Growing through Sabotage: Energizing Hierarchical Power

Bichle , Shimshon; Ni zan, Jona han Wo king Pape G owing h ough Sabo age: Ene gizing Hie a chical Powe Wo king Pape s on Capi al as Powe , No. 2017/02 P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: The Bichle & Ni zan A chi es Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bichle , Shimshon; Ni zan, Jona han (2017) : G owing h ough Sabo age: Ene gizing Hie a chical Powe , Wo king Pape s on Capi al as Powe , No. 2017/02, Fo um on Capi al As Powe - Towa d a New Cosmology o Capi alism, s.l., h p://bna chi es.yo ku.ca/512/ This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/162822 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. 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I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ca/ No. 2017/02 G owing h ough Sabo age Ene gizing Hie a chical Powe Shimshon Bichle and Jona han Ni zan July 2017 h p://www.capi alaspowe .com/?p=2337 WORKING PAPERS ON CAPITAL AS POWER G owing h ough Sabo age Ene gizing Hie a chical Powe Shimshon Bichle and Jona han Ni zan 1 Je usalem and Mon eal, July 2017 bna chi es.ne / C ea i e Commons Table o Con en s Abs ac ............................................................................................................................... 3 1. In oduc ion ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 Ene gy Cap u e .................................................................................................................. 4 1.2 The CasP Puzzle ................................................................................................................. 6 2. Capi alized Powe and Economic G ow h ....................................................................... 7 2.1 Sabo age ............................................................................................................................ 7 2.2 Economies o Scale .............................................................................................................. 9 3. Hie a chy o Ene gy ...................................................................................................... 11 3.1 Hie a chy as a Necessa y E il ............................................................................................ 11 3.2 O ganiza ions and Ins i u ions ........................................................................................... 12 3.3 Full-Spec um Hie a chy ................................................................................................... 14 3.4 Going he O he Way ........................................................................................................ 15 4. Powe o he Sake o Powe .......................................................................................... 16 4.1 The Mega-Machine ........................................................................................................... 16 4.2 The Hie a chy o E il ........................................................................................................ 17 4.3 Hie a chy as a Modula In o ma ion Field .......................................................................... 17 5. Coope a ion .................................................................................................................. 19 5.1 Anabasis .......................................................................................................................... 19 5.2 F om Powe o Coope a ion ............................................................................................... 20 1 The impe us o w i ing his pape came om eading Blai Fix’s pa h-b eaking wo k on hie a chy, ene gy and g ow h (2015a, 2015b, 2017). We a e indeb ed o Blai Fix and Daniel Mou e o commen ing on he i s d a o he a icle – hough esponsibili y o he inal cu is o cou se ou s alone. Shimshon Bichle eaches poli ical economy a colleges and uni e si ies in Is ael. Jona han Ni zan eaches poli ical economy a Yo k Uni e si y in Canada. All o hei publica ions a e a ailable o ee on The Bichle & Ni zan A chi es (h p://bna chi es.ne ). Resea ch o his pape was pa ly suppo ed by he SSHRC. The a icle is licenced unde C ea i e Commons (A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s 4.0 In e na ional). BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 2 – 6. Pa ochial Al uism ......................................................................................................... 21 6.1 The Bi h o Human Socie ies ............................................................................................ 21 6.2 The Rise o Complex Hie a chical Socie ies .......................................................................... 22 6.3 The Mix and O ien a ion o Coope a ion and Con lic .......................................................... 22 6.4 The Spoils o Wa ............................................................................................................. 23 6.5. F om Agen s o S uc u e: Dema e ializing Pa ochial Al uism ............................................ 24 6.6 Taking S ock and Looking Ahead ...................................................................................... 26 7. A e Hie a chies Be e a Cap u ing Ene gy? ................................................................... 27 7.1 Subjuga ing Ene gy o Powe ............................................................................................. 27 7.2 Telling Examples .............................................................................................................. 28 8. Ene gy o Hie a chy ...................................................................................................... 29 8.1 Resis ance ........................................................................................................................ 30 8.2 Complexi y ....................................................................................................................... 30 9. Towa d an Al e na i e Model ........................................................................................ 31 9.1 O e iew ........................................................................................................................... 31 9.2 Hie a chical Ene gy, Li elihood Ene gy .............................................................................. 33 9.3 Quan i ying Quali y: An In e pola ion ................................................................................ 34 9.4 The Uni s o Poli ical Economy .......................................................................................... 35 9.5 Back o Ene gy and Hie a chy ............................................................................................ 36 10. Hie a chy-Ene gy Space and Hie a chy-Ene gy Cu es ................................................ 37 10.1 The Hie a chy-Ene gy Cu e ............................................................................................ 38 10.2 Los in Hie a chy-Ene gy Space? ....................................................................................... 39 11. T ajec o ies in Hie a chy-Ene gy Space ........................................................................ 41 11.1 G owing Th ough Sabo age .............................................................................................. 43 11.2 C isis .............................................................................................................................. 46 11.3 Decline ............................................................................................................................ 47 11.4 Democ a iza ion .............................................................................................................. 49 12. Summa y, Re lec ions and Ex ensions ......................................................................... 48 12.1 Cogni i e Dissonance ....................................................................................................... 48 12.2 In e ing he Link ........................................................................................................... 40 12.3 Was e as In es men ........................................................................................................ 50 12.4 The Two Languages ........................................................................................................ 50 12.5 An Al e na i e Hie a chy-Ene gy Model ........................................................................... 50 12.6 Looking Ahead .............................................................................................................. 52 Re e ences ......................................................................................................................... 53 BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 3 – Abs ac Acco ding o he heo y o capi al as powe , capi alism, like any o he mode o powe , is bo n h ough sabo age and li es in chains – and ye e e ywhe e we look we see i g ow and expand. Wha explains his appa en puzzle o ‘g ow h in he mids o sabo age’? The answe , we a gue, begins wi h he e y meaning o ‘g ow h’. Whe eas con en ional poli ical economy equa es he g ow h wi h a ising s anda d o li ing, we posi ha much o his g ow h has no hing o do wi h li elihood as such: i ep esen s no he imp o emen o wellbeing, bu he expansion o sabo age i sel . Building on his p emise, he a icle his o icizes, heo izes and models he ela ionship be- ween changes in hie a chical powe and sabo age on he one hand and he g ow h o ene gy cap u e on he o he . I claims ha hie a chical powe is sough o i s own sake; ha building and sus aining his powe demands s a egic sabo age; and ha sabo age abso bs a signi ican p opo ion o he ene gy cap u ed by socie y. F om his s andpoin , capi alism g ows, a leas in pa , no despi e o because o sabo age, bu h ough sabo age. 1. In oduc ion The heo y o capi al as powe , o CasP, a gues ha capi alism, like o he his o ic socie ies, is bes examined no as a mode o p oduc ion and consump ion, bu as a mode o powe . 2 To hink o socie y as a mode o powe is o ocus, i s and o emos , on he ins i u ions and p ocesses ha a icula e and de e mine social powe . P oduc ion and consump ion a e o cou se impo an o his a icula ion and de e mina ion – bu no exclusi ely and o en in e sely. The key CasP ques ion is wha c eo de s – o c ea es he o de o – a mode o powe . Powe and esis ance o powe , we ha e a gued in ou wo k, a e dialec ically in e wined: wi hou powe he e could be no opposi ion o powe , and wi hou opposi ion o powe , whe he bla an o la- en , he e would be no hing o exe powe o e in he i s place. The wo o ces imply, nega e and gene a e each o he in an in ini e eg ess. Now, when we speak o socie y as a mode o powe , we desc ibe a social o de in which powe is able o supp ess and p e ail o e esis ance o powe , and his abili y, we main ain, implies and equi es wha Tho s ein Veblen called s a egic sabo age. In o de o powe o success ully ha ness, con ain and, i necessa y, c ush esis ance, he powe - ul mus cons an ly es ic , limi and inhibi he au onomy o hose wi h less o no powe . Mo e- o e , hey mus do so s a egically: applying oo li le sabo age migh be insu icien o sus ain hei powe , while in lic ing oo much can igge e ol o , wo se s ill, decima e he e y ab ic o socie y hey seek o con ol. 3 2 The ulles accoun o CasP is o e ed in Ni zan and Bichle (2009). Sho e o e iews and in e iews can be ound in Bichle and Ni zan (2012a), Bichle , Ni zan and Di Muzio (2012) and Bichle , Ni zan and Du kiewicz (2013). Bichle and Ni zan (2015b) su ey he pas , p esen and u u e o CasP esea ch, while Debailleul, Bichle and Ni zan (2016) a icula e some implica ions. 3 No e ha ou no ion o s a egic sabo age he e is b oade and somewha di e en han Veblen’s. W i ing a he u n o he wen ie h cen u y, Veblen’s main ocus was he pecunia y ins i u ions o ‘business’ and he ways in which hese ins i u ions unde mined he uni e sal e iciency o ‘indus y’ o edis ibu ional ends. In his sense, his concep ion o sabo age was la gely con ined o he ‘economic’ sphe e o p oduc ion and consump ion, in es men and was e, c edi and inance. The CasP app oach, al hough pa ly in lu- enced by Veblen, anscends he poli ics-economics duali y om he beginning and is he e o e able o concei e o sabo age no as an economic ool, bu as a le e o powe mo e gene ally. This b oade iewpoin e eals signi ican his o ical changes in he na u e and applica ion o s a egic sabo age. In he ancien s a es (as well as in p ehis o ic socie ies), powe was usually exe ed openly, di ec ly and iolen ly, and o en in ways ha seemed a bi a y and andom. In la e , mo e complex poli- ies, howe e – and pa icula ly in mode n capi alism – his exe ion became much mo e opaque and BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 4 – Now, al hough he na u e and impac o s a egic sabo age a ies signi ican ly om one mode o powe o ano he , he e a e also b oad simila i ies. In all p e-capi alis modes o powe , s a egic sabo age ended o be associa ed wi h a ai ly igid socie al s uc u e, a ela i ely s able cul u e and li le o no g ow h in p oduc ion and consump ion. Compa ed wi h his eco d, he capi alis mode o powe ma ks an epochal no el y: i ep esen s no only he i s his o ic socie y ha is bo h dynamic and g owing, bu also he i s whose dynamism and g ow h seem inhe en o i s e y logic. 1.1 Ene gy Cap u e The his o ical eco d on his ma e is unambiguous: o e he pas h ee cen u ies, he s uc u e o capi alism has been cons an ly ans o med, i s popula ion coun gone e ical and i s pe capi a ene gy soa ed o unp eceden ed le els. The uniqueness o capi alism in his ega d is illus a ed in Figu e 1 and Table 1. The igu e plo s he e olu ion o he wo ld’s o e all ene gy cap u e and i s componen s om 10000 BCE o he p esen . The e m ‘ene gy cap u e’ he e deno es he en i e ange o ene gy ypes con e ed by human socie y. The ene gy sou ces inpu ed in o – o ‘cap u ed’ by – his con e sion include biomass, a ious uels and di e en aw ma e ials, while he ou pu s comp ise human and animal eed, hea ing and cooling, ma e ial and imma e ial objec s, physical and i ual ans- po a ion – and, las bu no leas , he ene gy los o he con e sion p ocess i sel (Cook 1971; Mo is 2013: 53). Analy ically, we can concei e o o e all ene gy cap u e as he p oduc o wo componen s: he b ead h o ene gy cap u e, measu ed by he size o he popula ion, and he dep h o ene gy cap u e, measu ed by ene gy cap u e pe pe son. 4 1. 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎 = 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 The igu e shows he e olu ion o hese h ee ene gy-cap u e se ies – dep h, b ead h and o e - all – be ween 10000 BCE and 2000 CE. The se ies a e ebased wi h 10000 BCE = 1.0 o easie isualiza ion. They a e also plo ed agains a loga i hmic scale, so hei ela i e slopes a e p opo - iona e o hei espec i e g ow h a es. Now, al hough he unde lying da a a e only ough ap- p oxima ions, he o e all pic u e hey po ay is clea enough. oundabou , a less iolen and signi ican ly mo e sys ema ic. In his la e cons ella ion, sabo age is less open and mo e s eal hy: ins ead o ac ing posi i ely o a i m and asse he will o he powe ul, i ope a es mos ly nega i ely, by p e en ing, es ic ing and unde mining he ac ions o hose poli ies’ subjec s. I also g ows less iolen : ins ead o using b u e o ce, i o en eso s o emp a ion, manipula ion, men al p essu e and inbuil guil . Finally and c ucially, i becomes mo e me hodical: ins ead o yielding o whim and cap ice, i p og esses delibe a ely and calcula edly. 4 Ou no ions o ene gy b ead h and dep h d aw on and in some sense o e lap wi h ou analysis o capi- alized powe . In his analysis, b ead h, measu ed by he o ganiza ion’s head coun , ep esen s he o gan- iza ion’s size, while dep h, measu ed by ea nings o capi aliza ion pe capi a, deno e i s powe pe ‘uni o o ganiza ion’ (Ni zan 1992; Ni zan and Bichle 2009). BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 5 – Figu e 1: Wo ld Ene gy Cap u e NOTE: Se ies a e ebased wi h 10000 BCE = 1.0. O e all ene gy cap u e is he p oduc o ene gy cap u e pe capi a (Dep h) and popula ion (B ead h). Ene gy cap u e pe capi a is he a i hme ic mean o Ian Mo is’s es ima es o Wes e n and Eas e n ene gy cap u e pe capi a. The yea ly g ow h a es nex o he se ies ep esen geome ic means o he ele an pe iods. SOURCE: Wo ld ene gy cap u e pe capi a is om Ian Mo is (2013), The Measu e o Ci iliza ion: Table 3.1 (p. 61) o Wes e n es ima es and Table 3.4 (p. 111) o Eas e n es ima es. Wo ld popula ion is om he US Census Bu eau’s ables: ‘His o ical Es ima es o Wo ld Popula ion’ o 10000 BCE o 1940 (mid- dle es ima e o 10000 BCE; lowes es ima es o he es ; goo.gl/VeH4YS) and ‘Wo ld Popula ion’ o 1950 o 2000 (mid-yea es ima es; goo.gl/R jLn); bo h ables we e accessed on June 18, 2017. Table 1: Annual G ow h Ra es o Wo ld Ene gy Cap u e (geome ic means) Dep h (ene gy cap u e pe capi a) B ead h (popula ion) O e all (Dep h × B ead h) 1. P ehis o y 10000–5000 BCE + 0.01% / y doubles e e y 6,932 yea s + 0.004% / y doubles e e y 17,329 yea s + 0.014% / y doubles e e y 4,951 yea s 2. His o y Be o e Capi alism 5000 BCE–1700 CE + 0.03% / y doubles e e y 2,311 yea s + 0.08% / y doubles e e y 867 yea s + 0.11% / y doubles e e y 630 yea s 3. Capi alism 1700–2000 CE + 0.55% / y doubles e e y 126 yea s + 0.78% / y doubles e e y 89 yea s + 1.33% / y doubles e e y 52 yea s Ra io o G ow h Ra es pe iod 3 ÷ pe iod 2 18.3 9.8 12.1 Ra io o Doubling Time pe iod 3 ÷ pe iod 2 0.055 0.103 0.083 Sou ce: Figu e 1 BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 6 – Mos gene ally, hey show h ee dis inc pe iods: (1) p ehis o y ( ill 5000 BCE), (2) his o y be o e capi alism (5000 BCE–1700 CE), and (3) capi alism (1700–2000 CE). 5 Du ing he p ehis- o ic pe iod, he b ead h and dep h o ene gy cap u e – and he e o e i s o e all olume – changed by e y li le, i a all ( emembe h ough ha he da a he e a e e y ske chy). The ini ial accele - a ion came oughly a ound 5000 BCE, wi h he eme gence o he ea ly his o ical modes o powe . Fo he i s ime in he his o y o hei species, human beings ound hemsel es buckled by hie - a chical s a e s uc u es, and as hese s uc u es sp ead, he dep h and b ead h o ene gy cap u e – and hence i s o e all olume – s a ed o inc ease. Bu he inc ease was almos impe cep ible. Be ween 5000 BCE and 1700 CE, he dep h o ene gy cap u e expanded a an annual a e age a e o only 0.03 pe cen . A ha a e, i ook dep h mo e han wo millennia o double in size (see Table 1). The a e age annual g ow h a e o b ead h, a 0.08 pe cen , was nea ly h ee imes as e , while he g ow h o o e all ene gy was pi ched e en highe , a 0.11 pe cen . Bu e en a hose as e a es, doubling ime was s ill hal a millennium o mo e. All o his changed, and a he d ama ically, wi h he ise o capi alism. Du ing he 1700- 2000 pe iod, he dep h o ene gy cap u e g ew a an a e age annual a e o 0.55 pe cen – mo e han 18 imes as e han du ing he p e ious 6,700 yea s. The social impac o his change was eno mous. In he pe iod be ween 5000 BCE and 1700 CE, i ook he dep h o ene gy cap u e 2,311 yea s o double; in capi alism, his doubling pe iod was cu down o 126 yea s (Table 1). A 75-yea -old pe son li ing du ing he his o ical pe iod p io o capi alism would ha e wi nessed ene gy cap u e pe capi a expand by a me e 2.3 pe cen o e he en i e li e ime; in capi alism, a simila pe son would see his cap u e ise by as much as 51 pe cen ! The capi alis accele a ion o b ead h and o e all ene gy cap u e we e equally d ama ic: he o me g ew a an a e age a e o 0.78 pe cen annually (nea ly 10 imes as e han du ing he his o ical pe iod be o e capi al- ism), while he la e ose by an a e age o 1.33 pe cen pe yea (12 imes as e ). 1.2 The CasP Puzzle All in all, hen, i is clea ha , in e ms o ene gy cap u e, his o ical modes o powe we e ai ly s a iona y up un il he ise o capi alism and explosi e he ea e . And he e a ises a CasP puzzle. Rousseau amously obse ed ha ‘Man is bo n ee, and e e ywhe e he is in chains’, and he same obse a ion can be made abou capi alism – only in e e se. Acco ding o CasP, capi alism, like any o he mode o powe , is bo n h ough sabo age and li es in chains – and ye e e ywhe e we look we see i g ow and expand. How can we explain his appa en con adic ion? I capi alism is indeed c issc ossed wi h a ious o ms o s a egic sabo age, why is i ha , unlike o he modes o powe , i emains dy- namic and g owing? Maybe he no ion o ‘capi alis sabo age’ is a misnome o begin wi h? In- deed, acco ding o many w i e s, he e y g ow h o capi alis socie ies a es s o hei democ acy and au onomy – jus as he e y s agna ion o adi ional socie ies demons a es hei au ho i a - ianism and subjuga ion (Hun ing on 1968). And i ha is indeed he case, should we no conclude ha capi alis sabo age – assuming he e is any – is simply oo limi ed o a es he sys em’s in- he en g ow h d i e? O maybe we a e misin e p e ing he e y na u e o capi alis g ow h and 5 Ou choice o 1700 as he ‘beginning’ o capi alism is p ac ical a he han heo e ical: ega dless o i s p ecise bi hday, un il 1700 capi alism was simply oo limi ed in scope o ha e a signi ican impac on he wo ld’s a e age a e o g ow h. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 7 – change? Is capi alism indeed unable o exe powe – o can i be ha , in capi alism, g ow h i sel is a le e o powe ? Ou pu pose in his pape is o examine his appa en puzzle o ‘g ow h in he mids o sabo- age’, and ou en a i e conclusion is ha he e is in ac no puzzle a all. The con en ional iew, bo h mains eam and he e odox, is ha capi alism is a sys em d i en by he g ow h o p oduc ion and consump ion, and ha , sho - e m c ises and he ups and downs o edis ibu ion aside, his g ow h is ul ima ely abou wellbeing. The e y ocabula y o economics de e mines his conclu- sion: since he economy is said o p oduce and consume ‘goods’ and ‘se ices’, i s g ow h is equi - alen o a ising ‘s anda d o li ing’, by de ini ion. Bu as we shall show, his habi o hinking migh be deeply misleading. And why? Because a signi ican p opo ion o hese so-called goods and se ices ha e no hing o do wi h li elihood: hei g ow h ep esen s no he imp o emen o wellbeing, bu he expansion o sabo age i sel . And i ha is in ac he case, i ollows ha capi alism g ows, a leas in pa , no despi e o because o sabo age, bu h ough sabo age. The pape comp ises wel e sec ions. The wo sec ions ollowing his in oduc ion se he s age. Sec ion 2 ou lines he CasP claim ha capi alized powe is augmen ed by unde mining e i- ciency and g ow h, while Sec ion 3 p esen s he opposi e no ion – namely, ha hie a chical powe is in ac he bes way o boos ing hem. The emainde o he a icle ies o so ou his appa en con adic ion. Sec ion 4 begins by examining he connec ion be ween powe and hie a chy mo e closely, Sec ion 5 con inues by con as ing hie a chy and powe on he one hand wi h coope a- ion and symbiosis on he o he and Sec ion 6 assesses how hei in e ac ion migh ha e a ec ed he e olu ion o socie y. Sec ion 7 conside s he espec i e capaci ies o hie a chical powe and au onomous coope a ion o ‘cap u e ene gy’ and he di icul y o measu ing hese capaci ies in p ac ice, while Sec ion 8 explo es why hie a chy equi es ene gy a all. Using and ex ending hese analyses, Sec ions 9 o 11 ou line an al e na i e hie a chy-ene gy model, delinea ing and explo - ing he ou hie a chy-ene gy ajec o ies a mode o powe can ollow: expansion, c isis and de- cline on he one hand, and democ a iza ion on he o he . Sec ion 12 o e s a summa y, e lec ions and ex ensions. 2. Capi alized Powe and Economic G ow h 2.1 Sabo age Begin wi h no ion o capi alized powe and he impe a i e o s a egic sabo age. Acco ding o CasP, capi alis powe is quan i ied h ough di e en ial capi aliza ion. Each owned en i y is cap- i alized by he isk-adjus ed p esen alue o i s expec ed ea nings, and he powe ha his cap- i aliza ion ep esen s is gauged by ela ing i o he capi aliza ion o o he en i ies, g oups o en i ies o socie y as a whole. Capi alized en i ies, subjuga ed o he impe a i es o powe , a e d i en o accumula e no absolu ely bu di e en ially. Thei aim is no o ge mo e weal h pe se, bu o bea he a e age and exceed he no mal a e o e u n. They seek o expand no as e bu as e han o he s, o ge no he maximum amoun o income and weal h bu a bigge sha e o he o al. Now, since in he wo ld o capi alized powe a emp s o bea he a e age and edis- ibu e p o i s and asse s a e inhe en ly con lic ual, hey always in ol e s a egic sabo age. They equi e limi a ions, inhibi ions and es ic ions ha boos one’s own ea nings and capi aliza ion ela i e o – and o en by unde mining – hose o o he s. And as he impe a i e o capi alized BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 14 – la ge and la ge , hei in e nal s uc u e has become p og essi ely mo e hie a chical (Tu chin and Ga ile s 2009). Capi alism, we a gue, has augmen ed his end owa d b oade hie a chies in wo impo an ways. Fi s , he apid sp ead o he p ice mechanism means ha e e y new commodi ied ela- ionship is au oma ically added o he expanding scale- ee ne wo k o di e en ial capi aliza ion. Second, he globaliza ion o ade, p oduc ion and pa icula ly owne ship, along wi h he expan- sion o ansna ional o ganiza ions and ins i u ions, enables hie a chies o easily ‘jump’ poli ical bo de s in ways ha we e p e iously possible only h ough he cumbe some enues o eli e ma - iage, o mal ea ies o mili a y conques . 3.3 Full-Spec um Hie a chy F om his iewpoin , he capi alis c eo de can be concei ed o as a ull-spec um hie a chy, an e e -changing en oldmen o e ical s uc u es nes ed wi hin o he e ical s uc u es. Ranking he di e en hie a chies o capi alism om he mos abs ac down o he mos conc e e, we can say ha he mo e conc e e hie a chies a e egula ed by – and in his sense en olded in – he mo e abs ac ones. A simpli ied illus a ion o his en oldmen is shown in Figu e 3: he lowes le el comp ises mic o hie a chies; he mic o hie a chies a e nes ed in meso hie a chies; and he meso hie a chies a e hemsel es encompassed by he me a hie a chies. Figu e 3: The Full-Spec um Hie a chy o he Capi alis C eo de Wha do he di e en le els consis o ? Begin wi h he mos abs ac , me a hie a chies. The hubs o hese hie a chies comp ise he ounda ional ins i u ions o capi alism, including, among o he s, he no ion o ‘libe y’ ( he di e en ial La in libe a es used in o a uni e sal no ion o ee- dom), he concep o ‘p i a e p ope y’ ( he nega i e La in p i a us in e ed in o a posi i e no ion o possession), he idea o ‘in es men ’ ( he eudal powe o in es i u e einca na ed as a p oduc i e ac ) and he i ual o ‘capi aliza ion’ ( he ancien Mesopo amian capu , o head, made in o a ac- al-like algo i hm o powe ) (Ni zan and Bichle 2009: 26, 227-228; Pa III). The nodes o he me a hie a chies a e he b oad ace s o socie y – he a ious dimensions o cul u e, e hnici y, eligion and na ionalism, among o he hings. And he links ha ie he hubs o he nodes a e he BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 15 – condui s h ough which he o me g adually, and wi h plen y o se backs and e e sals, mould, le e age, in e nalize and encompass he la e . 13 A he meso le el, he hubs a e capi alis poli ies, co po a ions and NGOs, he nodes a e indi idual subjec s and he links a e he capi alis ins i u- ions, pa e ns o hough and modes o beha iou ha wea e hem in o shi ing hie a chies. And i is only a he lowe , mic o le el o his ull-spec um en oldmen ha we ind he inne s uc u es o o ganiza ions examined by Fix. So i Fix is igh in a guing ha g ea e ene gy cap u e pe capi a equi es mo e hie a chical coo dina ion, we can go e en u he : we can hypo hesize ha , as he capi alis mode o powe deepens and globalizes, a signi ican – and pe haps g owing – p opo ion o his hie a chical co- o dina ion will occu ou side he bounda ies o o mal o ganiza ions. I will ake place no only a he in es inal mic o hie a chies o co po a ions and go e nmen s, bu also – and inc easingly so – a he meso and me a le els o scale- ee ne wo ks: he hubs and nodes he e a e he ounda ional ins i u ions o capi alism, he b oad cul u al and poli ical ace s o socie ies and hei basic o gan- iza ional uni s, while he connec ing edges a e ade, p oduc ion and owne ship ies, he a ious media o ideology, eligion and educa ion, he law and, ul ima ely, he h ea o o ce and io- lence. 3.4 Going he O he Way Now, up u ill now, ou s o y has ocused on p oduc ion and ene gy: he d i ing o ce o socie y, we ha e claimed, ollowing Fix, is o cap u e o con e mo e ene gy; mo e ene gy equi es b oade and mo e complex coo dina ion; and he mos e ec i e way o achie e such coo dina ion is h ough hie a chy. In sho , in o de o unde s and hie a chy we need o ‘ ollow he ene gy’. Bu his di ec i e – al hough consis en wi h he ac s – does no eally add ess he basic ques- ion o ou a icle. I explains how powe can eme ge om a g ow h-d i en socie y, whe eas CasP seeks o deciphe he opposi e link – namely, how g ow h can a ise om a powe -d i en socie y. Recall ou s a ing poin . His o ical sys ems, we ha e a gued, a e bes analysed no as modes o p oduc ion and consump ion, bu as modes o powe . And his claim is no based on a whim. The p imacy o o ganized powe goes all he way back o he beginning o w i en his o y, i no ea lie : i has p ehis o ic lineages (P ice and Feinman 2010); i is amply e iden in he i s ci y- s a es and empi es o he Nea Eas (F ank o e al. 1946); i eappea s, independen ly, in e e y ea ly ci iliza ion (T igge 2003); and i has con inued o domina e he o ganiza ion o socie y, a almos e e y le el, e e since. Modes o powe , we posi , ely on s a egic sabo age, so i is ha dly su p ising ha mos o hem ha e been ela i ely s a iona y and expe ienced only limi ed g ow h in ene gy cap u e pe capi a (Figu e 1 and Table 1). The excep ion o his ule is capi alism, which, compa ed o p e ious modes o powe , is highly dynamic and g ows apidly. F om ou iew- poin , he e o e, he ques ion is no why capi alism needs powe in o de o g ow – simply because, in ou opinion, capi alism, like o he modes o powe , is no d i en by g ow h in he i s place. The in e es ing ques ion, a he , is why capi alism, al hough p opelled by powe , ends up g owing despi e he s a egic sabo age ha his powe equi es and en ails. Gi en hese conside a ions, 13 Think o how he ac al-like sp awl o concep s such as ‘ inancial accoun ing’, ‘in es men ’ and ‘capi- aliza ion’ pene a e and pe mea e all le els o business – om he small g oce y s o e, amily i m and la ges conglome a e, o mu ual, pension and so e eign weal hy unds, o pa en s and copy igh s – as well as o he social ins i u ions and o ganiza ion, such as he mili a y ( he capi alized ‘quan i y’ o he mili a y a senal and he ‘ e u n on mili a y asse s’), o ganized eligion (‘Islamic inance’ and ‘ ai h-based unds’), NGOs (‘cul u al’ and ‘social capi al’), wo ke s (‘human capi al’) and so on (Ni zan and Bichle 2009: Ch. 9). BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 16 – hen, is i possible ha , ins ead o hie a chy p opelling g ow h, i is ac ually g ow h ha boos s hie a chy? 4. Powe o he Sake o Powe 4.1. The Mega-Machine Begin wi h Lewis Mum o d. His book Technics and Human De elopmen : The My h o he Machine (1967) o e s a no el in e p e a ion o he ea ly ise o powe ci iliza ions – o s a es – in he Fe ile C escen . The ule s o hese ancien s a es, he a gues, disco e ed he e e nal cosmos and began o unlock some o i s sec e s, and his b eak h ough has had a - eaching dialec ical consequences. On he one hand, i enabled hose ule s o le e age ene gy in ways ha we e p e iously unimag- inable, while on he o he , i showed hem ha , compa ed o he as cosmos, hey hemsel es we e u e ly insigni ican . The esul was a massi e cogni i e dissonance – an acu e ension be- ween in ini y and no hingness, c ea ion and e mina ion, omnipo ence and mo ali y – and ac- co ding o Mum o d, his dissonance subjec ed hose ea ly ci iliza ions o a o ally new obsession: powe o he sake o powe . To mani es hei newly ound p owess while alle ia ing hei ea o dea h, he ule s o hese socie ies s a ed o play god. And hey did so, says Mum o d, by cons uc ing a social ‘mega- machine’, a highly mechanized hie a chical s uc u e ha sough o mi o hei own cosmos and make hem – he mega-machine’s o e lo ds – appea omnipo en and immo al. The isible oo p in s o his mega-machine we e phenomenal by p ehis o ic s anda ds. The subjec s o he mega-machine we e o ced o oil in he ields, dig canals, build complex i iga ion sys ems and la ge g ana ies, cons uc huge palaces, emples and megalomaniacal g a es and, las bu no leas , become cogs in la ge s anding a mies. Mo eo e , hei endea ou s mobilized ene gy a le els ha ea lie Palaeoli hic and Neoli hic socie ies could no e en a hom. Bu ac- co ding o Mum o d, hese we e all means o an end. The ul ima e goal was no o cap u e ene gy o ans o m he physical en i onmen , bu o make he mega-machine ule s eel almigh y, di ine and, abo e all, e e nal. This powe impulse, we a gue, con inues o pe mea e all so-called ci ilized socie ies, includ- ing capi alism. 14 Indeed, on his coun capi alism has only upped he an e. O e he pas wo cen u ies, i has gi en ise o a new mega-machine whose social and ene gy scales su pass hose o all o i s p edecesso s combined (Ni zan and Bichle 2009: Ch. 13). And he e oo, we main ain, he ul ima e d i ing o ce is no as e ene gy con e sion o a highe ‘s anda d o li ing’ – al hough bo h a e impo an by-p oduc s – bu he augmen a ion o powe as such. To augmen capi alized powe means o o e come esis ance. I equi es dispe sed popula- ions o be physically o i ually concen a ed and ins i u ionally locked in o a con olled social g id – and ha ans o ma ion is a ely i e e d i en om below. Peasan s do no olun ee o become u ban masses, and u ban masses do no ush o become nodes in capi alis hie a chies. They ha e o be expelled and lu ed, emp ed and condi ioned, h ea ened and o ced. Mo eo e , once ins i u ed, he imposi ion o o ganized powe ends o become sel -pe pe ua ing. On he one hand, hose who impose powe canno s op doing so: g ipped by a Gilgameshian ea o dea h, hey a e compelled o pu sue powe a all cos s; and haun ed by he Hobbesian h ea o coun e - powe , hey canno elen , e en o a lee ing momen – o i hey do, hey quickly all p ey o 14 Mum o d’s The Pen agon o Powe (1970) ex ended his mega-machine heo y o he mode n s a e, bu no o capi alism mo e b oadly. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 17 – o he powe -hung y ule s who do no . On he o he hand, hose on whom powe is imposed end o esis i – hough hei esis ance is usually in e nal o he powe s uggle i sel . In mos cases, hei esis ance ails, and e en when i succeeds he end esul usually is no he aboli ion o powe , bu a new o m o powe . I seems ha once powe - o - he-sake-o -powe ge s a hold o socie y, i becomes sel -p opelling, di icul o s op and nea ly impossible o elimina e. 4.2 The Hie a chy o E il Seen om his iewpoin , he ul ima e ole o hie a chy is o augmen no e iciency o he cap u e o ene gy mo e b oadly, bu powe i sel . One o he i s mode n hinke s o unde s and his ole was Es ienne de La Boe ie, a con empo a y o Niccolò Machia elli. His ac on he subjec , i led The Poli ics o Obedience (1975), was published in 1552-53, a bi a e Machia elli’s The P ince (1532), bu he wo wo ks could no ha e been mo e di e en . In ac , hei espec i e pu poses we e o ally opposi e: whe eas Machia elli’s o e ed a uni e sal how- o guide o he powe -hun- g y ule , de La Boe ie’s ocused on undoing y anny and domina ion in he i s place. Con a y o ecei ed opinion, says de La Boe ie, y annical powe does no es on open o ce, a leas no di ec ly: Whoe e hinks ha halbe ds, sen ies, he placing o he wa ch, se e o p o ec and shield y an s is, in my judgmen , comple ely mis aken. These a e used, i seems o me, mo e o ce emony and a show o o ce han o any eliance placed in hem. [. . .] I is no he oops on ho seback, i is no he companies a oo , i is no a ms ha de end he y an . (de La Boe ie 1975: 71) The eal bulwa k o y anny is he ‘hie a chy o e il’ (ou e m): This does no seem c edible on i s hough , bu i is ne e heless ue ha he e a e only ou o i e who main ain he dic a o , ou o i e who keep he coun y in bondage o him. [. . .] These six manage hei chie so success ully ha he comes o be held accoun - able no only o his own misdeeds bu e en o hei s. The six ha e six hund ed who p o i unde hem, and wi h he six hund ed hey do wha hey ha e accomplished wi h hei y an . The six hund ed main ain unde hem six housand, whom hey p omo e in ank, upon whom hey con e he go e nmen o p o inces o he di ec ion o inances, in o de ha hey may se e as ins umen s o a a ice and c uel y, execu ing o de s a he p ope ime and wo king such ha oc all a ound ha hey could no las excep unde he shadow o he six hund ed, no be exemp om law and punishmen excep h ough hei in luence. The consequence o all his is a al indeed. And whoe e is pleased o unwind he skein will obse e ha no he six housand bu a hund ed housand, and e en millions, cling o he y an by his co d o which hey a e ied (de La Boe ie 1975: 71-72). 4.3 Hie a chy as a Modula In o ma ion Field To bo ow Da id Bohm’s quan um heo y me apho , we can hink o de La Boe ie’s hie a chy o e il as an ‘in o ma ion ield’ (Bohm 1980; Bohm and Pea 1987). Topologically, hie a chy cons i u es a symbolic o de ha se es o de ine, en old and di ec a conc e e s uc u e o socie al ins i u ions, o ganiza ions and people. This symbolic o de allows ule s – om ancien empe o s BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 18 – and libe al p ime minis e s, h ough capi alis owne s and op execu i es, o a my o ice s, eli- gious leade s and o ganized-c ime lo ds – o con ol he ac ual s uc u e wi h minimal ene gy o hei own. Like Mas e Blas e in Mad Max’s Beyond Thunde dome – he b ainy dwa iding he shoulde s o he men ally handicapped gian – hey exe powe no di ec ly, bu emo ely: hey use he symbolic opology as an A chimedean le e o conc e e powe , dispa ching ‘sma ’ low- ene gy in o ma ion signals o unleash and di ec he ‘dumb’ high ene gy o he social s uc u e as a whole. One o he mos impo an powe ai s o hie a chy is ha i can be made highly modula and he e o e easy o discipline and quick o econ igu e. The ollowing desc ip ion o he Mongol a my o he hi een h cen u y, aken om Malcolm Bosse’s The Wa lo d (1983), depic s he su- pe io i y o a s anda dized, ully au oma ed wa machine: Fo one hing we can’ e en comp ehend hei discipline. They we e o med in o p e- cise uni s [. . .]. The e we e en housand oops o a ouman; ha was hei a my co ps. In he ouman he e we e en egimen s o one housand each, en squad ons o one hund ed each, en oops o en men each. Exac ly. [. . .] No mo e o less. They we e kep a ull s eng h. I hey had oo many men, hey wai ed in he ea – oo ew, hey b oke up he ouman and se i o he ea also. In o he wo ds, o main ain hei o de , hey’d isk going in o ba le wi h ewe men. [. . .] They mus ha e been magni icen coming ac oss he plain. [. . .] App oaching he enemy, he ea anks ad anced h ough he on ones and sho hei a ows, e i ing hen o le he on anks go o wo k. Fi e and shock ac ics [. . .]. When a supe io o ce cha ged hem – and hey we e usually ou numbe ed – hey e ea ed by signal, eg ouped by signal, u ned and i ed om a dis ance. Thei ac ics p e en ed wholesale slaugh e o hei own oops. They we e ne e apped, ne e annihila ed, al hough some imes ou numbe ed en, i een o one. They ne e ailed o execu e any o hei own who showed a momen o hesi a ion. They ne e spa ed he enemy, bu killed hei p isone s, cu ing o he ea s and sending hem home o he G ea Khan like ibu e om kings. They we e he g ea es wa io s o all ime. (1983: 517-518) This example se es o dis il he wo-way ela ionship be ween ene gy and hie a chical powe . On he one hand, a mies a e pu e powe o ganiza ions. Thei pu pose is no o c ea e, bu o des oy, so he ene gy cap u ed by hei pa icula s uc u e is a means o exe ing powe , by de ini ion. On he o he hand, since all a mies a e s uc u ed hie a chically, and since he ole o a mies is o des oy o he a mies, he e is good eason o conclude ha hie a chy o e s he mos e ec i e way o con e ing and exe ing ene gy o iolen ends – o i i did no , hie a chical a mies would ha e been de ea ed and eplaced by la e ones. 15 O would hey? 15 The emphasis on he des uc i e na u e o hie a chy da es back o he ea ly Eu opean bou gs, when he budding bou geoisie po ayed i s seemingly ‘ la ’ ma ke as a cons uc i e al e na i e o he ha oc w ecked by e ical eudal s uc u es. Al hough con empo a y capi alism can sca cely be desc ibed as la and cons uc i e (i i e e was), i s an iqua ed sel -po ai as a bene olen sys em con inues o de ine he collec i e consciousness. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 19 – 5. Coope a ion 5.1. Anabasis An in e es ing coun e example is o e ed by Xenophon’s Anabasis, o The Ma ch o he Ten Thou- sand (1901; o a de ailed analysis, see Lee 2007). Anabasis, which means an expedi ion om he coas line o he in e io , is a ale o a mili a y campaign gone w ong. W i en by one o i s pa ic- ipan s, i na a es he his o ical jou ney o a G eek me cena y a my, e ained a he end o he i h cen u y BCE by a claiman o he Pe sian h one keen o unsea his b o he . The expedi ion i sel ailed mise ably, wi h he aspi ing claiman and his en i e mili a y command slain and hei en housand ‘special o ces’ le s anded deep in hos ile Pe sian e i o y. And ha ’s when he s o y go in e es ing. Su ounded by a a la ge a my, dep i ed o p o isions and wi h no commande s o ell hem wha o do, he en housand seemed p e y much doomed. And ye , mi aculously, hey managed o bea he odds. They emba ked on a long e ea , igh ing hei way back o G eece, which hey e en ually eached wi h ela i ely limi ed causali ies. How did hey pull i o ? Ob iously, i wasn’ hei ene gy cap u e ha sa ed he day: gi en ha hei b ead h o ene gy cap u e (numbe o soldie s) was oughly 100 imes smalle han ha o he Pe sians, and since hei dep h o ene gy cap u e (ene gy pe capi a) was mo e o less he same, hei o e all ene gy cap u e was mos likely wo o de s o magni ude smalle . The key, a he , was he way in which hey pu hei ene gy o use. Based on Xenophon’s accoun , hei success could be a ibu ed, a leas in pa , o he man- ne in which hey eo ganized hei a my, con empla ed hei e ea and execu ed hei plans. Thei no el y was o in oduce a second o ganiza ional dimension. While he Pe sian mili a y was s uc u ed as a one-dimensional hie a chy o submissi e cogs, he G eek me cena ies de el- oped a wo-dimensional modus ope andi. When in comba , hey ac ed hie a chically. Bu when hey s a egized, hey did so as a ‘ma ching democ acy [. . .] delibe a ing and ac ing, igh ing and o ing; an epi ome o A hens se ad i in he cen e o Asia’ ( om Ca le on B ownson’s 1922 in oduc ion o his ansla ion o Anabasis, quo ed in Lee 2007: 9). The democ a ic impulse came om he soldie s hemsel es. Al hough ain ed by he lu e o loo , hey s ill ca ied, howe e loosely, he e hos o G eece’s demos-k a ia – he idea ha socie y should be uled di ec ly by i s own membe s. This democ a ic e hos condi ioned hem o assume pe sonal esponsibili y and coope a e as au onomous beings, which made hem no only a be e soldie s indi idually, bu also a mo e e ec i e igh ing o ce han he impe ial me cena y- and sla e-based a mies a ound hem. Mode n in e p e e s ha e o en minimized he ex en o his democ a ic momen . Bu e en i limi ed, i s e y p esence mus ha e had a c i ical impac . The challenge o he e ea ing en housands was no only he o e whelming o ce o hei opponen , he hos ili y o he local pop- ula ion and he di icul e ain, bu also he genuine unce ain y o wha migh lie ahead. Conse- quen ly, hey needed o con inuously c eo de hei wa pa h. They had o look o wa d, ponde al e na i es and weigh he odds. They had o in en new mili a y ac ics and come up wi h inno- a i e logis ic solu ions. And las bu no leas , hey had o cons an ly mo i a e and p opel hem- sel es, les hey sink in o despai . A hie a chical mega-machine o obedien soldie s canno ope a e in his way. I s size and discipline allows i o deal powe ul blows, and i modula ly s uc u ed like Genghis Khan’s a my, BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 20 – i can also be quickly ealigned o added lexibili y. Bu he buil -in subse ience o i s compo- nen s makes i unable o c eo de i s own logic – and ha is he key he e. This inabili y migh no be much o a handicap unde ela i ely p edicable ci cums ances. Bu when he condi ions change adically and unp edic ably, c ea i i y becomes essen ial, and i is he e ha he G eek me cena ies had a clea di e en ial ad an age: socialized in he cul u al con ex o a sel - e lec ing au onomy, hey we e able o ope a e democ a ically as well as hie a chically (elec ing hei own o ice s, among o he hings); he combina ion o hese wo dimensions in u n allowed hem o use he c ea i e po en ial o au onomous coope a ion wi h he decisi e o ce o hie a chical com- mand; and his usion enabled hem o use hei ene gy much mo e e ec i ely han hei a la ge ye mo e igid hie a chical opponen . Now, admi edly, his is only one coun e example. 16 Bu i is wo h elling because i illus- a es a gene al p inciple: au onomous coope a ion is inhe en ly mo e lexible han hie a chical command. As demons a ed by Anabasis, au onomously o ganized g oups can eso o hie a chy i hey deem i necessa y o do so, bu hie a chical g oups canno suddenly become au onomous. 17 And i au onomous coope a ion can boos he e ec i eness o e en he mos des uc i e o all human unde akings, wha migh i do o cons uc i e o ganiza ions and ins i u ions? 5.2 F om Powe o Coope a ion Libe al poli ical economy, pa icula ly i s neoclassical dogma, lo es o de ide bo h hie a chy and coope a ion: he o me is seen as a emnan o he ancien égime, he la e as a socialis menace, and bo h as immo al, unjus and, in he inal analysis, ine icien . A much be e – in ac , he bes – egula o y mechanism, a gue he libe als, is a Hobbesian economic wa o all agains all (pe ec compe i ion). In his c uel cosmos, cou esy o Mal hus, Da win and Spense , he i su i e and he un i pe ish. And since o be i in his wo ld means o be p oduc i e and e icien , he ne e - ending economic comba , media ed by he in isible hand (supply and demand), asce ains he bes o all possible wo lds (an upwa d-spi alling Pa e o-Op imal equilib ium). As no ed in Sec ion 2, his o icial undamen alism s a ed o so en a he u n o wen ie h cen u y, when Al ed Ma shall and Ronald Coase used ‘o ganiza ion’ and ‘ ansac ion cos s’ o b ing bo h hie a chy and coope a ion in o he neoclassical old. And he e was good eason o his so ening. The global c isis o capi alism, oge he wi h he ise o communism and ascism, coincided wi h a b oade con es a ion o he Ca esian-New onian wo ld iew. Pi ed agains he compe i i e, bo om-up mechanical cosmos, he e eme ged a mo e ‘biological’ app oach wi h 16 The ale o Anabasis indeed seems unique. Conside o example he amous 8 h Gua ds ‘Pan ilo ’ Ri le Di ision, which, simila ly o he en housand G eeks, ound i sel unde siege du ing he 1942 Ba le o Moscow. I s s o y, immo alized in Bek and Bau dzhan’s Volokolamsk Highway (1969, o iginally published in Russian in 1944), glo i ied he unb oken spi i o he ‘popula ’ So ie a my and was la e used as a empla e o o ganizing le is gue illas, eedom igh e s and e olu iona y unde g ounds a ound he wo ld. Bu he simila i y wi h Anabasis is supe icial a bes . Lea ing aside he ac ha much o he book’s plo was cynically ab ica ed by S alin’s p opaganda machine, he pic u e i po ays has no hing o do wi h democ acy and au onomy. Pan ilo ’s was a highly hie a chical a my eigned by ea and e o . The in igila ing poli uks e i ied he commanding o ice s, who in u n h ea ened and penalized hei abble soldie s. Small iola ions we e se e ely punished and execu ions we e common. This modus ope andi has li le in common wi h ha o he e ea ing G eek me cena ies. I any hing, i esembles he Ge man wi hd awal om Russia as na a ed by Rema que’s A Time o Li e and a Time o Die (1954), o he mode n eudal-like Russian a my desc ibed by Babchenko’s One Soldie ’s Wa in Chechnya (2008). 17 Technically, i we deno e all possible o ms o command-based o ganiza ions as se c and all o ms o au onomous o ganiza ions as se a, we can say ha c can be made a subse o a (𝑐 ⊂ 𝑎). Fo ou pu pose in he emainde o he pape , hough, we ea he wo se s as mu ually exclusi e. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 21 – lineages o he my hopoeic wo ld iew o he ancien Nea Eas and he o ganicis pe spec i e o he G eek philosophe s. The con es a ions came om many di e en qua e s: quan um mechanics shi ed a en ion om dis inc objec s o me e connec ions, hus ques ioning he meaning o ‘objec i i y’ and he sepa a ion o he obse ed om he obse e ; Ges al psychoanalysis ocused on he o alizing, i educible na u e o pe cep ion; and biology began o explo e he concep o he biosphe e, con- empla ing ou abili y o unde s and he li ing wo ld and i s en i onmen no only om he bo - om up, bu also om he op down, as a complex sys em whose so-called ‘eme gen ’ p ope ies anscend he sum o i s componen s ( o an o e iew and syn hesis o hese de elopmen s, see Cap a 1996). One common esul o his con es a ion was a g owing emphasis on he coope a i e unde - pinnings o li ing sys ems. In li e a u e, no elis s like Roman Ga y in The Roo s o Hea en (1958) and F ank He be in Dune (1965) poin ed o he impac o humans on ecological ans o - ma ions, while science ic ion w i e s like Ola S apeldon con empla ed he ole o symbiosis in he u u e his o y o humani y (Las and Fi s Men 1930) and in he e olu ion o consciousness mo e gene ally (S a Make 1937). In he li e sciences, biologis s and chemis s like Lynn Ma gu- lis and James Lo elock made coope a ion and symbiosis he linchpin o no only he in e ac ion o dis inc species, bu also e olu ion i sel , including he eme gence o o ally new species (Ma gulis 1967; Ma gulis and Sagan 1997), and he o e all egula ion o he plane ’s ecology – he so-called Gaia Hypo hesis (Lo elock 1972; Lo elock and Ma gulis 1974; Lo elock 2000). E en Da win’s heo y was g udgingly adap ed o ake coope a ion in o accoun h ough he concep o ‘inclusi e i ness’ (Hamil on 1964b, 1964a). The o ces o compe i ion, command and iolence, a gued he new s uden s o coope a ion, migh help keep o elimina e hings ha al eady exis ; bu , on hei own, hey canno c ea e some hing new. Genesis, hey con ended, can- no be imposed solely by o ce and iolence. I needs a ‘ olun a y’ spa k, and ha spa k, hey posi ed, is mos likely o be gene a ed h ough coope a ion and symbiosis (Ma gulis in Te esi 2011). These conside a ions bea di ec ly on he subjec o his pape . To c ea e o de – o c eo de – equi es ene gy. Bu in and o i sel , he me e cap u e o ene gy does no ell us much abou he e ec i eness o i s con e sion (i s abili y o c ea e o de ), le alone he speci ic pa e ns i gi es ise o ( he na u e o he esul ing o de ). Fo hese, we need o unde s and wha physicis -philosophe Da id Bohm calls he gene a i e o de – in his case, he speci ic ‘algo i hm’ ha di ec s he use o ene gy. And his algo i hm, i seems o us, depends c ucially on he ways in which powe and con lic in e ac wi h coope a ion and symbiosis. 6. Pa ochial Al uism 6.1 The Bi h o Human Socie ies The impo ance o his in e ac ion o he e olu ion o p ehis o ic socie ies is examined by Choi, Bowles and Gin is in hei sociobiological agen -based modelling o ‘pa ochial al uism’ (Choi and Bowles 2007; Bowles and Gin is 2011). Human beings, hey poin ou , end o be bo h al u- is ic (willing o bene i ellow g oup membe s a a cos o hemsel es) and pa ochial (hos ile o- wa d indi iduals no o hei own g oup). A i s sigh , his duali y migh seem puzzling, since, on hei own, nei he al uism no pa ochialism o e s he posi i e payo necessa y o su i al. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 22 – Bu i we conside he wo ai s no sepa a ely bu join ly, a gue Choi, Bowles and Gin is, he puzzle disappea s. The unique hallma k o pa ochial-al uis socie ies is ha hey bo h uel wa and bene i om i s consequences: hei ou wa d bellicosi y inci es iolen con lic s, while hei inne coope a ion helps hem come ou on op and eap he gains om hose con lic s. O he sociobiological ypes – speci ically ole an al uis s, pa ochial nonal uis s and ole an nonal uis s – ei he do no inci e iolence o canno bene i om i , o bo h. Bu pa ochial al uis s can and do – and unde speci ic gene ic/socie al/en i onmen al condi ions, say Choi and Bowles and Gin is, his di - e ence can become e olu iona ily c ucial. Using a ious game- heo e ical simula ions, hey show ha in si ua ions whe e (1) mos al- uis ic indi iduals a e also pa ochial and ice e sa, (2) mos pa ochial al uis s li e in g oups domina ed by pa ochial al uis s and (3) he physical en i onmen is ha sh enough o imply a s uggle o e esou ces, pa ochial al uism displaces o he modes o social o ganiza ion o be- come he no m. Such condi ions, hey hen specula e, migh ha e exis ed du ing he la e Pleis o- cene and ea ly Holocene (7,000 yea s ago, o ea lie ) – and i ha specula ion is co ec , i migh explain how he sp ead o wa boos ed al uism and ice e sa, and why human socie ies ha e become disposed owa d bo h con lic and coope a ion. 6.2. The Rise o Complex Hie a chical Socie ies This insigh is ca ied u he by cliodynamis s Ande son, Ga ile s and Tu chin, who a gue ha pa ochial al uism migh accoun o no only he co-eme gence o social powe and coope a ion, bu also he ansi ion om p ehis o ic socie ies, which we e small and simple, o his o ic socie ies, which a e la ge and complex (Tu chin and Ga ile s 2009; Ga ile s, Ande son, and Tu chin 2010; Tu chin 2016). Since pa ochialism inc eases he g oup bene i om conques while al uism makes such conques possible, pa ochial al uism, hey a gue, has made human socie y wa - p one. And since wa boos s in e nal g oup cohesion, ca alyses echnological and o ganiza ional inno a ions, and enables bigge socie ies o ump and ake o e smalle ones, he esul has been o make socie ies bigge and bigge . On i s own, hough, his explana ion is s ill insu icien . La ge socie ies, obse e Ande son, Ga ile s and Tu chin, a e a mo e di icul o manage han smalle ones, so in o de o con inue and g ow, hey ha e had o change in wo impo an espec s. Fi s , hey ha e had o legi imize la ge-scale iolence agains o he socie ies, which hey ha e done by in oducing b oade symbolic ma ke s o di e en ia e ‘us’ om ‘ hem’ (p ima ily by subs i u ing eligion, e hnici y, ace and na ionalism o he na owe ma ke s o amily and ibe). Second, hey ha e had o acili a e inwa d coo dina ion, which hey ha e done by c ea ing complex hie a chies – a social echnology la gely unknown o hei p ehis o ic p edecesso s. 6.3 The Mix and O ien a ion o Coope a ion and Con lic All in all, hen, pa ochial al uism o e s an economic-biological heo y o social e olu ion in which bo h he speci ic mix and espec i e o ien a ion o coope a ion and con lic change adically o e ime, and whe e bo h changes a e closely connec ed o he con e sion o ene gy. An ad o- ca e o his heo y migh summa ize i s e olu iona y implica ions as ollows. In p ehis o ic socie ies, ha ad oca e would a gue, in e g oup iolence, measu ed in pe cap- i a casual ies, was a mo e le hal han in his o ic socie ies ( o ample e idence on his poin , see BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 23 – Pinke 2011; Diamond 2012; Gómez e al. 2016). Bu since p ehis o ic socie ies had limi ed ood su pluses, hei ou wa d iolence – howe e deadly – could consume no mo e han a small ac- ion o hei ime and e o . By necessi y, mos o hei ene gy had o be de o ed o inwa d, li e- sus aining coope a ion. In o he wo ds, in hese ea ly socie ies, he exe cise o powe and iolence mus ha e been mos ly ex e nal and limi ed (in e m o i s ene gy equi emen s), while coope a- ion was mos ly in e nal and pa amoun . The eme gence o ood su pluses, which acco ding o many ma k he beginning o his o y, he heo y’s ad oca e would con inue, al e ed his equa ion. Socie ies – o a he hei ule s – we e now able o de o e a sizeable and o en inc easing po ion o hei ene gy o wa -making, and ha abili y changed bo h he in a- and in e -socie al dynamics. Fi s , ood su pluses allowed he amoun o ene gy de o ed o powe and iolence o ise ela i e o ha dedica ed o coope - a ion. Second, wi h mo e iolen ene gy, he socie al uni could begin o g ow by conque ing and aking o e o he social uni s. And hi d, he g ow h o he social uni – om amilies and ibes o chie ainships and e en ually s a es – mean ha powe (and, i necessa y, also iolence) could now be p ojec ed no only ou wa d, bu also inwa d, h ough complex hie a chies, mul iple h ea s and he o ganized use o physical o ce. So unlike in p ehis o ic socie ies, in his o ic soci- e ies, powe – and he h ea o iolence ha backs i up – is exe cised no only ex e nally, bu also in e nally, and i s claim on ene gy g ows in impo ance ela i e o ha o coope a ion. 18 6.4 The Spoils o Wa Wi h his unde s anding in mind, le us examine he amewo k o pa ochial al uism a bi mo e closely. As we see i , he e olu iona y a gumen he e es s c ucially on he ‘spoils o wa ’: i is he 18 This s ylized summa y – and he e we come back o ou own pe spec i e – me i s an impo an quali i- ca ion. As s a ed he e, he pa ochial-al uism hesis seems o imply ha ood su pluses ine i ably lead o a hie a chical socie y. In p ac ice, hough, ha has a ely been he case. Many small p ehis o ic socie ies enjoyed ansi o y su pluses and some de eloped ag icul u al echniques ha could ha e allowed such su pluses o be p oduced egula ly. Ye in mos cases, hese su pluses we e ne e p oduced, simply aban- doned o i ualis ically des oyed. And why? Because in hose socie ies ood su pluses had no pe cep ible use and, i allowed o exis , would ha e h ea ened he e y egali a ian unde pinning o hei cul u e (Mandel 1962: Vol. 1, Ch. 1). I seems ha he sys ema ic p oduc ion o ood su pluses ook hold only in hose socie ies whe e a udimen a y powe hie a chy al eady exis ed (o had been imposed om he ou side). Simple i iga ion echniques, o example, we e known ou side o and p io o he ise o he del a ci iliza ions, bu wi h no one o impose hem, hey we e seldom used o cul i a e c ops (F ank o 1951: Ch. 2). Acco ding o Ja ed Diamond (1999: 23), ‘de ailed a chaeological s udies ha e shown ha complex i iga ion sys ems did no accompany he ise o cen alized bu eauc acies, bu ollowed a e a conside able lag. Tha is, poli ical cen aliza ion a ose o some o he eason and hen pe mi ed cons uc ion o complex i iga ion sys ems’ (emphasis added). In he Nea Eas , he ise o la ge-scale i iga ion wen hand in hand wi h he imposi ion o new c ops, pa icula ly whea and ba ley. Unlike he di e se ange o Neoli hic plan s ha o en equi e in ense cul i a ion on small, independen plo s, whea and ba ley a e highly sui ed o la ge- scale hie a chical p oduc ion: hey a e easy o s anda dize, ela i ely high in yield, ai ly esilien and easy o s o e. Tha , in any e en , is wha we see in he i s pala ial hie a chies o he Fe ile C escen , whe e del a-i iga ed whea and ba ley made i possible o ule s o concen a e and con ol la ge mul i udes o p ope y-less peasan s and sla es, build impe ial a mies, o ganize hie a chical eligions, e ec complex bu eauc acies and de elop exclusiona y w i ing and a i hme ic. All in all, hen, we can a gue ha , in and o i sel , su plus ood – and ising ene gy cap u e pe capi a mo e gene ally – is a necessa y bu insu icien condi ion o hie a chical socie y. Fo such a socie y o eme ge, he powe d i e mus be he e o begin wi h. This powe d i e has o en o ce no only he e y c ea ion o su plus ood and ene gy, bu also i s pa icula p oduc ion echniques and speci ic end uses. Wi hou his en o cemen , he su plus would ei he no be p oduced a all o be di ec ed o non-hie a - chical ends. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 30 – hie a chies elici esis ance ha has o be con ained and gene a e complexi ies ha need o be main ained, and his ‘con aining and main aining’ equi es plen y o ene gy. 8.1 Resis ance As no ed, a mode o powe is a social o de d i en by powe o he sake o powe . The ques o powe , hough, is deeply dialec ical: i implies i s own nega ion and he e o e can exis only agains opposi ion and esis ance. This esis ance, we a gue, akes wo o ms: powe - eplacing and powe -nega ing. The i s o m is in e nal o he powe s uggle i sel , and i a ises because a emp s by one en i y o impose powe a e almos always opposed by o he en i ies ha s i e o impose his e y powe . In capi alism, o example, go e nmen s, co po a ions, labou unions, eligious appa a uses, c iminal ne wo ks and o he such o ganiza ions cons an ly con es each o he ’s powe , and his ongoing con es a ion means ha powe always aces esis ance. The same p in- ciple, hough wi h di e en con ende s, applies o o he modes o powe – om ancien ci y-s a es and empi es, o eudalism, o ien al despo ism and s a e communism. The second ype o esis ance is ex e nal o he powe s uggle p ope . I o igina es no om a ques o powe , bu om i s e y nega ion – namely, he desi e o undo hie a chy al oge he in a ou o au onomy and coope a ion. This la e d i e is o en la en , bu ied unde he dead weigh o hie a chical powe , bu i is always he e – o i i we e no , he e would be no hing o ule o e and no need o powe o s a wi h. Powe is imposed mos ly h ough o ganiza ional and ins i u ional hie a chies, and since he ques o powe is e e p esen , so is he d i e o c ea e and ex end i s hie a chies. Now, since hie a chical powe is cons an ly opposed and esis ed om wi hin and wi hou , i s imposi ion equi es ongoing s a egic sabo age: new con ende s o powe a e always lu king and need be elimina ed o a leas unde mined and con ained, while hose who a e o be domina ed ha e o be pe suaded, emp ed and o ced in o submission. And hese ac i i ies – and he e we come o he key poin – consume a signi ican po ion o socie y’s ene gy. They imply s anding a mies, o ga- nized eligion, a legal sys em, a ious bu eauc acies, police o ces, ongoing p opaganda and o he such dedica ed ins i u ions, as well as nume ous dual-pu pose ac i i ies ha physically sus ain socie y as well as main ain and augmen i s hie a chical o de . 8.2 Complexi y Mo eo e , and impo an ly, he build-up o powe hie a chies ends o eed on i sel in an ‘au o- ca aly ic sp awl’ (Ma in 2016). The s onge he imposed powe and i s associa ed sabo age, he g ea e he esis ance o i , and he e o e he g ea e he need o con ain and o e come ha e- sis ance wi h e en mo e hie a chies and addi ional sabo age. The ne esul o his au oca aly ic sp awl is o make powe -d i en socie ies appea inc easingly ‘complex’. Mos s uden s o complexi y, hough, do no accep his de i a ion. Following he biological- economic pe spec i e, hey end o hink abou social ‘complexi y’ posi i ely a he han nega- i ely, as an ine i able aspec o social scale as such. Tain e (1988, 2000), o ins ance, sugges s ha he la ge he socie y and he g ea e i s use o ene gy, he ha de i is o coo dina e; ha he g ea e he coo dina ion p oblems, he mo e di icul and in ol ed hei solu ions; and ha while he solu ions may p o ide local, sho - e m ixes, o e he longe un hey end o make socie y e en mo e complex, hus c ea ing u he p oblems in need o new solu ions and he e o e e en g ea e complexi y. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 31 – In ou opinion, hough, his posi i e easoning can be highly misleading. I seems o us ha pa – and possibly a signi ican pa – o he complexi y o powe -d i en socie ies s ems no om ying o boos e iciency, bu om ying o con ol i – and i need be, unde mine i – o powe ends. And i ou hypo hesis he e is co ec – and a his poin i is admi edly jus a hypo hesis – hen social complexi y should be examined less as a ‘p oblem-sol ing s a egy’, as Tain e calls i , and mo e as a buil -in le e o sabo age, a nega i e ea u e inhe en in any sel -p opaga ing mode o powe . Mos powe -d i en complexi ies, we p opose, a e unin ended, eme ging om he con luence o o he wise sepa a e o ms o s a egic sabo age. Take he ea ly wen ie h-cen u y des uc ion o u ban public anspo a ion in he Uni ed S a es, unde aken by he coun y’s majo oil and au o- mobile companies (Ba ne 1980: Ch. 2). On i s own, his des uc ion ep esen ed a un-o - he-mill a emp by a co po a e coali ion o augmen i s di e en ial p o i h ough s a egic sabo age. We can say he e y same hing abou nume ous o he a emp s, including he subs i u ion o he in e nal-combus ion engine o elec ic ca s, he subsidized cons uc ion o he highway sys em and he mo gaging o middle-class Ame icans in o deb se i ude. Each o hese p ocesses was p omo ed by and se ed he powe in e es s o a pa icula alliance o co po a ions and in es o s. Fo ou pu pose he e, hough, he in e es ing hing o no e is hei combined consequence – which, in his case, was he eme gence o a highly complex subu ban sp awl whose ecological des uc- i eness goes hand in hand wi h i s massi e ene gy cap u e. Nobody mas e minded his des uc- i e ene gy sp awl – and he e was no need o. When a ious ac s o sabo age con e ge, pa icu- la ly on a la ge enough scale, he g ow h o ene gy-sucking complexi y is all bu ine i able. O conside he g owing global cen aliza ion and poli iciza ion o he ood, medical and leisu e sec o s. O e he pas hal -cen u y, he in e sec ion o hese p ocesses culmina ed in he imposi ion o a cheap junk- ood die , massi e o e medica ion and he p og essi e seda ion o he popula ion h ough passi e en e ainmen and physical inac ion (Bichle and Ni zan 2016a). The ne esul o hese o he wise sepa a e o ms o s a egic sabo age is a wo ldwide epidemic o obe- si y, diabe es, hea disease and men al illness – which has in u n gi en ise o a sp awling, en- e gy-guzzling complex o social, heal h and legal hie a chies, all dedica ed o . . . ‘sol ing he p oblem’. He e oo, he esul ing complexi y has been la gely unin ended, bu gi en ha his complexi y o igina ed and con inues o be pe pe a ed in suppo o hie a chical powe , mos o he ene gy i abso bs ends up going no o li elihood and wellbeing, bu o s a egic sabo age, by de ini ion. Finally, while mos powe -d i en complexi y is p obably unin ended, some o i is clea ly p emedi a ed. Much o he ba ie -laden design o compu e ha dwa e and communica ion ne - wo ks, o example, is delibe a ely complex – as a e he Ka kaesque aspec s o he legal sys em and he in ica e and o en impene able maze o mode n accoun ing and inance. The ene gy cap u ed by his in en ional complexi y adds li le o wellbeing and li elihood and plen y o hie - a chical powe . 9. Towa d an Al e na i e Model 9.1 O e iew Wi h mos o he pieces now in place, we can begin o model, howe e en a i ely, he ela ion- ship be ween ene gy and hie a chy, he ways in which his ela ionship migh e ol e in di e en BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 32 – modes o powe and he implica ion o his e olu ion o he capi alis mode o powe mo e spe- ci ically. The ollowing i e poin s, ou lined isually in Figu e 4, highligh he basic p emises on which we build ou model. Figu e 4: F om Hie a chical O ganiza ions o Ene gy Cap u e 1. Human socie y is an e ol ing c eo de d i en by a dialec ical clash be ween imposed powe and au onomous coope a ion. A mode o powe is cha ac e ized by he manne and ex en o which au onomous coope a ion con lic s wi h and is subo dina ed o powe . 2. Powe ela ions a e pa ly o ganized h ough he imposi ion o hie a chically nes ed ins i u- ions and o ganiza ions. 3. The imposi ion o hie a chies elici s opposi ion and he e o e equi es s a egic sabo age, which in u n calls o he exe ion o mo e powe h ough g ea e sabo age and addi ional hie a chies. The esul o his p ocess is an au oca aly ic sp awl, wi h hie a chies becoming mo e nume ous, alle and inc easingly complex. 4. Since he exe ion o hie a chical powe agains opposi ion necessi a es s a egic sabo age, and because sabo age equi es ene gy o be ca ied ou , hie a chical s uc u es, ega dless o hei speci ic pu pose, consume ene gy. E e y hing else being he same, he mo e hie a chical he ins i u ion o o ganiza ion, he g ea e he ene gy needed simply o e ec and sus ain i . Consequen ly, he size and heigh o hie a chical ins i u ions a e capped by hei abili y o cap u e ene gy. Human socie y is an e ol ing c eo de d i en by a dialec ical clash be ween imposed powe and au onomous coope a ion; a mode o powe is cha ac e ized by he manne in and ex en o which coope a ion conlic s wi h and is subo dina ed o powe Powe is pa ly o ganized h ough hie a chically nes ed ins i u ions (including o mal o ganiza ions) The build-up o hie a chies elici s opposi ion, which in u n calls o mo e sabo age and addi ional hie a chies; he esul is an au oca aly ic sp awl, wi h hie a chies g owing la ge , alle and e e mo e complex The exe ion o hie a chical powe agains opposi ion equi es sabo age and is he e o e ene gy in ensi e; he mo e hie a chical he ins i u ion, he g ea e i s ene gy needs The size o hie a chical ins i u ions is capped by hei abili y o cap u e ene gy; capi alism is able o cap u e mo e ene gy han o he modes o powe and he e o e exibi s bo h as e g ow h and alle hie a chies, bu his g ea e abili y o cap u e ene gy is no necessa ily dependen on i s hie a chical s uc u es as such POWER OVER COOPERATION HIERARCHICAL INSTITUTIONS SCALE & COMPLEXITY ENERGY USE HIERARCHICAL INSTITUTION SIZE au oca aly ic sp awl BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 33 – 5. One hing ha di e en ia es capi alism om o he modes o powe is i s abili y o cap u e much mo e ene gy and he e o e c ea e a la ge and alle hie a chies, hence he co ela ion be ween o e all ene gy cap u e pe capi a and hie a chy. The pace o his p ocess, hough, is no necessa ily dependen on hie a chies being mo e e ec i e ene gy cap u e s han o he modes o coo dina ion. 9.2 Hie a chical Ene gy, Li elihood Ene gy Ou s a ing poin in modelling he ela ionship be ween ene gy con e sion and hie a chy o - ma ion is o spli he o al ene gy cap u ed/con e ed by socie y in o wo dis inc lows: (1) hie - a chical ene gy ha se es o impose, sus ain and augmen hie a chical powe , and (2) li elihood ene gy ha p o ides o subsis ence and wellbeing. Now, while he o al le el o cap u ed ene gy migh be objec i ely gi en (a leas in p inciple), i s bi u ca ion in o ‘hie a chical’ and ‘li elihood’ lows is no . As i u ns ou , his di ision is bound o be colou ed by ou poli ical, ideological and heo e ical disposi ion, and ha bias is su e o a ec he way we analyse and measu e he wo lows. So be o e u ning o he ac ual model, i is impo an o examine his spli mo e closely and pu i in some con ex . To see he di icul y, conside he ene gy spen on s anding a mies, o ganized eligion, he legal sys em, a ious bu eauc acies, police o ces, he managemen o p opaganda and he a i- ous o ms o opp essi e, supp essi e and iolen ma e ial echnologies. On he ace o i , hese ins i u ions and o ganiza ions seem p e y much dedica ed o suppo ing hie a chy – bu a e hey? Is all o ha ene gy indeed ea ma ked o ha pu pose, o only pa o i ? And i only pa o he ene gy goes o hie a chy, how do we know he p opo ion? And ha is jus o s a e s. In p inci- ple, we can say ha e e y ins i u ion and o ganiza ion se es hie a chical powe o some ex en , which, analy ically, means ha pa o he ene gy i consumes – anging anywhe e om 0 o 100 pe cen o he o al – goes o ha end. Bu how do we quan i y his po ion? O ake he ene gy consumed by social complexi y as such. Wha pa o his ene gy should be aced back o he s a egic sabo age ha made socie y mo e complex in he i s place, and wha pa is in ac nec- essa y o p o iding subsis ence and wellbeing? And i hese ques ions a e no di icul enough, conside his one: wha do we do when a gi en low o ene gy se es bo h hie a chy and li elihood a he same ime? How do we decide wha pa goes o wha end? These ques ions a e by no means unique o ou speci ic bi u ca ion he e. Al hough usually swep unde he empi ical ca pe , hey plague many o he basic di isions in poli ical economy – including, among o he s, he dis inc ions be ween ‘p oduc i e’ and ‘unp oduc i e’ labou , ‘spec- ula ion’ and ‘in es men ’, ‘was e’ and ‘use ul’ ou pu , and ‘u ili y’ and ‘disu ili y’, as well he a ibu ion o speci ic ou pu s o speci ic inpu s in so-called join p oduc ion p ocesses (Ni zan and Bichle 2009: Chs. 5-8). In ac , he p oblem is ha dly limi ed o poli ical economy as such. I pops up in any a emp o o de he wo ld, pa icula ly when he o de ing equi es ha we assign a ‘cause’, iden i y ‘ o ce’, o a ibu e ‘de e mina ion’ (Bunge 1961, 1979). No e ha in o de o dis inguish li eli- hood om hie a chical ene gy, we mus i s igu e ou wha causes ene gy cap u e o inc ease o dec ease, wha o ces socie y o be mo e o less hie a chical and wha de e mines he low o ene gy o li elihood as opposed o hie a chy. And since he answe s o hese ques ions canno be en i ely objec i e, nei he can he quan i a i e spli hey gi e ise o. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 34 – 9.3 Quan i ying Quali y: An In e pola ion To o de he wo ld we mus i s ca ego ize i s quali ies, and as he quali a i e ca ego ies mul iply, we soon ind ou sel es ying o quan i y hem. This quan i ica ion o quali ies is always P o ag- o ean. I is media ed h ough ou senses, emo ions and consciousness – in o he wo ds, h ough ou disc e ion – and his disc e ion means ha he esul can ne e be en i ely objec i e (i.e., ex e nal o and independen o ou pe cep ion and cogni ion). Fo he pu pose o ou model he e, hen, he key issue is no ha quali ies a e being ans o med in o quan i ies and ha his ans- o ma ion canno be uni e sally gi en; we ake his limi a ion as inhe en . The in e es ing ques- ions, a he , a e, i s , how his P o ago ean ans o ma ion is made o look uni e sal, who en- o ces his appa en uni e sali y and o wha ends; and second, whe he we can bypass his en- o cemen , howe e en a i ely, o yield some gene al insigh s. In ea ly ci iliza ions, he quan i ica ion o quali ies was o en associa ed wi h he imposi ion o powe – including he anking o dei ies, he measu ing o weal h, he pa celling o land, he p icing o iolence and he cos ing o p o ec ion, among o he in lic ions. One o he i s w i en eco ds o such quan i ica ion comes om a b oken Sume ian clay able , w i en some ou mil- lennia ago. The able lis s a ious o enses, assigning o each o hem a speci ic pecunia y penal y: I a man has cu o wi h an . . . –ins umen he oo o ano he man whose . . . ., he shall pay 10 shekels o sil e . I a man has se e ed wi h a weapon he bones o ano he man whose . . . ., he shall pay 1 mina o sil e . I a man has cu o wi h a geshpu-ins u- men , he nose o ano he man, he shall pay 2/3 o a mina o sil e . (K ame 1963: 84- 85; missing pa s in he o iginal) In gi ing ac s o iolence a p ice, he Sume ians e ec i ely quan i ied hei quali ies, making hem commensu a e wi h e e y o he p iced iolence – and, indeed, wi h e e y p iced quali y mo e gene ally. The ea ly penal quan i ie s p obably sanc i ied hei dec ees o make hem look he e - onomous and hence unassailable, bu in he end, hey we e hei own a bi a y doing. 24 And his a bi a y aspec , we posi , emains p esen , howe e impe cep ibly, in e e y quan i ica ion o quali ies e e since. Now, h oughou much o his o y, he quan i ica ion o powe was imposed om abo e, dic- a ed, e ed, consec a ed and egula ed by he gods h ough hei ea hly ep esen a i es – he ule s. Fo nea ly i e housand yea s, his was he only way in which his o ic socie ies engaged wi h he wo ld a ound hem. The e was one excep ion, hough: he G eek poleis. Unlike he hen- dominan my hopoeic wo ld iew in which subjec and objec we e deeply in e wined and whe e wo ldly ou comes we e o en conju ed up join ly by human agency and di ine in e en ion, he G eek philosophe s pain ed a s ic e sepa a ion. They sepa a ed he physical wo ld om bo h gods and humans, and wha enabled hem o concei e o and a ec his sepa a ion was he adi- cally di e en s uc u e o hei socie y. 25 24 The key ole o he e onomy in he e olu ion o socie ies is de eloped in he w i ings o Co nelius Cas- o iadis. 25 The emancipa ion o hough om my h and he associa ed sepa a ion o subjec om objec a e ex- plo ed in F ank o and G oenewegen-F ank o (1946). Acco ding o K ame (1948), hough, he my ho- poeic hesis – and, by ex ension, he no ion ha he G eeks we e he i s o sepa a e subjec om objec – is o e s a ed and possibly w ong. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 35 – Whe eas o he ci iliza ions we e o ganized as powe hie a chies, he G eeks c eo de ed a demos-k a ia – he i s his o ic poli y in ospec ed, a icula ed and uled di ec ly by i s own mem- be s – and his la , sel -o ganized socie y allowed i s philosophe s o en isage a cosmos inde- penden o di ine ule s and sanc i ied dei ies. 26 This independen cosmos eme ged wi h Thales, who sea ched o he common denomina o , he p imo dial subs ance ha e e y hing in he wo ld is made o . I con inued wi h Democ i us, who a gued ha all ma e – which ou senses pe cei e as a kaleidoscope o di e en quali ies – in ac comp ises a ious ea angemen o he same se o e e nal a oms. And i was u he p opelled by Py hago as, who wen on o po ay he wo ld as a quan i a i e o ali y in which e e y hing ela es o e e y hing else as a ios o wo in ege s, o a ional numbe s. Fo he G eeks, hese quali y- o-quan i y con e sions exis ed ‘ou he e’. They depended nei he on he will o he gods no on he blessings o p ies s and kings. They we e uni e sal. Bu i was only wi h he libe al-scien i ic e olu ion o he se en een h and eigh een h cen u- ies ha he quan i ica ion o quali ies was o mally and ho oughly depoli icized – o so i seemed. Whe eas he G eeks a icula ed he cosmos in he abs ac , he new scien is s wen on o sys ema ically measu e i . Fu he mo e, hey insis ed on doing so ecu si ely, quan i ying na u e in i s ‘own na u al uni s’, so o speak. Thus, he s anda d me e was de ined as a ixed ac ion o he plane ’s ci cum e ence, he kilog am ancho ed o a gi en olume o wa e , he second ela ed o he sun’s mo emen , he ampe e benchma ked o New on’s g a i a ion o ce, he kel in linked o he olume o me cu y and so on. Mo eo e , ca ego ies as such we e placed on a scale – ang- ing om he ‘nominal’, o he ‘o dinal’ o he ‘ca dinal’ – gi ing he imp ession ha shi ing om one o he o he was somehow a me e echnicali y. E en unce ain y and e o s we e gi en an objec i e shape, delinea ed by p obabili y and s a is ics. Pu oge he , hese ad ances made he laws o he uni e se look e e nal, libe a ed om he menace o poli ical in e en ion, eligious so ce y and plain human i a ionali y – o as New on amously called i , ‘ he olly o men’. 27 9.4 The Uni s o Poli ical Economy Poli ical economis s – he i s scien is s o socie y – we e pa and pa cel o his p ocess. On he one hand, he eme gence o capi alism wi h i s physical machines, mechanized social s uc u es and apidly sp eading p ice sys em, o e ed ‘na u al philosophe s’ ample me apho s o concei - ing o and isualizing he physical cosmos. On he o he hand, he new scien is s o socie y we e all oo eage o imi a e he objec i e measu es de ised by physicis s, chemis s and biologis s (Bich- le and Ni zan 2012a). Spi i ed by hese new winds o scien i ic p og ess, Je emy Ben ham, he i s scien is o pleasu e, c ea ed he elemen a y pa icle o libe alism – which he called ‘ elici y’ 26 The ole o human au onomy in he e olu ion o G eek philosophy and science is examined in Fa ing on (1969). The G eek demos-k a ia is o en c i icized o excluding women, o eigne s and sla es. This exclu- sion, hough, was p emised on he no ion ha he excluded we e no pa o he demos in he i s place and he e o e has no bea ing on he p inciple o di ec democ acy as such. Indeed, conside ing he despo ic con ex in which he G eek expe imen eme ged ( hink o Pe sia and Egyp ci ca 500 BCE), i s democ- acy, al hough co e ing only pa o he popula ion, p obably anks as he mos adical socio-concep ual e olu ion e e . 27 O cou se, in isible o mos p ac icing scien is s, P o ago as is s ill e y much wi h hem, hiding in hei human-made mechanical appa a uses, c awling in he heo ies hey use o ansla e and in e p e he sig- nals o hose appa a uses and popping up in he occasional scien i ic e olu ion o help hem objec i ely disca d wha hey p e iously conside ed objec i ely gi en (as happened in he e u a ions o he lumini - e ous e he , he s a iona y uni e se, nume ous a omic models, spon aneous gene a ion, i alism, calo ic heo y, e c.). BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 36 – (la e enamed ‘u il’ by I ing Fishe ). All human mo i a ion, he a gued, could be educed o uni e sal quan i ies o pleasu e and pain, and his educ ion, his ellow economis s ha e since come o belie e, allows us o denomina e all economic ac i i y in uni e sal uni s o ‘wellbeing’ and hen use hese uni s o disco e he sel -equilib a ing laws o libe al ( ead na u al) socie y. Ma x ejec ed his uni e salism. His o ic socie ies in gene al and capi alism in pa icula , he claimed, a e d i en no by mu ually bene icial in e ac ions among indi iduals, bu by he clash o con lic ed classes. This con lic ual se ing – which in capi alism pi s hose who own he means o p oduc ion agains hose who wo k hem – equi es a o ally di e en elemen a y pa icle. And since, acco ding o Ma x, he oo o he con lic lies in he sphe e o p oduc ion, he key uni o poli ical economy should be based on labou – he ‘socially necessa y abs ac labou ime’, o SNALT, ha ‘p oduc i e wo ke s’ mus spend, on a e age, o p oduce a gi en bundle o com- modi ies. As we ha e shown in ou own wo k, hough, he p oblem wi h hese supposedly objec i e measu es is ha hey a e no objec i e in he leas (Ni zan 1989; Ni zan and Bichle 2009: Chs. 5-8). Simply pu , u ils and SNALT canno be measu ed, e en in p inciple. Mo eo e , he e y idea ha a con lic ual socie y can be unde s ood wi h a single uni e sal measu e is an in i a ion o ouble. We ag ee wi h Hegel and Ma x ha socie y de elops dialec ically, e ol ing ou o i s inne con adic ions. Bu his dialec ical e olu ion, by i s e y na u e, in ol es bo h con lic and coope a ion, and hose wo dimensions, we posi , canno be exp essed in a single language (Ni zan 1998: 196; Ni zan and Bichle 2009: 19-21; 220-221). While he unde lying popula ion expe iences he wo ld mos ly h ough he absolu e ca ego ies o li elihood, he ule s iew i h ough he di e en ial lens o powe . And since he absolu e and di e en ial iewpoin s a e un- damen ally di e en and o en incommensu a e, i is ha d o see how hey can be b ough o a common denomina o , le alone a quan i a i e one. To unde s and hem, we need no one lan- guage, bu wo: a con lic ual language o powe and hie a chy, and a coope a i e one o sub- sis ence and li elihood. 9.5 Back o Ene gy and Hie a chy As we shall see below, al hough ene gy lows o bo h li elihood and hie a chies, he e ec i has on hese wo p ocesses is so di e en ha ‘mo e li elihood’ does no necessa ily mean ‘less hie - a chy’, and ice e sa. Mo eo e , al hough he wo lows o igina e om he same sou ce, he spli be ween hem depends, a leas in pa , on whe he we ake he iewpoin o he ule s o he uled. As no ed, hese inde e minacies haun any and e e y quan i ica ion o quali ies. The di - e ence he e, hough, is ha , unlike he libe al and Ma xis quan i ica ions, ou s explici ly ecog- nizes i s own limi a ions and is he e o e less likely – o so we hope – o all p ey o he ‘ eali y p inciple’ ha F eud a icula ed and Ma cuse so eloquen ly c i iqued. ‘In i s e usal o accep as inal he limi a ions imposed upon eedom and happiness by he eali y p inciple’, w i es Ma cuse, ‘lies he c i ical unc ion o phan asy’ (1955: 149). ‘Wi hou phan asy’, he posi s, ‘all philosophical knowledge emains in he g ip o he p esen o he pas and se e ed om he u u e, which is he only link be ween philosophy and he eal his o y o mankind’ (1968: 114). Following Ma cuse’s lead, we shall show ha , al hough he quan i ica ion o li elihood and hie a chical ene gies is always a bi a y o some ex en , his a bi a iness can be pa ly sides epped. By using ou imagina ion – o an asy, as Ma cuse calls i – we can d aw he o e all bounda ies o he wo ene gy lows, examine hei possible his o ical ajec o ies and ex- plain why he CasP puzzle o g ow h in he mids o sabo age is in ac no puzzle a all. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 37 – 10. Hie a chy-Ene gy Space and Hie a chy-Ene gy Cu es Begin wi h a gene ic mode o powe de ined by he ollowing concep s. Unless indica ed o he - wise, he emainde o he pape uses ‘ene gy’ as a sho hand o ene gy cap u e, as de ined in Sec ion 1. GJ gigajoule (1 billion joules) 𝐸 o al ene gy pe capi a = 𝐻𝐸 +𝐿𝐸 (GJ/yea ) 𝐻𝐸 hie a chical ene gy pe capi a (GJ/yea ) 𝐿𝐸 li elihood ene gy pe capi a (GJ/yea ) 𝐻 sha e o hie a chical ene gy in o al ene gy = 𝐻𝐸/𝐸 (decimal) hes hie a chy-ene gy space con aining all (𝐻, 𝐸) combina ions hec hie a chy-ene gy cu e con aining all (𝐻, 𝐸) combina ions o a gi en 𝐿𝐸 The o al annual ene gy pe capi a con e ed by his hypo he ical mode o powe is 𝐸. This o al comp ises wo sub- lows: hie a chical ene gy pe capi a 𝐻𝐸 and li elihood ene gy pe capi a 𝐿𝐸, such ha 𝐻𝐸 +𝐿𝐸 = 𝐸. The ela i e sha e o hie a chical ene gy in o al ene gy is gi en by 𝐻. Be o e pu ing hese concep s o use, wo cla i ica ions a e in o de . Fi s , as no ed in Sec- ion 9, he pa icula di ision be ween hie a chical and li elihood ene gy is subjec i e o some ex en , so he absolu e magni udes o 𝐻𝐸 and 𝐿𝐸 will depend on he iewpoin o he obse e . Ou analysis, hough, is conce ned no wi h absolu e magni udes, bu wi h gene al ajec o ies, and as we shall la e see, as long as he obse e s’ iewpoin s emain ixed, ou esul s hold o all obse e s. Second, ou dis inc ion be ween hie a chical ene gy pe capi a 𝐻𝐸 and li elihood ene gy pe capi a 𝐿𝐸 e e s no o how he ene gy is p oduced, bu o he manne in which i is consumed. Thus, bo h lows can be gene a ed by hie a chical and/o la o ganiza ions (o some combina- ion o he wo), and he modynamically, bo h can be p oduced e icien ly o ine icien ly ( ela i e o a ailable knowledge). These di e ences do no ma e o ou dis inc ion he e. The only hing ha coun s is he pu pose o which he ene gy is used: 𝐻𝐸 is used o impose hie a chical powe , while 𝐿𝐸 is used o p o ide subsis ence and wellbeing. Ha ing said ha , no e ha he e is no p esump ion ha he ene gy is e icien ly u ilized: as i s ands, a gi en amoun o hie a chical o li elihood ene gy can gi e ise o a ious le els o bo h hie a chy and li elihood, depending on he social e ec i eness o i s applica ion. Wi h hese cla i ica ions in mind, he ela ionship be ween o al ene gy pe capi a 𝐸 and he ac ion o hie a chical ene gy 𝐻 is gi en by Equa ion 2: 2. 𝐻 = 𝐸−𝐿𝐸 𝐸 Equa ions 2 is bounded, such ha 0 ≤ 𝐻 < 1. G aphically, he ela ionship be ween 𝐻 and 𝐸 aces wha we call a hie a chy-ene gy cu e, o hec, which is in u n plo ed on a hie a chy-ene gy space, o hes. We call i a ‘space’ since i ela es h ee a iables: 𝐻, 𝐸 and 𝐿𝐸. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 38 – 10.1 The Hie a chy-Ene gy Cu e Figu e 5 shows he hes wi h h ee di e en hecs. The hes is bounded om h ee sides – bo om, le and op – and is open-ended on he igh . The ho izon al axis shows he size o 𝐸 ( he ac ual o igin o he 𝐸-axis is 0; we use 10 he e o p esen a ion pu poses). The e ical axis shows he magni ude o 𝐻. Each hec aces all possible (𝐻, 𝐸) pai s o a gi en le el o 𝐿𝐸. To ei e a e, he le el o 𝐸 is objec i ely gi en, while he spli in o 𝐿𝐸 and 𝐻𝐸 – and he e o e he p opo ion 𝐻 – a e de e mined pa ly by he obse e ’s pa icula iewpoin . In his sec ion we ake he s a ic iewpoin o a gi en obse e . As we shall see in Sec ion 11, howe e , when we mo e om s a ic posi ions (le els) o dynamic ajec o ies ( a es o change), he same conclusions can be gene al- ized o all obse es. Figu e 5: Hie a chy-Ene gy Cu es Begin wi h he le -mos hec ( hick black line). This hec is associa ed wi h li elihood ene gy pe capi a 𝐿𝐸 =25 GJ/yea . When 𝐿𝐸 = 𝐸, he hec in e sec s he ho izon al 𝐸-axis. A his in- e sec ion he en i e ene gy o socie y goes o li elihood, lea ing no hing o he imposi ion o hie a chy. A all o he poin s on he hec, 𝐿𝐸 < 𝐸, meaning ha some o socie y’s ene gy goes o hie a chy. The a he o he igh a poin is on he hec, he g ea e he 𝐸. And since 𝐿𝐸 is assumed ixed h oughou , as socie y mo es up and o he igh on he hec, an inc easing sha e o i s g ow- BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 39 – ing 𝐸 goes owa d he imposi ion o hie a chy, hence he ising 𝐻. No e, hough, ha since li e- lihood ene gy 𝐿𝐸 is posi i e, he ac ion 𝐻 can ne e each 1; i can only app oach i asymp o i- cally a highe and highe le els o 𝐸. The o he wo hecs desc ibe (𝐻, 𝐸) combina ions o highe le els o li elihood ene gy: he hin ed hec is o 𝐿𝐸 =50 GJ/yea , while he dashed blue hec is o 𝐿𝐸 =100 GJ/yea . No e ha he highe he 𝐿𝐸, he a he down and o he igh he hec, and he e o e he g ea e he le el o bo h 𝐸 and 𝐿𝐸 o any gi en le el o 𝐻 ( igh wa d shi ), he lesse he alue o 𝐻 and he g ea e he alue o 𝐿𝐸 o a gi en le el o 𝐸 (downwa d shi ), o some combina ion o he wo (a shi down and o he igh ). Finally, and impo an ly, no e ha (1) a hec canno in e sec he e ical 𝐻-axis a 𝐸 = 0 (since ha would imply a socie y ha con e s no ene gy ye sus ains a hie a chy); (2) each (𝐻, 𝐸) combina ion can lie on one and only one hec; and (3) di e en hecs can ne e ouch o in e sec . Now no ice ha he hes speaks no one language, bu wo: absolu e and ela i e. The absolu e language quan i ies he lows o ene gy 𝐸, 𝐿𝐸 and 𝐻𝐸 in GJ pe pe son/yea , while he ela i e language measu es he sha e o hie a chical ene gy in o al ene gy 𝐻 as a decimal ac ion. The unde lying popula ion is conce ned mos ly wi h he absolu e magni udes: all else emaining he same, he g ea e i s 𝐿𝐸, he be e o i is. Fo he ule s, hough, he absolu e numbe s a e me ely means o an end. Thei goal is b oade and alle hie a chies, and his goal, we posi , depends no on he absolu e GJ magni ude o hie a chical ene gy 𝐻𝐸, bu on i s ela i e sha e o he o al 𝐻. To illus a e he impo ance o his linguis ic duali y, conside Iceland and No h Ko ea. Suppose Iceland has 70 GJ pe pe son/yea lowing in o hie a chy, while No h Ko ea has only 15. Seen h ough hese absolu e spec acles, Iceland de o es o hie a chy nea ly i e imes mo e ene gy han No h Ko ea. Bu when i comes o hie a chies, he ya ds ick is no absolu e, bu ela i e – and when we shi om o als o di e en ials, he pic u e in his pa icula case ge s in e ed. Acco ding o Wo ld Bank da a, No h Ko ea’s o al pe capi a ene gy is oughly 30 GJ pe pe son/yea , compa ed o Iceland’s 700, which, gi en ou assump ion abou hei espec i e le els o 𝐻𝐸, means ha No h Ko ea’s 𝐻 is 0.5 (= 15/30), o i e imes bigge han Iceland’s 0.1 (= 70/700). So al hough No h Ko ea’s 𝐻𝐸 is a lowe han Iceland’s, i s much highe 𝐻 sugges s ha , all else being he same, i is likely o be he mo e hie a chical o he wo. 10.2 Los in Hie a chy-Ene gy Space? As no ed, while he ho izon al axis o he hes is mo e o less objec i ely gi en, he e ical axis is no : i depends, a leas in pa , on he iewpoin o he obse ing analys . Figu e 6 illus a es he consequence o changing his iewpoin . The cha augmen s Figu e 5 wi h a e ical do ed line ha in e sec s he ho izon al axis a a o al ene gy low o 𝐸 = 100 GJ pe pe son/yea . Now, suppose he socie y in ques ion de o es no ene gy o hie a chy, so 𝐻𝐸 = 0. This si ua ion is desc ibed by poin C. And since e e y poin in he ℎ𝑒𝑠 can lie on one and only one hec, he ele an cu e o his socie y is hec 3. In o de o his socie y o mo e up and o he igh on hec 3, he o al low o ene gy 𝐸 mus ise and he inc ease mus be channelled en i ely in o hie a chy. Now, assume ha , ins ead o de o ing no h- ing o hie a chy, socie y spli s i s o al 100 GJ pe pe son/yea in wo, wi h 50 going o li elihood and 50 o hie a chy. This si ua ion is ep esen ed by poin B loca ed on hec 2. To mo e up and o igh on he cu e, socie y has o inc ease i s o al ene gy low 𝐸 and channel all he addi ional ene gy in o hie a chy, while o mo e down and o he le i has o p oduce less 𝐸 and cu ail he low in o hie a chy by ha exac educ ion. Finally, suppose ha ou o he o al low o 100 GJ BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 46 – de e mina ion means ha , o e he longe haul, de La Boe ie’s epelling o ce migh end up boos - ing hie a chy. By pushing socie y’s ajec o y down om and o he igh o he hec, his o ce educes he ene gy sha e o hie a chy 𝐻, leading o less hie a chy and mo e coope a ion. And i his shi owa d g ea e coope a ion ends up inc easing ene gy pe capi a 𝐸, he e e -p esen Machia ellian o ce is likely o kick back, pulling socie y back owa d he hec – hough a a highe 𝐻 han be o e. Wi h his in mind, we shouldn’ be su p ised o see modes o powe wi h a his o y o open con es a ion end up being mo e hie a chical han hose whose hie a chies emain undis- u bed. A his poin , ou amewo k is oo udimen a y o allow u he analysis o hese wo o ces. Wha we can say, howe e , is ha in o de o a mode o powe o con inue o expand wi hin he con ines o T ajec o y A, he balance be ween hese wo o ces has o change in line wi h he mode o powe ’s posi ion in he hes: de La Boe ie’s epelling o ce mus s eng hen and e en ually ex- ceed Machia elli’s g a i a ional o ce he close he mode o powe ge s o T ajec o y A1; and, con e sely, Machia elli’s o ce mus become s onge and ul ima ely su pass de La Boe ie’s as he mode o powe app oaches T ajec o y A3. I his ela i e s eng hening/weakening ails o oc- cu , he mode o powe will ei he all in o c isis (T ajec o y B) o democ a ize (T ajec o y D). 11.2 C isis The po en ial o c isis eme ges when he sha e o hie a chical ene gy inc eases while he le el o li elihood ene gy declines. This si ua ion is illus a ed by T ajec o ies B1 and B2 in Figu e 7. Recall ha when a mode o powe mo es up and o he igh on he hec, he en i e inc ease in o al ene gy pe capi a goes o hie a chy while li elihood ene gy emains unchanged. T ajec o y B1 ep esen s he ‘ ipping’ o his bo de line case: ene gy pe capi a is s ill g owing, along wi h he sha e o hie a chical ene gy, bu li elihood ene gy, ins ead o emaining cons an , is now alling. This decline is an in i a ion o ouble. As no ed, in his o ical modes o powe , ule s and subjec s do no igh o e he same hing and he e o e a ely speak he same language: he sub- jec s, p eoccupied wi h hei own ma e ial condi ions, alk in absolu e e ms o wellbeing, while he ule s, obsessed wi h powe , denomina e hei aspi a ions, ac ions and achie emen s in di - e en ial e ms and ela i e posi ions. Now, as long as li elihood ene gy pe capi a is ising (T a- jec o y A), mos subjec s emain busy wi h hei daily li es, paying li le o no a en ion o expand- ing powe , ising hie a chy and g owing sabo age. Bu when li elihood ene gy pe capi a comes o a s ands ill (mo emen on he hec), he con lic be ween he wo g oups suddenly sha pens in o ocus; and when li elihood ene gy ac ually d ops (T ajec o y B1), he clash be ween wellbeing and hie a chical powe comes o he o e. A his poin , he ule s ace a sys emic c oss oad. They can elen by es ic ing he sha e o hie a chical ene gy in o de o allow li elihood ene gy pe capi a o eco e and pe haps e en g ow (i.e., shi ing he mode o powe back o T ajec o y A1 o e en A2) – a mo e ha migh also help boos o al ene gy pe capi a (assuming ha less hie a chy and mo e au onomous coope a- ion make o g ea e socie al lexibili y). O hey can emain un elen ing, allowing he si ua ion o de ol e in o a ull-blown c isis. In his la e case, he a mosphe e becomes comba i e, he ule s ha den hei s ance e en u he , and he sha e o hie a chical ene gy con inues o ise. This u he di e sion c ea es a oxic combina ion o ising sabo age and alling li elihood ene gy, which in u n unde mines he coope a i e aspec s o p oduc ion. A his poin , he con e sion o ene gy – which p e iously was s ill ising – migh s a o decline, and when ha happens, he mode o powe shi s om a en a i e c isis (T ajec o y B1) o a ull-blown one (T ajec o y B2). To al BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 47 – ene gy pe capi a is now con ac ing, and i he ule s, eeling unde assaul , o i y hei powe wi h e en mo e hie a chy, li elihood ene gy, which p e iously declined only slowly, is bound o d op apidly. 11.3 Decline I he c isis is p olonged, he e is now a dis inc possibili y ha , ins ead o eco e ing, he mode o powe will be sucked in o a downwa d spi al and pe haps e en e minal decline. Such decline is ep esen ed by T ajec o y C. In his phase, all ene gy lows pe capi a – o al 𝐸, hie a chical 𝐻𝐸 and li elihood 𝐿𝐸 – a e alling. Bu unlike in he c isis phase, he e hie a chical ene gy 𝐻𝐸 alls e en as e han o e all ene gy 𝐸, causing he ela i e sha e o hie a chical ene gy 𝐻 o decline as well. This la e decline sugges s ha exis ing hie a chies can no longe be main ained and migh s a c umbling, b eaking down in o smalle , less complex assemblages. The mode o powe , ha - ing been signi ican ly weakened, becomes suscep ible o a akeo e by ano he mode o powe ( o example, he b eakup o he So ie Union and he abso p ion o i s emnan s in o capi alism), o comple e collapse ( o ins ance, he all o he ancien Roman Empi e, he implosion and dis- appea ance o he Eas e Island socie y o he mo e ecen ailu e o s a es such as Somalia, Congo and Sou he n Sudan, among o he s). 11.4 Democ a iza ion The adical al e na i e o c isis and decline, si ua ed on he opposi e side o he hes, is a shi owa d democ a iza ion, ep esen ed by T ajec o ies D1 and D2. We use he e m ‘democ a iza- ion’ he e no in he na ow and indi ec sense o poli ical ep esen a ion, bu in he b oad and di ec sense o ancien G eece’s demos-k a ia: he ule o he people hemsel es. F om his iew- poin , a democ a izing mode o powe is one ha educes hie a chical powe in a ou o di ec sel - ule and au onomous coope a ion, and which does so h oughou socie y. In e ms o mo emen on he hes, he main hallma k o his ajec o y is ha li elihood ene gy and he sha e o hie a chical ene gy mo e in opposi e di ec ions, wi h 𝐿𝐸 ising and 𝐻 alling. Like wi h he c isis phase, he e oo he e a e wo dis inc possibili ies: he i s , deno ed by T ajec- o y D1, is one in which o al ene gy pe capi a con inues o inc ease, while he second, ep e- sen ed by T ajec o y D2, is one in which o al ene gy pe capi a declines. T ajec o y D1 is based on he p emise, discussed in Sec ions 5 o 7, ha socie al e iciency in gene al and ene gy cap u e in pa icula a e boos ed by au onomous coope a ion, and ha unde ce ain ci cums ances educ ions in hie a chy migh se e o augmen o al ene gy pe capi a. Thus, when he sha e o hie a chical ene gy 𝐻 declines, li elihood ene gy 𝐿𝐸 ge s a double boos – one om he edi ec ion o exis ing ene gy, and ano he om he as e g ow h o o al ene gy pe capi a. A democ a izing mode o powe , hough, can go e en u he by cu ailing o al ene gy pe capi a in he i s place. This ‘g een’ possibili y is illus a ed by T ajec o y D2, a egime in which 𝐻 and 𝐸 a e bo h alling, ye , since he con ac ion o he o me is as e han ha o he la e , li elihood ene gy 𝐿𝐸 is none heless ising. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 48 – 12. Summa y, Re lec ions and Ex ensions 12.1 Cogni i e Dissonance The la e nine een h and ea ly wen ie h cen u ies we e ma ked by cogni i e dissonance. While neoclassical economis s and mains eam poli ical heo is s we e busy concoc ing a igo ous ma hema ical ideology o a pe ec ly compe i i e economy nes ed in a laissez ai e democ a ic poli y (o ice e sa), capi alism was mo ing decidedly in he opposi e di ec ion. One aspec o his mo emen was he ise o hie a chical o ganiza ions and la ge powe coali ions, including gian co po a ions wi h ansna ional en acles, la ge labou unions, poli ical pa ies and go - e nmen bu eauc acies. The o he aspec was a g owing bellicosi y uelled by mili a y build- ups, ampan acism and impe ial wa s. The pic u e-pe ec Com ean ision o a la , peace ul capi alism go e ned by olun a y p oduc i e in e ac ions was o e shadowed by an inc easingly e ical eali y o powe , coe cion and iolence. Libe als ha e eac ed o his cogni i e dissonance mos ly by denying i . The p oblem, mos o hem insis , lies squa ely wi h eali y: ins ead o playing by he e e nal libe al ules, i keeps dis o ing hem. Fo una ely, hough, he e is no eason o wo y. In he long un, eali y is deeply Gal onian: i always e e s back o i s na u al ( ead libe al) undamen als. Thus, gi en enough ime, Wilson’s Fou een Poin plan was bound o es ablish wo ld peace, jus as he dynamic s ochas ic gene al equilib ium models o ou cen al banks a e bound o Pa e o-op i- mize he global economy and es o e i s compe i i e ‘mic o ounda ions’. And i hese long- e m e e sions none heless ail o occu , i is only because, as Keynes amously pu i , ‘In he long un we a e all dead’ (1923: 80, o iginal emphasis). C i ical poli ical economis s, pa icula ly neo-Ma xis s and pos -Keynesians, ha e p e- sen ed a mo e sinis e iew. The ise o hie a chical ins i u ions and o ganiza ions and he g owing ole o powe and iolence, hey claim, we e no acciden . Capi alism, hey a gue, has been undamen ally ans o med. G owing monopoliza ion and he ise o la ge go e nmen s ha e shi ed he emphasis om supply o demand. Ins ead o coun e ac ing he alling endency o he a e o p o i emphasized by Ma x, he key p oblem now is how o o se he sys em’s ising su plus. And he main solu ion o his p oblem, many o hem main ain, is ins i u ional- ized was e – p ima ily high mili a y expendi u es, an expanding inancial sec o and massi e legi ima ion spending – ac i i ies whose ul ima e ole is o abso b he su plus wi hou c ea ing mo e o i (Bichle and Ni zan 2012b). No e, hough, ha nei he eac ion ques ions he na u e o capi al i sel . Bo h con inue o ea capi al as a ‘ eal’ ma e ial-economic en i y oo ed in p oduc ion and consump ion and he e- o e as g ow h-dependen . Powe ins i u ions and p ocesses can a ec his g ow h – and he e o e capi al – nega i ely o posi i ely, depending on he heo y, bu he impac is always ex e nal: powe in his scheme lies ou side o capi al, so i s exe cise has no bea ing on he ma e ial- economic na u e o accumula ion as such. 32 32 One o he ew o ealize he impo ance o his neglec was Paul Sweezy. In his assessmen o Monopoly Capi al (1966), a book he had co-au ho ed wi h Paul Ba an 25 yea s ea lie , Sweezy admi ed ha he e was some hing e y big missing om he Ma xis and neoclassical amewo ks: a cohe en heo y o cap- i al accumula ion. His e lec ions a e wo h quo ing a some leng h because hey show bo h he p oblem and why economics as such is unable o sol e i : Why did Monopoly Capi al ail o an icipa e he changes in he s uc u e and unc ioning o he sys em ha ha e aken place in he las wen y- i e yea s? Basically, I hink he answe is ha BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 49 – In his sense, he CasP app oach is adically di e en . He e, capi al is no a ma e ial-eco- nomic en i y a ec ed by powe . I is powe – and indeed no hing bu powe . F om his iewpoin , he g ow h o hie a chy and he s a egic sabo age i en ails do no dis o o p op accumula ion; hey a e accumula ion. Mo eo e , inso a as hie a chy and sabo age lessen socie al e iciency and unde mine g ow h, up o he s a egic Goldilocks poin o ‘business as usual’, he conse- quence is no o aba e accumula ion, bu o boos i (Ni zan and Bichle 2000: Figu es 5.1 and 5.2, pp. 79-80). 12.2 In e ing he Link Ou pape has bo h ex ended and anscended his claim. The ques ion we ha e ied o add ess he e is no why capi alism g ows mo e slowly han i o he wise can, bu how, wi h so much sabo age, i can g ow in he i s place. Ou i s s ep in answe ing his ques ion was o in e he con en ional link be ween hie - a chy and ene gy. The mains eam economies-o -scale heo y, we poin ed ou , claims ha so- cial e iciency in gene al and he abili y o cap u e ene gy in pa icula hinge on coo dina ing social complexi y, and ha he mos e ec i e way o achie ing such coo dina ion is h ough hie a chical o ganiza ions. This claim, we u he no ed, is consis en wi h he pa h-b eaking esea ch o Blai Fix, which shows ha ene gy g ow h and o ganiza ional size/hie a chies go hand in hand. Bu hen, causali y – and he e we come o he c ucial poin – could also un in e e se: whe e he con en ional eye sees mo e hie a chy gene a ing mo e ene gy, he in e ed eye sees mo e ene gy uelling alle hie a chies. Ou eason o in e ing his link was wo old. Fi s , social e iciency and ene gy cap u e, we a gued, a e o en enhanced by au onomous coope a ion. Second and mo e impo an ly, in he inal analysis, hie a chical socie ies, including capi alism, a e d i en no by he desi e o mo e ene gy as such, bu by he ques o mo e powe . Hie a chical powe , hough, and his is key, is always imposed agains opposi ion, so i s imposi ion depends on s a egic sabo age; and since he exe ion o s a egic sabo age equi es plen y o ene gy, hie a chy and ene gy cap u e end up being igh ly co ela ed. In o he wo ds, ene gy s ill plays an impo an ole, bu as a means o an end a he han an end in i sel . i s concep ualiza ion o he capi al accumula ion p ocess is one-sided and incomple e. In he es ablished adi ion o bo h mains eam and Ma xian economics, we ea ed capi al accumula ion as being essen ially a ma e o adding o he s ock o exis ing capi al goods. Bu in eali y his is only one aspec o he p ocess. Accumula ion is also a ma e o adding o he s ock o inancial asse s. The wo aspec s a e o cou se in e ela ed, bu he na u e o his in e ela ion is p oblema ic o say he leas . The adi ional way o handling he p oblem has been in e ec o assume i away: o example, buying s ocks and bonds ( wo o he simple o ms o inancial asse s) is assumed o be me ely an indi ec way o buying eal capi al goods. This is ha dly e e ue, and i can be o ally misleading. This is no he place o y o poin he way o a mo e sa is ac o y concep u- aliza ion o he capi al accumula ion p ocess. I is a bes an ex emely complica ed and di icul p oblem, and I am ank o say ha I ha e no clues o i s solu ion. Bu I can say wi h some con idence ha achie ing a be e unde s anding o he monopoly capi alis socie y o oday will be possible only on he basis o a mo e adequa e heo y o capi al accumula ion, wi h special emphasis on he in e ac ion o i s eal and inancial aspec s, han we now possess. (Sweezy 1991, emphasis added) BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 50 – 12.3 Was e as In es men Viewed om his pe spec i e, mos o he expendi u es ha neo-Ma xis s and pos -Keynesians conside was e ul migh in ac quali y as p ope in es men s. Nowadays, he e m ‘in es men ’ is used o deno e he c ea ion o new p oduc i e capaci y. Bu ha was no always he case. In eudal Eu ope, whe e he e m o iginally comes om, in es men – o ‘in es i u e’ as i was hen known – had no hing o do wi h p oduc ion. Ins ead, i deno ed legal seizu e, pu e and simple; an exclusi e es ed powe o e a gi en domain (Bloch 1961: 173; 349; Gansho 1964: 97; 126; Ni zan and Bichle 2009: 227-228). And as Veblen poin ed ou , his essen ial ea u e emains unchanged: in es men capi alizes ea nings, and ea nings a e always gene a ed and backed by he es ed igh o sabo age (Veblen 1923: 65-66). Now, i we apply his la e c i e ion o wha c i ical hinke s classi y as ins i u ionalized was e, we end up wi h a heo e ical p oblem: based on his c i e ion, mili a y expendi u es, he legal sys em, inancial in e media ion, bu eauc acies, ad e isemen , p opaganda and eligious o ganiza ions gene a e capi alis income; and acco ding he heo is s o ins i u ionalized was e, ac i i ies ha gene a e capi alis income canno be deemed was e ul, by de ini ion. Viewed om he pe spec i e o capi alis s, he key ole o hese ac i i ies is o bols e hie a chical powe ; and inso a as his bols e ing ansla es in o highe capi alized ea nings, he ac i i ies ha gen- e a e hese highe ea nings quali y as sound in es men s. Indeed, wi hou hese hie a chical in es men s he e would p obably be no accumula ion o capi al as powe in he i s place. 12.4 The Two Languages Ou second s ep in explo ing he ela ionship o ene gy and hie a chical powe was o sepa a e ene gy cap u e in o wo dis inc lows: hie a chical and li elihood. F om a bio-physical pe - spec i e he wo lows migh look iden ical, bu om a socie al iewpoin hey a e e y di e - en , i no o hogonal. Li elihood ene gy a ec s he wellbeing o he unde lying popula ion, o whom he ele an ya ds ick is absolu e (mo e joules). Hie a chical ene gy, by con as , bols e s he powe o he ule s, and since powe is a di e en ial en i y, he p ope measu e he e is ela i e (a g ea e decimal sha e o he o al). In o he wo ds, om he e y ou se , we need no one language, bu wo – absolu e o li elihood, ela i e o hie a chy. T ansla ing one language in o he o he , hough, is no s aigh o wa d. On he ace o i , bo h lows d aw on he o al ene gy o socie y, so one migh expec ha , o any gi en le el o o al ene gy, mo e li elihood would mean less hie a chy, and ice e sa. Bu in gene al his is no he case. Since li elihood is absolu e and hie a chical powe is ela i e, mo e li elihood can go hand in hand wi h mo e as well as less hie a chy, jus as mo e hie a chy can coexis wi h mo e o less li elihood, and i is his iche se o possibili ies ha needs be deciphe ed. 12.5 An Al e na i e Hie a chy-Ene gy Model Ou hi d s ep, hen, was o ou line an al e na i e hie a chy-ene gy model. The model, which jux aposes and ela es a ious combina ions o li elihood and hie a chical ene gy, o e s im- po an insigh s in o how modes o powe ope a e and e ol e. In i s gene al o m, his model can be used o examine capi alism as well as o he modes powe , and i can accoun o he ull spec um o hie a chy-ene gy ajec o ies. The ollowing poin s summa ize some o i s key ea- u es and implica ions: BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 51 – 1. T ajec o ies. Based on i s pa icula ajec o y, a mode o powe can be classi ied as expand- ing, in c isis, declining o democ a izing. 2. The wo o ces. Modes o powe a e subjec o wo con lic ing o ces: a Machia ellian o ce ha d i es o mo e powe hie a chies, and an opposing o ce, ashioned a e de La Boe ie, ha seeks g ea e au onomy and coope a ion. The balance o hese wo o ces a ec s he pa icula ajec o y a mode o powe ollows. 3. G owing h ough sabo age. In an expanding mode o powe such as capi alism, he balance o hese wo o ces allows bo h he hie a chical sha e o ene gy and he le el o li elihood ene gy o ise. In his ajec o y, he absolu e low o hie a chical ene gy always g ows as e han o al ene gy, which in u n means ha headline measu es o g ow h end o o e s a e he g ow h o wellbeing, possibly by a e y wide ma gin. In his sense, we can say ha a mode o powe g ows, a leas in pa , no despi e o because o sabo age, bu h ough sab- o age. 4. Ene gy leads hie a chy. Since e ec ing and main aining hie a chies equi e ene gy, he g ow h o ene gy se s he uppe limi on he g ow h o hie a chy. Now, since hie a chy is no necessa ily he mos e ec i e way o cap u ing ene gy, and gi en he e e -p esen ques o mo e hie a chical powe , i seems mo e likely ha ene gy leads hie a chy a he han he o he way a ound. 5. The dialec ics o esis ance. When success ul, esis ance o powe ends o educe hie a chy. This educ ion, hough, migh no las o long: success ul esis ance augmen s au onomy, and i we a e co ec o a gue ha g ea e au onomy ends o boos he cap u e o ene gy, he esul is o ele a e he ene gy cap on hie a chy and he e o e enable he e ec ion o e en alle hie a chies. This ype o lexible zig-zag migh explain why capi alis hie a chies, be- ing subjec o pe iodic con es a ions, a e b oade and alle as well as mo e esilien han hose o o he modes o powe . 6. C isis and decline s. democ a iza ion. Le unchecked, he Machia ellian ques o e e mo e powe in i es c isis, and possibly decline and collapse. The opposi e o ce, de La Boe ie’s ques o au onomy, o e s an opening o democ a iza ion. His o ically, he o me o ce seems s onge han he la e : mos modes o powe expand, all in o c isis and occasion- ally decline and disin eg a e; only on a e occasions do hey mo e owa d g ea e au on- omy – and when hey do, he expe ience is usually sho -li ed. 7. Closed s. open his o ies. An expanding mode o powe is locked in o a na ow pa h whe e he hie a chical sha e o ene gy and he absolu e low o li elihood ene gy bo h ise. By con as , c isis and democ a iza ion a e mo e open-ended. 33 In bo h o hem, he e is a his o ical choice o be made. In he case o c isis, he ule s mus decide whe he o lessen hei p essu e and allow li elihood ene gy o e-expand, o p ess o e en alle hie a chies a a isk o sys emic disin eg a ion and decline. Simila ly wi h democ a iza ion. He e, i is 33 We a e indeb ed o Daniel Mou e o poin ing ou his impo an di e ence. BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 52 – he con es ing unde lying popula ion ha aces a choice: i can ei he allow o al ene gy pe capi a o con inue ising (and in so doing lea e he doo open o alle hie a chies in he u u e), o i can in ensi y he p essu e owa d a g een, de-g ow h socie y and he adical disman ling o hie a chies. 12.6 Looking Ahead The o ganiza ion o socie y in gene al and i s hie a chical s uc u es in pa icula a e in ima ely connec ed o ene gy. Wi hou unde s anding his c ucial connec ion, any e o o undamen- ally change socie y is likely o be u ile a bes and disas ous a wo se. And ye , as i s ands, his connec ion, pa icula ly when applied o he apidly changing capi alis epoch, emains highly opaque: we know sca cely any hing abou hie a chies; sa e o b oad gene aliza ions, we know e en less abou he social ole o ene gy; and we a e p e y much in he da k ega ding he way in which hey in e wine. The challenge he e is bo h heo e ical and empi ical. The inno a i e wo k o Blai Fix shows ha he size and inne hie a chies o co po a ions and go e nmen s a e posi i ely co - ela ed wi h o al ene gy pe capi a. Bu his is me ely he bo om o he hie a chical icebe g. The mic o hie a chies o o ganiza ions a e hemsel es nes ed in meso and me a hie a chies ha ank and connec o ganiza ions, ideas and he socie al algo i hms ha go e n hei ac ions, and his ull-spec um hie a chy is ye o be concep ually and empi ically mapped, e en en a i ely. The o he challenge is o heo ize and measu e he basic spli be ween hie a chical and li elihood ene gy. As no ed, his spli is always colou ed by ou heo e ical and ideological disposi ions and can he e o e ne e be en i ely objec i e. Bu gi en i s c ucial impo ance o unde s anding powe and esis ance o powe , i is necessa y ha we concei e o ways o de ine and quan i y i , howe e b oadly and inaccu a ely. Con empo a y capi alism seems o be pushing he na u al and heo e ical en elope. I s g owing ene gy cap u e h ea ens he s abili y o he plane ’s biosphe e, esou ces and clima e, while i s ideology denies ha , soon enough, his en i e egime is bound o come o a sc eeching hal . The ma h on his ma e is s aigh o wa d. I o e all ene gy cap u e con inues o expand a he same a e i has g own o e he pas cen u y ( oughly 2.3 pe cen a yea ): In 275, 345, and 400 yea s, we demand all he sunligh hi ing land and hen he ea h as a whole, assuming 20%, 100%, and 100% con e sion e iciencies, espec i ely. In 1350 yea s, we use as much powe as he sun gene a es. In 2450 yea s, we use as much as all hund ed-billion s a s in he Milky Way galaxy. (Mu phy 2011) The con en ional iew is o blame his impasse on ‘ou wan s’. E en Ea l Cook, one o he i s o map he his o y o ene gy cap u e, ell in o his neoclassical ap o e e nally ‘unsa ia ed desi es’: The mo e powe an indus ial socie y disposes o , he mo e i wan s. The mo e powe we use, he mo e we shape ou ci ies and mold ou economic and social ins i u ions o be dependen on he applica ion o powe and he consump ion o ene gy. (Cook 1971: 140, emphases added) BICHLER & NITZAN • G owing h ough Sabo age – 53 – Bu as his a icle has ied o poin ou , he eal o ce d i ing his p ocess is no ou hedonic desi es, bu he ule s’ ques o powe . Much o he ene gy cap u ed by humani y is no used o imp o e li elihood, bu o o i y hie a chies, no o boos wellbeing, bu o uel s a egic sabo age. Fo he as majo i y o he wo ld’s popula ion, his ene gy is bes le uncap u ed. Bu in o de o us o mo e in ha di ec ion, we need o unde s and how ene gy is used o subjuga e us. Wi hou his knowledge, e en i ske chy, we will con inue o hink and ac blind- oldedly. 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