home, an arm of the Nigeria Prison Service, which is concerned with the policy that guides the day-to-day running of the school system. This will help them formulate policies that will help the schools run smoothly. Non-governmental organizations like the United Nations Children`s Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) dealing with adolescents will find this useful in bringing about better ways of addressing bullying behaviors in our society. The study will also assist other researchers in the area of parenting styles, emotional intelligence, and bullying behaviors. 1.5. Scope of the Study This research was limited to adolescents in Ikorodu Metropolis, Lagos State, particularly senior secondary school students. It is assumed that bullying behaviors are common among senior secondary students. Emphasis would be on adolescents at this higher level of secondary school. Also, the research would be limited to adolescent male and female students aged 13-19 years. This study was also limited to emotional intelligence and parenting styles as predictors of bullying behaviors among secondary school students in Ikorodu, Lagos State. 1.6. Operational Definition of Terms • Bullying Behavior: It refers to repeated harm to individual students or a group of students by another with unequal power within the school setting in Ikorodu, Lagos State. • Parent: It is a person who, on a continuing day-to-day basis, through interaction, companionship, and interplay, helps to fulfill the child’s emotional needs. • Emotional Intelligence: This is the arousing or characterized by intense feelings of adolescents; it is the mental state brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. • Intelligence: The ability of an adolescent to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. It is the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. • Parenting Style: A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies parents use in child-rearing. The quality of parenting can be more essential than the quantity of time spent with the child. • Adolescents: Adolescents are a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to adulthood. Adolescents are usually associated with the teenage years, but their physical, psychological, or cultural expressions may begin earlier and end later. 2. Review of related literature This chapter comprises the conceptual review, theoretical framework, and review of related studies on parenting styles, emotional intelligence, and bullying behavior among secondary school students in Ikorodu, Lagos State. • Conceptual review • Concept of Emotional Intelligence • Concept of Parenting Styles • Concept of Bullying Behavior • Theoretical Review • Review of Empirical Studies • Appraisal of the Literature Reviewed 2.1. Conceptual Review 2.1.1. Emotional Intelligence Intelligence is a general descriptive term referring to a hierarchy of mental abilities, from simple perceptual processes and information processing to higher and more general forms of problem-solving (Carroll, 1993). Until now, the term "intelligence" has been limited largely to certain kinds of problem-solving involving language and logic. However, human beings can deal with numerous kinds of content besides words, numbers, and logical relations, for example, space, music, and the psyches of other human beings. Thus, in the present decade, researchers have explored the possibility that intelligence is a more diverse and looser confederation of abilities than once thought. One evident factor in rethinking intelligence is the perspective introduced by scholars who are not psychologists. Anthropologists have World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1418 commented that some cultures do not even have a concept called intelligence, and others define intelligence as traits such as obedience, good listening skills, or moral fiber (Gardner, 1999). Neuroscientists are skeptical that the brain's highly differentiated and modular structure is consistent with a unitary form of intelligence. By the end of the twentieth century, it was amply evident that mental functions are highly interconnected. Most of one’s mental processes, from color perception to self-insight, potentially involve and activate both emotion and intelligence (LeDoux 2000). Yet, the tension between exclusively cognitive views of what it means to be intelligent and broader views that include a positive role for emotions in intelligence can be traced back many centuries. The stoic philosophers of ancient Greece focused on virtue and viewed emotion as too individualistic and selfabsorbed to be a reliable guide for insight and wisdom. Later, the romantic movement of eighteenth-century Europe stressed how intuition and empathy, rooted in emotion, could provide insights that were unavailable through logic alone (Reddy, 2001). The concept of emotional intelligence offers a new way of looking at the debate - that people can reason about emotions and use emotions to assist reasoning. 2.1.2. Concept of Emotional Intelligence The roots of emotional intelligence were traced by Darwins' early work on the importance of emotional expression for survival. In the 1900s, even though traditional definitions of intelligence emphasized cognitive aspects such as memory and problem-solving, later on, several researchers in the intelligence field of study began to be aware of the importance of the non-cognitive aspects. When psychologists began to think and write about intelligence, they focused on cognitive aspects, such as memory and problem-solving. However, there were researchers who understood that the non-cognitive aspects were also important in intelligence. In 1920, E. L. Thorndike used the term social intelligence to describe the skill of understanding and managing other people. In other words, he proposed that humans possess several types of intelligence; one form is called social intelligence, or the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls, and act wisely in human relations. In 1940 David Wechsler, the originator of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), referred to both non-intellective and intellective elements of intelligence. He described the effects of non-intellective factors on intelligent behavior. The non-intellective elements included affective, personal, and social factors, which he later hypothesized were essential for predicting one's ability to succeed in life. He further argued that our models of intelligence would not be complete until we can effectively describe these factors. In 1983, Howard Gardner's frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence included both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations). In Gardner's view, traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, failed to fully explain cognitive ability. Thus, there was a common belief that traditional definitions of intelligence lacked the ability to explain performance outcomes completely. Psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey introduced the concept of emotional intelligence in the early 1990s. According to them, emotions are internal events that coordinate physiological responses, cognitions, and conscious awareness. and generate emotions so as to assist thought, understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and regulate emotions reflectively so as to promote emotions as a result of the growing need for emotional intelligence, the research on the topic was in the process until the publication of Daniel Goldmans’ (1995) best seller book Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ was published and then the term became widely popular. Nancy Gibbs’ article in Time magazine in 1995 highlighted Goldmans’ book and emotional intelligence as being popular in the media. Thereafter, articles on emotional intelligence began to appear increasingly frequently across a wide range of academic and popular magazines. In 1996, Dr. Reuven Bar-On explained that emotional intelligence reflects our ability to deal successfully with other people and with our feelings. He developed the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory, EQ-I, and this inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated measure of emotional intelligence that reflects one's ability to deal with daily environmental challenges and helps one's success in professional and personal life. Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-I) was published by Multi-Health Systems in 1996. This test covers five areas: intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress management, and general mood. In 1997, Richardson and Evans explored some methods for teaching social and emotional competence within a culturally diverse society. Their purpose was to help students connect with each other, to assist them in developing interpersonal, intrapersonal, and emotional intelligence, arguing that these intelligences are essential for personal accomplishment. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1419 In 1997, according to Ediger, emotions, feelings, and values are very important for a person's well-being and achievement in life. He also states that science teachers should stress the emotional area that cannot be separated from the cognitive domain. He also said that quality emotions and feelings help students to give their best potential in the classroom. The students who dislike studying and think negatively cannot concentrate for a long time on studying and have more difficulty in reaching their capacity than others. In 1997, Pool, the senior editor of Educational Leadership, stated in an article that emotional well-being is a predictor of success in academic achievement and job success, among others. Finegan (1998) argues that schools should help students to learn their abilities. In 2001, Elias mentioned that teaching emotional and social skills is very important at school; it positively affects students' academic achievement not only during the year they were taught but also during the years that follow. Teaching these skills has a long-term effect on achievement. According to Nelson and Low (2003), emotional intelligence is the single most important variable in personal achievement, career success, leadership, and life satisfaction. They feel that an emotionally fit person is capable of identifying, understanding, experiencing, and expressing human emotions in a healthy and productive way. 2.1.3. Definition and Scope of Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) is historically defined as the ability to carry out accurate reasoning focused on emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Its primary focus has to do with reasoning about emotions and the use of emotions to enhance thought. Thus, Emotional Intelligence represents abilities that combine intelligence and emotion to enhance thought. Many commentators suppose that Emotional Intelligence derives from the broader construct of social intelligence (e.g. BarOn, 2000). Contemporary perspectives on social intelligence have their origins in Thorndike’s influential, tripartite division of intelligence into the following broad classes: • Abstract-Scholastic intelligence: The ability to understand and manage ideas. • Mechanical-Visual-Spatial intelligence: The ability to understand and manipulate concrete objects; and • Social (practical) intelligence: The ability to understand and manage people and act wisely in social contexts. However, despite considerable interest and numerous attempts to define and measure social intelligence over the past eight decades, these attempts have proved problematic (Kihlstrom & Cantor, 2000). The inability to discriminate between general and social intelligence, coupled with difficulties in selecting external criteria against which to validate experimental scales, led to a decline in research focusing on social intelligence as a distinct intellectual entity until the recent upsurge of interest in emotional intelligence. 2.1.4. Approaches to Emotional Intelligence Theoretical approaches to emotional intelligence broadly divide into two categories. Specific-ability approaches examine relatively discrete mental abilities that process emotional information, while Integrative-Model approaches describe overarching frameworks of mental abilities that combine skills from multiple emotional intelligence areas. A third approach to emotional intelligence is often called a Mixed Model approach because of the mixed qualities that such models target. Specific-ability approaches focus on a particular skill or skills considered fundamental to emotional intelligence. Some specific-ability models address the ways in which emotions facilitate thinking. For example, emotions may prioritize thinking (Mandler 1975) or allow people to be better decision-makers (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). A person who responds emotionally to important issues will attend to more crucial aspects of his or her life. By contrast, if the person is constantly frustrated by her subordinate’s minor clerical errors, then broader concerns that are more important may not be addressed (Parrott 2002). In addition, certain specific emotions can foster given types of thinking. For example, positive emotions promote greater creativity in some contexts (Amabile et al., 2005; Averill & Nunley, 1992; Isen, 2001; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Part of emotional facilitation is knowing how to include and exclude emotions from thought. Another set of specific-ability models concerns emotional reasoning and understanding. For example, emotion-appraisal researchers have developed decision rules for matching a given emotion to the situations that elicited it. For example, if a person experiences fear, it is likely that he or she is facing a situation that is threatening, raising thoughts of bad things happening, and elicits a need to escape (Scherer et al., 2001). Related to such appraisals are the accurate labeling and categorization of feelings (Innes-Ker & Niedenthal, 2002). Theorists have argued that accurate appraisal may be a hallmark of emotionally intelligent responses (MacCann et al., 2004). If a person’s appraisal process is awry, then he or she may misunderstand an event or its consequences and react inappropriately. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1420 Yet another relevant ability area concerns emotional self-management. This area grew out of clinical findings that one’s emotionality could become more positive by reframing perceptions of situations (Beck et al., 1979) and the idea that individuals often exert considerable emotional self-control when at work (Hochschild, 1983). On the other hand, the key element in integrative models of Emotional Intelligence is joining several specific abilities to obtain an overall sense of Emotional Intelligence. The Four-Branch Model views Emotional Intelligence as joining abilities from four areas: • Accurately perceiving emotion. • Using emotions to facilitate thought. • Understanding emotion, and • Managing emotion (mayer et al. 2003). Each of these areas is viewed as developing from early childhood onward. For example, in perceiving emotion, a person’s ability to recognize basic emotions in faces is likely to precede the ability to detect the faking of emotional expressions (Mayer & Salovey 1997). As skills grow in one area (e.g., perceiving emotions), so will they grow in other areas (such as understanding and regulating emotions). Further, the idea that emotional intelligence requires attunement to social norms is central to the four-branch model. Another integrative approach to emotional intelligence is represented by Izard’s Emotional Knowledge Test (EKT; Izard, 2001). EKT focuses, in particular, on emotional perception and understanding. In fact, Izard (2001) sometimes prefers to speak of emotional knowledge instead of emotional intelligence. Aside from the central specific ability and integrative model approaches to emotional intelligence, some psychologists have suggested mixed model approaches. Such models mix diverse attributes - such as assertiveness, flexibility, and the need for achievement - not primarily focused on emotional reasoning or knowledge. These approaches to emotional intelligence use very broad definitions of emotional intelligence that include “noncognitive capability, competency, or skill” (Bar-On 1997) and/or “emotionally and socially intelligent behavior” (BarOn, 2004) and “dispositions from the personality domain” (Petrides & Furnham 2003). More concretely, most measures in this category assess one or more EI attributes, such as accurate emotional perception, but then mix in, to varying degrees, other scales of happiness, stress tolerance, and self-regard (Bar-On 1997); adaptability (low) impulsiveness and social competence (Boyatzis & Sala, 2004); and creative thinking, flexibility, and intuition versus reason (Tett et al. 2005). Finally, a popular emotional intelligence model is introduced by Daniel Goleman (1998), who posits that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies. These emotional competencies are not innate talents but learned capabilities that must be worked on and developed to achieve outstanding performance (Bradberry and Greaves, 2005). The model focuses on emotional intelligence as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive managerial performance. It outlines four main EI constructions: • Self-awareness - the ability to read one's emotions and recognize their impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions. • Self-management - involves controlling one's emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. • Social awareness - the ability to sense, understand, and react to other's emotions while comprehending social networks. • Managing Relationships - the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict. 2.1.5. Critique of Emotional Intelligence Three key criticisms that have been leveled at emotional intelligence are as follows: Emotional Intelligence is poorly defined and poorly measured. Although various authors have proposed that EI is a type of intelligence in the traditional sense, contemporary research and theory lack any clear conceptual model of intelligence within which to place the construction. For example, Spearman’s (1927) model of g (general ability) affords no special role for emotional intelligence. Neither is emotional (or social, for that matter) intelligence included in Thurstone’s (1938) list of primary mental abilities or Guttman’s Radex model of intelligence (1965). Eysenck (2000) opines that Goleman's description of emotional intelligence contains unsubstantiated assumptions about intelligence in general and that it even runs contrary to what researchers have come to expect when studying types of intelligence. Locke (2005) claims that the concept of emotional intelligence in itself is a misinterpretation of the intelligence construct. He suggests that emotional intelligence is not another form or type of intelligence but intelligence (the ability World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1421 to grasp abstractions) applied to a particular life domain, namely “emotions.” Some researchers have defined emotional intelligence as the ability to reason about emotion; others have equated the concept with traits such as achievement motivation, flexibility, happiness, and self-regard. Still, others have found the addition of such ad-hoc traits troubling and wondered whether a theoretically sound conceptualization of emotional intelligence could be identified (Locke, 2005). According to Conte (2005), serious concerns remain for all emotional intelligence measures, ranging from scoring concerns for ability-based emotional intelligence measures to discriminant validity concerns for self-report emotional intelligence measures. Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey (1999) state, “Emotional Intelligence measures have failed to converge on a common construct. Further, self-report emotional intelligence measures appear to assess existing personality characteristics or perhaps emotional competencies, but they do not appear to assess intelligence”. Although Mayer et al. (2003) have developed the most promising of the emotional intelligence measures, they state that “the applied use of emotional intelligence tests must proceed with great caution.” Emotional intelligence is a new name for familiar constructs. Emotional intelligence is said to involve processing information that refers directly to emotion (e.g., one’s own mood) and information on behaviors that have emotional connotations (e.g., violent behaviors). Intelligence in understanding behaviors and their significance already appears in Guilford’s (1959) “structure of intellect” model of intelligence. In particular, emotional intelligence overlaps with the cognition of behavioral content (e.g., the ability to identify the internal status of individuals, interpret consequences of social behavior, etc.). In fact, the test items designed to gauge behavioral cognition, constructed by Guilford’s team (e.g., O’Sullivan, Guilford, & de Mille, 1965), are reminiscent of current behavioral measures of emotional intelligence. Furthermore, references to empathic ability (whose definition parallels that of major facets of emotional intelligence remarkably closely) can be found in some of Guilford’s (1959) earliest writings on the structure of the intellect model. The theory of fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc) intelligence proposed by Cattell (1971) and Horn (1988) is arguably the most efficacious empirically based psychometric model of intelligence (Stankov, Boyle, & Cattell, 1995). Researchers have speculated that, within this theory, EI will constitute an additional aspect of (possibly one or more primary underlying mental abilities) Gc. This assertion is based on the assumption that appraisal, expression, regulation, and utilization of emotion develop through experience and social interaction much the same way as other psychological processes comprising Gc (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998). The current conceptualization of emotional intelligence (e.g., Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000) focuses on one’s ability to accurately identify, appraise, and discriminate among emotions in oneself and others, understand emotions, assimilate emotions in thought, and regulate both positive and negative emotions in self and others. This conceptualization encompasses the following subtypes of personal intelligence described by Gardner (1983) within his theory of multiple intelligence: • Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to access one’s own feelings in life, identify, label, and discriminate among one’s feelings, and represent them symbolically. • Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to discern the moods, intentions, and desires of others. • c) Claims about emotional intelligence are overblown. Emotional intelligence has been commonly claimed to be useful in occupational assessment, prediction, selection, and on-the-job performance, with half a dozen books of papers and workshops devoted to describing the usefulness of emotional intelligence. However, a review of the empirical evidence provides little justification for such unfettered enthusiasm surrounding the construct in career selection and assessment. The ratio of hyperbole to hard evidence is rather high, with overreliance on anecdotes and unpublished surveys. In fact, there is not one single study published in a peer-reviewed journal that shows that emotional intelligence predicts occupational success/performance above (and beyond) what is predicted by IQ (Roberts, Zeidner & Matthews, 2001). 2.2. Parenting Style Diana Baumrind is widely considered to be the pioneer of introducing parental style and control – authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. From this perspective, Cherry (2015) points out that psychologist Diana Baumrind, during the early 1960s, conducted a study on children studying in preschool using parental interviews, naturalistic observation, and other research methods. As a result, Baumrind identified four imperative dimensions of parenting, including expectations of adulthood and control, communication styles, nurturance and warmth, and disciplinary strategies. Based on the above-mentioned dimensions, Cherry (2015) and Baumrind (1966) suggest that most parents exhibit one of the three mentioned parenting styles. Darling (1999) argues that there are four parenting styles: indulgent, World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1428 may then be extended to explain more complex situations. Inferences were tied closely to observed behavior in "lower organisms" with the belief that the laws of learning were universal and that work with laboratory animals could be extrapolated to humans. It was believed that a fundamental set of principles derived from the study of learning in a basic or "pure" form could then be applied to the broader context of learning in schools. Three experimental approaches are related to the study of associationistic learning, including: • The use of nonsense syllables and individual words to study the association of ideas. • The use of animals to study the association between sensations and impulses. • The use of animals to study association and reflexology. The Association of Ideas Following a tradition begun by Ebbinghaus (1885), researchers studied learning in terms of memory for individual items, most commonly nonsense syllables and individual words. It was assumed that understanding simpler forms of learning would lead to the understanding of more complex phenomena. During this time, the predominate research methods were those of serial list learning and paired associate learning. These methods allowed researchers to study, predict, calculate, and calibrate "associations" or the degree/ likelihood that a nonsense syllable or word could elicit a particular response from learners. In short, the basic premise underlying associationistic views of learning was that ideas become connected or associated through experience. Furthermore, the more frequently a particular association is encountered, the stronger the associative bond is assumed to be. For example, the stimulus "bread" is likely to elicit the response "butter" more often and more rapidly than the response "milk" because the association between bread and butter has been frequently experienced and thus has become well learned. The Association between Sensations and Impulses Like Ebbinghaus, Thorndike was also interested in studying learning in terms of associations, but in terms of actions, rather than ideas. For his research, Thorndike used animals (e.g., cats and chickens) that were placed in "puzzle boxes" and measured learning in terms of the amount of time it took for the animal to operate a latch and escape. The results led Thorndike to believe that animals learned to associate a sensation with an impulse when its action had a satisfying consequence. For instance, an animal may form an association between a sense (the interior of a box) and an impulse (operating a latch) because the action led to a satisfying result--namely, escaping the box. This principle was termed the Law of Effect, helped modify the classical principle of association, and later held significant implications for behaviorism. One of the clearest formulations of the association of learning principles was made by Hull (1934, 1952) and Spence (1936-1956). Thorndike, Hull, and Spence based their propositions on data from numerous experiments with laboratory animals. However, unlike Thorndike, Hull and Spence derived equations to explain different actions such as habits, drive, and inhibitions. Hull (1952) was able to demonstrate that the elementary laws of learning captured in these equations could account for a number of behaviors, such as trial-and-error learning and simple discrimination learning in animals. Associationism and Reflexology A third approach to the study of associations, led by Pavlov, brought together the principles of associationism and reflexology. Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated not only to food but often to a variety of other stimuli, such as the sight of a trainer who brought the food. He called this response a learned reflex that is established through the association between an appropriate stimulus (food) and an inappropriate one (the trainer). In other words, a relatively neutral stimulus is associated with something that causes a response until the neutral stimulus also causes the response. This led to an extended research program now known as classical conditioning. According to the principle of classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) biologically and involuntarily elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). For example, the site of food (UCS) elicits salivation (UCR). Then, as a conditioned stimulus (trainer) becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus (food), it (the trainer) acquires the ability to elicit the same response (salivation) because the response is now conditioned to a new stimulus, it becomes a conditioned response (Illustration below): Illustration of Classical Conditioning World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1429 A significant problem became apparent as associationistic research continued. As experimental psychologists made finer and finer distinctions to their research on "trial and error" learning in animals and their studies of rote memory, their results appeared to be less and less relevant for education. The search for general laws that crossed all species and settings was failing. As methods were refined and experiments became more valid internally, they were becoming less valid externally. The "laws of learning" were becoming known as the "laws of animal learning," the laws of animals learning to make choices in mazes," or the "laws of human rote memory" rather than the universal principles sought after by early associationists. However, not all associationist psychologies resulted in theoretical or applied dead ends. The so-called radical behaviorists, led by Skinner (1938, 1953), have had a strong impact on both psychology and education. Like early works by Watson (1924), Skinner rejected the idea that the purpose of psychology was to study consciousness; rather, the goal was to predict and control observable behavior. Learners were seen as coming to learning situations tabula rasa, subject to conditioning by their environment. It was believed that by controlling the environmental antecedents and consequences of behavior, people could predict and control that behavior. In addition, by providing positive consequences for behavior and by controlling the schedule by which these consequences were delivered, behavior could be further controlled and shaped. In his research, skinner demonstrated that laboratory animals were sensitive to manipulation of both antecedents and consequences of their actions and that simple responses, such as bar pressing and pecking, could be predicted with high confidence. Based on these observations, Skinner proposed a basic stimulus response-stimulus (S-R-S) relationship as depicted below: S R S Discriminative ---------------- Operant ------------------- Contingent Stimulus Response Stimulus 2.4.2. Basic S-R-S Relationship In brief, the nature of the contingent stimulus is believed to determine what happens to the response, whether it is reinforced or lost. In other words, behavior is more likely to recur if it has been rewarded or reinforced. Similarly, a response is less likely to occur again if its consequences have been aversive. These principles are referred to as the contingencies of reinforcement, which suggest that to understand learning, one must look for the change in behavior that occurred and determine what consequences were responsible for the change (Skinner, 1969). The basic S-R-S relationship provides the framework from which most behavioral learning principles and their applications for instruction and education are derived. Behavioral learning theories have contributed to instruction and education in several significant ways. The three applications summarized here include: • Behavior Modification. • Classroom Management. • The Management of Instruction. Behavioral Modification Also known as behavior therapy or contingency management, behavior modification is typically used to treat behavior problems in social, personal, or school situations. Some clinical applications include treatments for phobias, obsessions, or eating disorders. Educational applications involve the treatment of school-related problems such as the lack of attention, hyperactivity, temper tantrums, or other behaviors that interfere with the regular workings of a classroom. Special education teachers are typically well-trained in behavioral modification. In each of these instances, the S-R-S model and its resulting principles are used to shape, modify, and otherwise control behavior. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1430 Classroom Management While behavioral therapists and special education teachers apply behavioral learning principles to address individuals, teachers in regular classrooms may use the same principles to help manage the behavior of twenty to thirty children. For instance, teachers may set up group contingencies (a standard reinforcement given to a group) for following certain rules of conduct. A kindergarten teacher, for example, may take his/her students out to the playground 10-15 minutes early if they all pick up their things. One common means of applying group contingencies that some teachers find useful is the token economy (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968). In this system, tokens serve as conditioned reinforces that can later be exchanged for objects or privileges. Tokens are earned for good conduct--whatever behaviors have been selected by the teacher for strengthening. Since tokens operate like money, students may also be fined for breaking the rules or engaging in undesirable behavior. Management of Instruction Behavioral principles have proved useful not only for managing student behavior but also for managing the way instruction is delivered. The most prominent examples of how behavioral learning theories have been applied to the management of instruction include the development of behavioral objectives, contingency contracts, and personalized systems of instruction (PSI). Behaviorists, as well as others, argue that the only evidence of learning comes from the study of overt behaviors. How can one be sure that a student acquired knowledge or skill unless we can see them actually do something with that knowledge or skill? Thus, to assess the degree to which a student achieved an objective, it is important to specify desired instructional outcomes in terms of clear, observable behaviors (behavioral, instructional, learning, or performance objectives). An instructional application that often makes use of both behavioral modification and instructional objectives is the contingency contract. Used with individual students, the contract sets out the terminal behavior the student is to achieve, along with the conditions for achievement and the consequences for completion (or noncompletion) of assigned tasks. Keller (1968) proposed a whole new approach to college instruction based on behavioral principles known as the personalized system of instruction (PSI). PSI calls for course materials to be broken up into units, each with a set of behavioral objectives. Students tackle course materials on their own, often aided by study guides that provide practice on unit objectives. To proceed, students are required to demonstrate mastery by taking a unit quiz. Students receive feedback immediately, and if they pass, they can go on to the next unit. If they fail, they must remediate and take the quiz again, but with no penalty. 2.4.3. Social Learning Theory Bandura Social Learning Theory: This theory explains parent-child relationships. This is associated with the ideas and findings of (Mcleod, 2011) as earlier propounded by Albert Bandura. Social learning theories posit that those children’s real-life experiences and exposures directly or indirectly shape behaviors. Also, if a child receives an immediate reward for his/her behavior, such as getting parental attention or approval, then that child is likely to behave well. But when the child is ignored or punished, he/she may drop the good behavior for bad. This method, according to Bandura, is called the traditional behavioral principle of reinforcement and conditioning. Balarabe (2003) agreed with this when he opined that adults, leaders, and role models behave in certain ways, which they copy through the processes of imitation and identification. The model suggests that children learn strategies about managing their emotions, resolving disputes, and engaging with others not only from their experiences but also from the way their own reactions are responded to. Social learning theory (SLT) is increasingly cited as an essential component of sustainable natural resource management and the promotion of desirable behavioral change. (Muro & Jeffrey 2008). This theory is based on the idea that we learn from our interactions with others in a social context. Separately, by observing the behaviors of others, people develop similar behaviors. After observing the behavior of others, people assimilate and imitate that behavior, especially if their observational experiences are positive or include rewards related to the observed behavior. According to Bandura, imitation involves the actual reproduction of observed motor activities. (Bandura 1977). SLT has become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and development. It is rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory. This theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. (Muro & Jeffrey 2008). However, in this regard, Bandura believes that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. For that reason, in his theory, he added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. According to the elements of this theory there are three general principles for learning from each other. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1431 General Principles of Social Learning Theory The principles of social learning are assumed to operate in the same way throughout life. Observational learning may take place at any age. Insofar as exposure to new influential, powerful models who control resources may occur at the life stage, new learning through the modeling process is always possible. (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007). SLT posits that people learn from one another via: • Observation. • Imitation; and • Modeling Based on these general principles; learning can occur without a change in behavior. In other words, behaviorists say that learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, while in contrast, social learning theorists say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance. (Bandura, 1965). Learning may or may not result in a behavior change. (Bandura, 2006b). Bandura demonstrated that cognition plays a role in learning, and over the last 30 years, social learning theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human learning; these points are supported by (Newman, B.M. & P.R. 2007). Behavior learned through modeling The people who are being observed are called models, and the process of learning is called modeling. This point is supported by (Newman, B.M. & P.R., 2007; Bandura stated that the second and third stages of social learning, imitation, and behavior modeling, will occur if a person observes positive, desired outcomes in the first stage. If, for example, an instructor attends and observes a course in the world and is entertained, informed, and approves of the way students act, they are more likely to want to teach a course in the world themselves. They can then use the behavior they experienced to imitate and model other instructors’ teaching styles in the world (Bandura, 1986). Previous studies confirmed that at least partly of many behaviors can be learned through modeling. Some examples that can be cited in this regard are students watching their parents read, watching the demonstrations of mathematics problems, or seeing someone acting bravely in a fearful situation (Bandura, 2006). Based on this point, aggression can also be learned through models. Much research indicates that children become more aggressive when they observe aggressive or violent models. From this view, moral thinking and moral behavior are influenced by observation and modeling. In consequence, learning includes moral judgments regarding right and wrong, which can, in part, develop through modeling. Social Learning Theory Concepts Based on Bandura`s works of literature, there are three concepts in SLT. Firstly, people can learn through observation, which is known as observational learning. Secondly, mental states are important factors for learning. It is also named Intrinsic Reinforcement. Finally, it refers to this point that learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior, and it follows a modeling process. Observational learning in 1961, Bandura conducted his famous experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment to study behavior patterns, at least in part, by social learning theory, and that similar behaviors were learned by individuals shaping their own behavior after the models' actions. Bandura's results from the Bobo Doll Experiment changed the course of modern psychology and were widely credited for helping shift the focus in academic psychology from pure behaviorism to cognitive. The experiment is among the most lauded and celebrated of psychological experiments. (Newman B.M. & P.R, 2007). The study was significant because it departed from behaviorism’s insistence that all behavior is directed by reinforcement or rewards. The children received no encouragement or incentives to beat up the doll; they were simply imitating the behavior they had observed. Bandura termed this phenomenon observational learning and characterized the elements of effective observational learning as attention, retention, reciprocation, and motivation. He demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors that they have observed in other people. In this process, he identified three basic models of observational learning: • A live model involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out behavior. • A verbal instructional model involves descriptions and explanations of behavior. • A symbolic model that involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1432 Intrinsic Reinforcement: One of the other learning formats is described as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. Based on some researchers such as Muro and Jeffrey (2008), which supported Bandura’s SLT concepts, this kind of learning also emphasizes internal thoughts and cognitions, and it can help connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. In this regard, Bandura (1986) criticized this process and believed that external, environmental reinforcement is not the only factor that influences learning and behavior. Modeling Process: Bandura mentions four necessary conditions which are needed in the modeling process. By considering these steps, an individual can successfully make the behavior model of someone else. Social Learning Theory perspectives From the SLT view, the perspectives of reinforcement and punishment (R&P) can be categorized as follows: • Indirect effects on learning are not the sole or main cause. • Influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned. • Influences the expectation of reinforcement on cognitive processes that promote learning. • Attention plays a critical role in learning. • Attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. 2.5. Empirical Review 2.5.1. Parenting Style and Bullying Behavior It is evident that several types of research on parenting styles and the acquisition of bullying behavior among adolescents have been carried out both locally and internationally. Most reviewed research on the effect of parenting on children is focused on maternal parenting styles since mothers are primarily responsible for the childbearing process. However, fathers have increasingly shown interest in parenting as part of the family; therefore, this research incorporates all parents and other caregivers. It is important to note that much research on parents' role in children`s behavioral outcomes have been conducted in American and Asian families. Therefore, studies evaluating this in African countries, especially in Nigeria, are lacking. This has been supported by statements that today`s parenting literature is dominated by concepts based on Western cultures (Testa, Hoffman, & Leonard, 2011). Even if the mediating mechanisms of transmission of harsh parenting have received much attention, very little work has been done to investigate the continuity of other parental styles and their roles in the acquisition of bullying behavior. Constructive parenting is not the opposite of abusive parenting, or non-abusive parenting does not necessarily mean constructive since the absence of coercive or harsh parenting behavior could be found among neglectful parents as well. Previous studies have been focused on urban children, and none have focused on rural settings. Since this research focuses on boarding secondary schools, children from both urban and rural settings will be targeted. Again, the majority of studies have focused on the causes of bullying and very few have focused on parenting styles in relation to bullying. Also, prior studies primarily focused on single aspects of parental control (Testa, Hoffman, & Leonard, 2011), and they failed to integrate different aspects of parenting styles to shed light on the unique contributions of bullying. Conceptualization and measurement of behavioral control confuses the understanding of behavioral control. Most studies use parental knowledge to assess behavioral control. Most of the empirical literature clearly shows that many schools have not done enough to curb bullying and its influence. Most of the reviewed studies were done in Western countries, with the majority adopting qualitative or quantitative paradigms only. 2.5.2. Emotional Intelligence and Bullying Behavior Given the link between socioemotional abilities and bullying, it is not surprising that emotional intelligence has been found to be negatively related to bullying behavior and victimization. To demonstrate this, a meta-analysis across studies found that individuals with higher emotional intelligence levels exhibited fewer aggressive behaviors than those with lower emotional intelligence (Sancho et al., 2014). Importantly, these effects held across different age groups (from childhood to adulthood), cultural contexts (i.e., US, Spain, China, Malaysia, Canada, Australia, and the UK; Sancho et al., 2014), types of aggression (i.e., physical, sexual, or humor-based), and emotional intelligence assessment method (i.e., self-report or the ability measure). Similarly, other studies found that enhancing emotional intelligence led to fewer aggressive adolescent behaviors. For instance, using a sample of 590 Spanish adolescents (46% boys) randomly assigned to either the emotional intelligence training group or control group conditions, it was found that students in the emotional intelligence training group World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1433 reported lower levels of physical/verbal aggression, anger, hostility, personal distress, and fantasy compared to students in the control group (Castillo, Salguero, Fernández-Berrocal, & Balluerka, 2013). These studies demonstrate that emotional intelligence is involved in bullying and victimization, but one caveat is their use of the global emotional intelligence score to predict bullying while neglecting the multidimensional aspect of emotional intelligence. Using the multidimensionality of emotional intelligence to better understand the relationship between emotional competencies and bullying and victimization is important because simply relying on a global score can mask the unique associations between the constituent emotional intelligence components and other constructs (Parker, Wood, & Keefer, 2011). Thus, although global Emotional Intelligence scores can predict bullying victimization, one might wonder whether different EI dimensions could relate to bullies, victims, and bully victims differently. To better understand the emotional competencies of bullies, the few studies that have used the multidimensionality of Emotional Intelligence in relation to aggression have uncovered interesting patterns for which Emotional Intelligence dimensions are uniquely related to bullies. However, there is a caveat in these studies: different models and scales of Emotional Intelligence are used, resulting in a fairly heterogeneous set of findings. Despite this limitation, there is some general agreement that bullies tend to have trouble managing their emotions. Baroncelli and Ciucci (2014) used the Emotional Intelligence Scale (Schutte et al., 1998) and found that Italian preadolescents who had more difficulty regulating and using emotions were likelier to bully others. Other studies using the Adolescent Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test (Adolescent SUEIT) (Luebbers, Downey, & Stough, 2007), which is a modified version of the SUEIT (Palmer & Stough, 2001), found that individuals who were lower on Emotional Management and Control were more likely to become bullies (Schokman et al., 2014). Finally, other researchers argue that maladaptive styles of emotion regulation are related to increased aggressive behavior (Roberton, Daffern, & Bucks, 2012; Garner & Hinton, 2010). In sum, these studies confirm that greater difficulties managing emotions are the impetus of aggressive behaviors in youths. In addition to low levels of emotional management, low levels of interpersonal skills may also be related to aggression. Studies have shown that bullies tend to show difficulties in understanding others’ emotions (Lomas, Stough, Hansen, & Downey, 2012; Schokman et al., 2014) and that they also have difficulties establishing and maintaining mutually satisfying relationships and connecting with others (Parker, Kloosterman, & Summerfeldt, 2014). This may not be surprising, as the tendency to be aggressive generates interpersonal conflict. Exploring the emotional intelligence profiles of more nuanced bullying subtypes would help us better understand the etiology of bullying. However, to date, there have been few explicit studies done on the relationship between Emotional intelligence and physical, verbal, social, and cyberbullying. Despite this, research on empathy, TOM, social intelligence, and emotional intelligence have all suggested that certain types of bullies can be especially proficient in different aspects of their socio-emotional infrastructure, which they may use to their advantage. Further, researchers have identified the relationship between different levels of emotional intelligence dimensions on different aggressive behaviors. For example, low levels of emotional understanding and attention to feelings are related to sexual offending (Moriarty, Stough, Tidmarsh, Eger, & Dennison, 2001). On the other hand, difficulty in managing one’s emotions was associated with all types of problem behavior, while low levels of social skills were specifically related to aggression and delinquency (Siu, 2009). In addition, emotional knowledge may also differentiate victims from perpetrators (Garner & Hinton, 2010). However, these studies did not investigate the relationship between emotional intelligence dimensions with specific bullying behaviors, with the exception of Baroncelli and Ciucci (2014) and Gower et al. (2014). Baroncelli and Ciucci (2014) analyzed the differences in trait emotional intelligence components between individuals who cyberbully and those who traditionally bully. Cyberbullies, but not traditional bullies, reported that they were worse at using and regulating emotions (but this relationship was not found when traditional bullying was controlled, though it was found when cyberbullying was controlled for traditional bullying and both forms of victimization). Conversely, difficulties in appraising one’s own and others’ emotions were not related to cyber or traditional forms of bullying (Baroncelli & Ciucci, 2014). Thus, using and regulating emotions seem to predict cyberbullying. Other studies have also examined whether emotional intelligence dimensions can differentially predict bullying types. Using the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory: Youth Version (EQ-i:YV; BarOn & Parker, 2000), it was found that low overall emotional intelligence and stress management skills predicted girls’ likelihood of becoming social and physical bullies (Gower et al., 2014). Though this is an intriguing finding, boys were not assessed in this study so it is unknown if this relationship would also be seen in boys. In effect, only two studies to date examined emotional intelligence dimension differences by bullying types. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1434 Baroncelli and Ciucci (2014) looked at components of emotional intelligence in relation to cyber and traditional bullying. However, the sub-types of traditional bullying were not examined (i.e., social and verbal bullying). This is problematic because the sub-types of bullying have been found to differ by their nature (i.e., bullying characteristics), antecedents (i.e., risk factors), and outcomes (i.e., emotional consequences; Borg, 1998; Brighi et al., 2012; Gradinger et al., 2009; Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Ortega et al., 2009; Ortega et al., 2012; Sontag et al., 2011; Wang, Nansel, & Iannotti, 2011). Thus, it is plausible that the types of bullying could differ in emotional intelligence patterns. Gower et al. (2014) found that stress management predicted relational and physical bullying in girls but did not examine this relationship in boys or across different age groups. This is unfortunate, given that the literature suggests that emotional intelligence dimension levels differ significantly due to gender and age. To address these gaps, the present study examines whether emotional intelligence dimensions can differentially predict physical, social, verbal, and cyberbullying and victimization and if these relationships hold across age and gender. The focus on components of socioemotional competencies in relation to bullying and victimization has advanced the psychological field of aggression in youths. Though there are few studies that explicitly examine emotional intelligence as a whole rather than its specific dimensions, in the few studies that have examined emotional intelligence in relation to bullying, three limitations are noted: • The samples used are typically online-based and focus on younger children only (not adolescents, where bullying types may be more nuanced). • The four bullying types, physical, verbal, social, and cyber, were not examined in relation to emotional intelligence dimensions. • No studies have yet examined whether the pattern of emotional intelligence dimensions would hold across the four bullying types while considering gender and age differences. 2.5.3. Adolescents and Bullying Behavior Several reports show that the overall rate of incarceration for minority adolescents was 60% greater than that of the majority. Contrary to the model minority youth, majority tribes are increasingly becoming involved in bullying behaviors. Given that each ethnic group has unique cultural norms and experiences, the predictors may differ across different groups. Although numerous studies have found particular risk and protective factors for adolescent delinquency. Fewer studies have evaluated whether the same developmental models apply to adolescents of different ethnic backgrounds. Studies have examined the link between parental monitoring and delinquency within each ethnic group, but the empirical focus on the ethnic variation in the role of parental monitoring is limited. Virtually no studies evaluated differences among various ethnic groups across the globe. Burton (2007) found that lack of parental involvement is strongly associated with delinquency for minority ethnic groups but not for the majority group adolescents. Emotional intelligence provides adolescents with attitudes, motivation, and rationalizations that support bullying behavior, and they provide opportunities to engage in specific Bullying acts. Eke (2004) observed that causes of bullying tend to find theoretical explanations in the interaction between biological and social factors. The genetic makeup of individuals can predispose adolescents to engage in bullying activities. Chromosomal abnormalities among adolescents may predispose them to bullying behaviors. She further emphasized the importance of extended family ties in other cultures and individuals' strong identification and attachment with their families. In Africa, parents expand beyond the immediate mother and father to include members of the extended family, neighbors, and every other person who, in one way or another, is involved in the upbringing of the child (Okpako,2004). Communication between parents and adolescents is essential in molding bullying behavior. One possible explanation is that findings may vary depending on when communication is initiated. For example, to correct a child, it is before or after parents discover their children are bullying their Emotional Intelligence, sexually active, or using drugs. The quality of parent-child relationships or the family values available in household matters. Sekuku Rimfat and Ogbonna (2003) in their research found that there was no significant difference in delinquency between the two categories, males and females. They noted that until recently, male adolescents were by far more involved in delinquent acts than females. But times have changed, more and more females are now getting involved in bullying acts. 2.6. Appraisal of the Literature Reviewed The influence of democratic parenting on Delinquent Behavior Developmental research demonstrates that democratic parenting predicts many positive outcomes for children and adolescents when compared with autocratic and Laissezfaire. Parenting style study with toddlers, mothers, and their children was videotaped while they performed various World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1435 tasks by Dishon & Dodge (2006). The mother was asked to prohibit the child from touching attractive objects. Videotapes were coded for the type of control used by mothers. Gentle guidance, a concept similar to democratic parenting, was defined as controlling the child‘s behaviors in a manner that was not power-assertive, e.g., using polite requests, positive comments, and suggestions. The negative control concept, similar to autocratic parenting, was defined as using threats, harsh interventions, and negative statements. Next, the children were left alone with the prohibited attractive objects for a few minutes to measure the degree to which they had internalized the prohibition. Results showed that children`s compliance was associated with maternal use of gentle guidance. Moreover, mothers who used gentle guidance were more likely to have children who showed a high level of committed compliance across various tasks. Compared to situational compliance, which refers to superficial obedience to request, committed compliance reflects a genuine eagerness to adopt the mother`s agenda and is considered the genesis form of internalization and self-regulation (Dishon et al 2006). Developmental research demonstrates that democratic parenting predicts many positive outcomes for children and adolescents compared to autocratic and Laissez–faire. (Coplan, Hastings, Lagace – Seguin & Moulton, 2002). Research has identified the outcome for children raised with different parenting styles. Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, and Dornbusch (1991) found that adolescents who characterized their parents as democratic reported significantly higher academic competence and lower levels of delinquent development. Adolescents raised in autocratic homes were similar to those in democratic homes. However, they did not show as much self-reliance and social competence. The democratic style of parenting is the other studies conducted in countries with a diversity of cultural values that led Knafo and Schwartz (2003) to claim that the benefits of democratic parenting transcended the benefits of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and household composition. Additionally, results from studies with poor families also questioned the idea that the democratic parenting style was also associated with delinquency. For example, Leung, Lau, and Lam (1999) found differences in the relationship with democratic parenting. Dwairy, Achoui, Abouserie, and Fara (2005) found that in Arab societies, autocratic parenting did not harm adolescents‘ bullying behavior as it did in Western societies. On the other hand, another set of studies suggested that adolescents who characterize their parents as laissez-faire obtain equal or higher scores on different delinquency than adolescents who described their parents as democratic. In another study with German adolescents, those who perceived their parents as laissez-faire seemed to show a distinctive better psychosocial adjustment by scoring lowest on the delinquency and anxiety ratio and showing a high level of active coping. Baumrind (1991) carried out research on parenting styles and found out that adults who remembered authoritative parenting, i.e., democratic parenting, were linked with more positive behavior outcomes compared with those who recalled autocratic parenting. Bingham (2006) generally observed that men had a greater number of offenses than women in their research work. The outcome of their behavior also shows that men had lower parental monitoring and greater parental democracy, were less parental-oriented, and had more substance use than women. Some research has shown that gender is not a significant factor in adolescent‘s deviant behavior and subsequent effect on academic achievement (Trivellor, Onyechi, and Okere, 2007). Chambers et al. (2001) opined those adolescents from autocratic parents – were stressed but did not show an adequate position of obedience and conformity with norms. They did well in school and were less likely than their Emotional Intelligence to be involved in deviant activities. Conversely, they also manifest lower self-reliance and self-competence and higher psychological distress. Adolescents from Laissez-faire families were warm but not strictly shoved, they had high self-reliance and self-competence but also showed higher levels of substance abuse and school problems. Autocratic parenting is characterized by moderate to high levels of control along with high levels of support. It is related to greater psychological well-being and lower levels of depressive symptoms and substance use (Maccoby & Martin 1993). Given current efforts to enhance adult well-being in later life and lifespan development theories that stress the influence of early parenting behavior and adjustment in middle and late adulthood, it is worth examination. Yet, little is known about the connection between parenting styles experienced in childhood and psychological and behavioral outcomes in adulthood. Parental support is important because it predicts a strong sense of self-worth and security, great psychological well-being, and other positive outcomes (Coplan, Hasting, Lagace-Seguin, and Moulton. 2002; Stein Berg, 2001). Investigations of parenting behavior experienced in childhood and subsequent adult development are limited to parental discipline and considered in association with a single negative outcome, such as personality disorder, depressive symptoms, or substance abuse (Carter, Joyce, Mulder & Luty, 2001; Sakado, Kuwabara, Sato, Uchara & Someya, 2000). World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1436 Autocratic parents who used negative discipline reported greater anxiety in adulthood (Gerisma, Emmelkamp & Arrindell, 1990). Parents‘ use of either excessive or inadequate control also predicted increased depressive symptoms in adulthood. Limited work has examined and recalled parenting styles encompassing parental support and control. Moreover, studies generally include a single negative outcome and are frequently limited to clinical samples. Influence of Laissez-faire parenting on delinquent behavior Finally, adolescents raised in Laissez-faire homes report the lowest levels in all categories. Building on these findings, Okpako (2004), in his own opinion, suggested that beginning in early adolescence, individual emotional intelligence begins to grow in complexity and size. So, at this stage, adolescents tilt toward friendship, and if they are bad friends, it leads to delinquency. Johnson and Fennell (2002) said research has linked emotional intelligence to the development of individual delinquency in late childhood and adolescence. 3. Methodology This chapter presents information on the methodology employed to carry out the study. It covers research design, population, sample and sampling techniques, instrumentation (including its psychometric properties), procedure for data collection, and procedure of data analysis. 3.1. Research Design The research method adopted for this study is descriptive research of correlational types. This method is adopted because the intention of the researcher is to establish a relationship between the independent variables (emotional intelligence and parenting style) and the dependent variable (bullying behavior). According to Ngau and Kumssa (2004), a research design is the way a study is planned and conducted, the procedures and techniques employed to answer the research questions, which entails choosing participants for the study, and the techniques and approaches for collecting data. This research will employ a mixed research method design. It will adopt a survey and phenomenological design. A cross-sectional survey design, which falls under the quantitative paradigm, was appropriate for getting information at one point in time to describe the current characteristics of the selected samples from each of the participants. A phenomenological approach will be used, which emphasizes participants‟ experiences and interpretations, where interview guides and document analysis guides will be used to collect first-hand, in-depth information to supplement data gathered using the survey design. Mixed methods entail philosophical assumptions that guide the direction of the collection and analysis of data and the adoption of qualitative and quantitative in many phases of the research (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). The use of a survey and phenomenological approach provided a better understanding of the research problem. 3.2. Population of the Study The population for the study consists of five(5) secondary school students in Ikorodu, Lagos State, while the target population is bullied students and Students that show bullying behavior in the selected secondary school students in Ikorodu, Lagos State. 3.3. Sample and Sampling Techniques A Sample is a number of people from a large group used in tests to provide precise information about the group. Sampling is the process by which a researcher selects a group of participants (the sample) from a larger population (Pearson, 2010). Probability and nonprobability sampling procedures are used in this research. For a cross-sectional survey Research, a sample of 10% to 20% of the population is acceptable (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2009). In probability sampling, the researcher specifies the probability or chance that each member of a defined population will be selected for the sample. Probability sampling was useful because the researcher could generalize since it seeks representatives of the wider population (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). Non-probability sampling was used to get information. Specifically, purposive sampling was used to select students. The bullies were selected based on the type of bullying committed. The sampling procedure helped the researcher to build a sample that would be satisfactory to their specific needs (Best & Kahn, 2011). Random sampling techniques were used to select 40 students each from 5 secondary schools in the selected local government in Lagos State; a total of 200 students were selected from the five secondary schools within Ikorodu local government of Lagos State. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(01), 1413-1443 1437 3.4. Research Instrumentations Instrumentations are tools by which data are collected. Questionnaires would be used in collecting data from members of the sample group (Mutai, 2001). The study adopted a questionnaire as the tool for data collection. The questionnaire comprises a 10-item scale with responses anchored based on four points, which are Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree, and Strongly Disagree (SD). According to the Author, the scale has a Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.80. 3.5. Validity of the Instrument The instruments used for the study were subjected to expected validation. Copies of the questionnaires were given to the experts in the area of educational measurement and evaluation at Al-Hikmah University. Space was also provided for the supervisor to make any other comments regarding the overall adequacy of the instrument. After the instrument was returned, the researcher carried out the modifications. 3.6. Reliability of the Instrument The test re-test reliability was used for the study. The instruments were tested on 20 respondents who were not included in the scope of the study to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. After the pre-test, the instruments were scrutinized, and necessary modifications were made before final administration. The reliability coefficient of the instrument was determined, yielding 0.80. 3.7. Procedure for Data Collection The system in any research involves gaining official permission from the relevant authority before proceeding with the study (Marion, 2001). Before going to the selected schools, an introductory letter was collected from the department of Educational Management & Counselling Al-Hikmah University Ilorin. The letter was presented to the education officer/principal of the sampled schools to seek permission to do the research. Selected teachers/principals were approached, and the researcher introduced herself and sought consent to administer the questionnaires. All the questionnaires were delivered by the researcher personally to the respective respondents and would be collected later. 3.8. Method of Data Analysis Pearson Product Moment Correlation (P.P.M.C) and Multiple Regression were used to analyze the generated data. The method was used because there are two sampled means in each of the hypotheses tested, and the intention is to determine the relationship between them. 4. Results This chapter presents the results and discussion of the findings. The study investigated leadership styles and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance among public secondary school teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria. Four Research hypotheses were raised for answering, and two research hypotheses were formulated for testing. The data were analyzed using simple percentages, Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), and Multiple Regression statistical methods. The results are presented below: 4.1. Demographic Data of the Respondents This section presents the results of data obtained from the respondents in percentages. Table 1 Demographic distribution of respondents Variables Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 114.0 57.0 Female 86.0 43.0 Total 200 100.0 Age Below 20 Years 132.0 66.0