Mothering, Habitus and Habitat: The Role of Mothering as Moral Geography for the Inequality Impasse in Urban Education

Blokland, Talja A icle — Published Ve sion Mo he ing, Habi us and Habi a : The Role o Mo he ing as Mo al Geog aphy o he Inequali y Impasse in U ban Educa ion Tijdsch i oo economische en sociale geog a ie P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: John Wiley & Sons Sugges ed Ci a ion: Blokland, Talja (2023) : Mo he ing, Habi us and Habi a : The Role o Mo he ing as Mo al Geog aphy o he Inequali y Impasse in U ban Educa ion, Tijdsch i oo economische en sociale geog a ie, ISSN 1467-9663, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 115, Iss. 2, pp. 206-220, h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/ esg.12576 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/290346 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. 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Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. MOTHERING, HABITUS AND HABITAT: THE ROLE OF MOTHERING AS MORAL GEOGRAPHY FOR THE INEQUALITY IMPASSE IN URBAN EDUCATION TALJA BLOKLAND Uni e si ä ss aße 3b, Be lin, Ge many. E- mail: [email p o ec ed] (Co esponding au ho ) Recei ed: June 2023; accep ed June 2023 ABSTRACT Following Bou dieu, esiden ial loca ion as habi a may p o ide spa ial p o i when i ma ches wi h a habi us – bu how? How can we concep ualize si ua ions o misma ch be ween habi a and habi us, and wha may hey mean o u ban inequali ies? This a icle explo es his opic h ough he lens o mo he ing p ac ices in elemen a y schools. Quali a i e in e iews in wo neighbou hoods in Be lin, Ge many, sugges how mo al geog aphies a in e sec ions o class and ace/e hnici y s uc u e pa en s’ oppo uni ies o o ganize esou ces o child en in hei speci ic spa ial con ex s. I a gues ha mo he ing p ac ices can help us see no jus ha , bu how habi us and habi a a e ela ed. Empi ically, i sugges s ha he mo al geog aphies in which hese schools a e embedded ein o ce he exclusiona y consequences o hei ins i u ional p ac ices. I heo ize ha he mo al geog aphies o neighbou hoods as si es o mo he ing p ac ices is- à- is he class- based s a e logics in ins i u ions may con ibu e o an u ban impasse o educa ional inequali y. Key wo ds: Mo al geog aphy; mo he ing; pa en s; u ban educa ion; Be lin; quali a i e in e iews INTRODUCTION Seg ega ed ci ies ha e unequal neighbou - hood ou comes, o example, in educa ion (Sykes 2011; Be nelius & Vaa o aa a 2016; Bo e man e al.2019). Depending on whe e chil- d en li e (Blokland & Vie 2021), elemen a y schools wo k di e en ly o hem, and social po- si ions a e ep oduced ( an Zan en2003). The li e a u e shows ha he condi ion o ou exis- ence, o habi us (Bou dieu1990, p. 52), plays an essen ial ole in such ep oduc ion, as he habi us gene a es ‘no ma i e p opensi ies o ac ual social p ac ices’ in ac ual places like neighbou hoods (F iedmann 2008, p. 316; also Sa age 2011). Neighbou hoods may hus p o ide spa ial p o i when he place whe e we a e ‘si ua ed’, o ou habi a (Bou dieu2018, p. 107, Bou dieu 1994), ein o ces ou habi us. Bu wha happens when ou habi us is ou o place? Wha sub le exclu- sions may ake place hen? How can we concep- ualize misma ches be ween habi a and habi us? And could such a concep ualiza ion con ibu e o ou unde s anding o he u ban impasse in educa ional inequali y (c . an Zan en2005)? Public elemen a y schools a e good cases o s udy he e e yday spa iali y o (sub le) ex- clusions a he in e sec ion o ace/e hnici y, class and gende bo h ho izon ally be ween ci - izens and e ically in ci izen- s a e ela ions. In Be lin, Ge many, he public school sys em wi h ca chmen a eas and a s ong no m ha chil- d en should be able o walk o school makes schools impo an local ins i u ional hubs. These schools a e also examples o spa ially ixed s a e ins i u ions. This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-NoDe i s License, which pe mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non-comme cial and no modi ica ions o adap a ions a e made. MOTHERING, HABITUS AND HABITAT 207 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. S a e logics, one o he co e concep s in he in oduc ion o his hema ic issue, a e pu o p ac ice in schools. On he scale o ‘mic o- social p ocesses’ (Go don1996, p. 420) such as hose in schools and neighbou hoods, ules, egula- ions and no ms a e implemen ed h ough ela- ions. Educa ional ou comes a e hus con ingen on ‘social ela ions and pe cep ions’ (Go don, idem). This is one way in which inequali ies o po- si ions and loca ions a e ‘s abilized’ (also: G i i h & Smi h 2005, p. 126). I has o en been said ha a gene al alue sys em o e en hegemony o middle- class alues ules educa ion pe se (Bou dieu & Passe on 1990; Ka s en2003). Bu , ollowing Smi h (1987), he e e ydayness o such ulings mus be s udied: i is unclea how such ul- ing o ela ions is done.1 How does i happen? The eme gence o uling egula ions can be cap u ed wi h he b idging concep o mo al geog aphies, place- oo ed cul u es de eloping om people doing hings. Th ough he lens o ‘mo he ing’, his a icle shows no jus ha , bu how habi us and habi a a e ela ed. I hus ex- pands G i i h and Smi h’s a gumen (G i i h & Smi h 2005, p. 127) ha amily- school e- la ions o m one o he engines o inequali y as hey ‘in e lock’ he educa ional wo k ha women do in and o schools. My a icle is no p ima ily mean as an empi ical con ibu ion. I do no add ess he educa ional choices and s a egies o pa en s. I compa e p ac ices o mo he ing in schools in wo neighbou hood con ex s o explo e he possible alue o apply- ing he concep o mo al geog aphy o ‘b idge’ habi a and habi us. I de elop he hesis ha a misma ch con ibu es o an u ban impasse o educa ional inequali y: whe e mo he s a e in he ci y in luences no ms o mo he ing p ac- ices. This, in u n, may in luence inequali y. LITERATURE REVIEW Two se s o li e a u e help shed ligh on his hesis. Fi s , Bou dieu’s wo k on habi us and habi a , which is also cen al in many s udies o school seg ega ion (Bu le & Hamne 2007; Reay 2007; Vowden 2012). Rep oduc ion o class inequali ies elies on people doing hings, as well- s udied o he middle classes (Bu le & Robson2003; Skeggs2004). As an Zan en(2009) w o e, bo om- up p ac ices a ec he shape o educa ional policies (and school’s o ien a ions ollowing hese). Such p ac ices hus ma e o inequali y, as does space. School choice esea ch abundan ly makes his poin (Ball & Niki a 2014; B eidens ein e al.2014; La eau & Goye e2014). I in es i- ga es how pa en s assess and selec s o ci cum- en he ins umen al and exp essi e o de s o speci ic schools (Be ns ein 1977 ci ed in Vowden 2012, also Kosunen 2014) while sea ching o a ‘good mix’ (Vowden 2012). As Ra eaud and an Zan en (2007) demon- s a ed o London and Pa is middle classes, his en ails e hical dilemmas. Kosunen shows ha Finish middle- class pa en s make school choices h ough e alua ions o school epu a- ion especially by ‘social su oundings in he school’ (Kosunen2014, p. 449, my i alics) o he school’s o ganiza ional habi us (see also Reay e al. 2001; Nas 2016, 2020; Vaughan2008). In Bell’s (2009) wo k on De oi ’s pa en al sec- onda y school choices, pa en s asc ibe mean- ings o loca ions o schools be o e making decisions. Be nelius e al.(2021, p. 162) show ha pa en s in Helsinki d aw on na a i es o neighbou hood hie a chies o o m iews on school epu a ions. Neighbou hoods, howe e , a e p edominan ly discussed as spa ial imagi- na ies in his wo k, and less s ongly de eloped as ela ional se ings (Blokland2017). This schola ship aims o unde s and school choice. I does no discuss how neighbou hoods as ela ional se ings eed in o how pa en ing is done in schools. Indeed, mos s udies add ess pa en s’ s a egies be o e en e ing schools (Teske & Schneide  2001; No eisch 2007; Gold ing & Phillips2008; Bu gess e al.2015) o ge one’s child in he ‘ igh ’ school o e en class- oom (Ra eaud & an Zan en2007; Blokland & G osse- Lösche 2016). This is no enough o secu e cul u al capi al, gi en how eache s clas- si y s uden s (Oa es2003; Diamond e al.2004; Redding2019). Teache s also assess pe cei ed pa en al quali ies (Combe  1998; Why e & Ka abon2016): ‘close, coope a i e and ‘posi- i e’ amily- school ela ionships’ inc ease edu- ca ional ou comes (Weininge & La eau2003, p. 376; Eps ein1987). Schools ha e ‘s anda d- ized iews o he p ope ole o pa en s in schooling’, acco ding o La eau(1987, p. 73). Pa en s hus need ‘cul u al knowledge’ o ‘how ins i u ions wo k’ (La eau2015, p. 2). TALJA BLOKLAND208 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. Bu do schools ha e one s anda d iew? Nas  (2016) e hnog aphically in es iga ed how wo Be lin neighbou hoods in luenced o ganiza ional p ac ices in schools o anal- yse wha di e en neighbou hoods p o ide a he han wha agg ega ed ou comes hey p oduce (Nas  2016, p. 52 a e Blokland e al. 2016). Depending on he neighbou - hood con ex , ‘o ganiza ional p ac ices’ o eaching, ul illing o mal and ecognizing p oblems and needs ‘di e [ed] conside - ably be ween [ he wo schools]’ (Nas 2016, p. 190). Pa en s c ea ed ‘islands’ o hei own child en in ce ain class ooms (Nas 2016, p. 191). In schools wi h e y di e se popula ions, social seg ega ion wi hin class- ooms be ween s uden s may occu ( o ex- ample: K onenbe g e al. 2021). Nas and Blokland(2014) showed, howe e , ha child- ela ed social capi al may also eme ge among pa en s ac oss bounda ies. They a gued ha he wo kings o he spa iali y o social and cul u al capi al may equi e addi ional wo k om a ela ional angle. Geog aphy’s ela ional u n o ‘ ela- ions h ough which space is cons uc ed’ (Massey 2005, p. 101) esona es wi h e- la ional sociology. This app oach can be summa ized in he image o inequali y as ‘donu - shaped’ (Ze uba el 1991, p. 77). Ou wa ds, ela ional bounda y wo k pushes people o e edges a he in e sec ion o hei ace/e hnici y, class and gende by ac i e exclusions.2 Inwa ds, p ocesses o ‘oppo u- ni y hoa ding accumula e ad an ages on one side o he o he o a ela ion, o i ied by cons uc ion o social ca ego ies ha jus i y and sus ain unequal ad an age’ (Tilly2001, p. 362). Bou dieu e e ed o such bounda y- wo k as club- e ec s. When club- e ec s con- cen a e spa ially, he assumes ‘spa ial p o i ’. In o he wo ds, Bou dieu expec s ha he o i ying o ca ego ies ma ch habi us – he condi ioning associa ed wi h pa icula con- di ions o exis ence as people cons i u e i in p ac ice (Bou dieu1990, p. 52) – wi h habi- a . Bou dieu de ines habi a as ‘ou come’ o habi us leading o whe e ‘each agen being cha ac e ized by he place whe e he o she is si ua ed mo e o less pe manen ly (…) and by he ela i e posi ion ha he localiza ions (…), occupy in ela ion o he localiza ions o o he agen s.’ (Bou dieu 2018, p. 107). Bou dieu’s habi a is hus no an ecological uni . I does no desc ibe a neighbou hood o a speci ic ins i u ion, like a school. Habi a is he cha ac e iza ion o he agen h ough his o he asc ibed loca ion, usually a place o esidence. I includes he many p opensi ies o ac ual p ac ices o o he s in his loca ion ha con i m he dis/cong uence wi h one’s indi idual habi us. When people use music classes, playg ounds, swimming lessons o school class ooms locally, hese ins i u ional se ings p o ide a cong uen habi a whe e pa en s wi h simila posi ions can lean on one ano he o ep oduce s a us. In highly he e ogeneous neighbou hoods, neighbou - hood ins i u ions may no uncondi ionally acili a e such a habi a . Bou dieu does, how- e e , li le o show how habi us and habi a connec . While he e a e many dimensions o a habi a , one is he se o ideas and p ac ices o wha i means o ‘mo he ’, and his is he ocus o his a icle. This dimension may wo k as a mo al geog aphy: ‘a localized discou se [on] wha is conside ed igh and w ong in he aising o child en’ (Holloway 1998, p. 31; Philo1991). This idea d aws on he second se o li - e a u e: li e a u e on mo he ing. Mo he ing, as a subse o pa en ing mo e gene ally (Ga ell2005, pp. 145– 147) is a se o p ac- ices o women doing ca e wo k o de- penden child en. I eaches beyond he ‘ins umen al ac o mee ing child en’s needs’ (E e ingham 1994, p. 6), some imes discussed as ‘emo ional capi al’ (Reay2000; Alla 1993; Hochschild1989), and is embed- ded in spa ial se ings: While nu u ing, women a e guided by he pa - icula i ies o hei si ua ion. Thei decisions a e con ex - dependen and embodied, esponsi e o, and o en highly p eoccupied wi h, he a ec i e sig- nals o hose a ound hem. (E e ingham1994, p. 7) Mo he ing as a no ma i e ideal o he e o- sexual women in nuclea amilies s aying home o ake ca e o child en does no ma ch wi h many women’s and child en’s eali ies (Young 1997; Glenn e al. 1994; DiQuinzio1993). As imagina ion, i cen al- izes whi e middle- class women’s posi ions o e o he posi ionali ies (Glenn e al.1994; MOTHERING, HABITUS AND HABITAT 209 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. Collins 2000). I is poli ically necessa y o b oaden his iew o mo he ing. Bu when go e nmen s alk abou pa en ing, hei ‘benchma k o good pa en ing’ is s ill wha women in he e ono ma i e amily se ings do (Ga ell2005, p. 3). I is he e o e use ul o include he gende ed na u e o habi us, hab- i a and he mo al geog aphies ha ame women’s ac ions. Mo he ing is a his o ically a iable, no na - u al se o ‘dynamic in e ac ions and ela ion- ships, loca ed in a socie al con ex o ganized by gende and in acco d wi h he p e ailing gende belie sys em’ (A endell2000, p. 1193; Ge son & Peiss1985, p. 320; Hays1996, p. 6) and ‘his o ically, socially, cul u ally, poli ically and impo an ly, mo ally shaped’ (Mille 2005, p. 3). To no e he dominance o his imagina- ion in ‘socie y’ alone does no explain well how i wo ks. The ‘mo he ing obliga ion’ ha women ‘a e cha ged wi h (…) o he mo al ain- ing o hei child en’ (Kaplan 1997, p. 67) b ings women’s emo ional capi al in a pa ic- ula ela ionship o he s a e ( an den Be g & Duy endak2012, p. 557). This ci izen- s a e ela ionship is ac ualized in localized posi ions o women in e ac ing wi h ins i u ions like ele- men a y schools. Schooling a child is no only pa en ing o he bes o one’s child, as dis- cussed in much o he educa ion s udies which see educa ion as consump ion (Holloway e al.2010). I is also he ac ing ou o a ela ion o s a e and ci izens, each om hei logics. S a e demands on women a e ‘gea ed owa ds ein o cing exis ing o ms o s a e and socie y’ (Pa eman 1989, pp. 10– 11). Mo he ing his is no an isola ed p ac ice behind he doo s o he home, no a se o pa en ing decisions alone, bu a p ojec in which socie y has es ed in e es s. Neo- libe aliza ion has inc eased he ‘ ole o e e yday agen s’ as ‘idealized ci izens’ in public (Holloway & Pimlo - Wilson2012,p. 640; Boye 2020). Mo he ing, as G i i h and Smi h (2005) showed, consis s o mundane asks o mo he s ensu ing o schools ha schools unc ion. Much mo he ing li e a u e e alua es i s challenges wi hou explici a en ion o spa- iali y, and ocusses on he home (Johnson & Johns on 2019, p. 14). Geog aphies o child ea ing (Ka s en2003) and amily o ma ions (Duncan & Smi h 2002; Hall 2016; Tu ne & Almack 2019) discuss mo al geog aphies as ‘place- oo ed cul u es’ ha ‘shape and alida e mo he s’ choices’ (Holloway 1999, p. 456). This schola ship impo an ly connec s class o space, and mo he ing o powe ela ions (Johnson & Johns on2019, p. 12). Class, howe e , is o en asc ibed and no ela ionally s udied (Eps ein1987; G aue & Walsh1998; Vincen & Ball2007). In ensi e mo he ing, ‘wholly child- cen ed, emo- ionally in ol ing, and ime consuming’ (A endell2000, p. 1201) and ‘conce ed cul- i a ion’ (La eau 2015) a e ound in whi e middle class, he e osexual dual- pa en nu- clea amilies ha laws and policies gene ally assume as no ma i e model. The li e a u e desc ibes well ha women eel p essu ed o do igh by hei child en: a class- based ideology ep oduces he middle classes and ‘ci ilizes’ o he s in o good ci izens. I also demons a es powe ully how women in e - nalize his in child- ea ing iews and school choice mo i es. Less clea is how such iews a e pu in o p ac ice when mo he s do hings in locali ies. How do ‘cul u es oo in place’ (Holloway 1999, p. 456) and how do habi us and habi a ela e? METHODOLOGY My explo a ion o his ques ion d aws on ‘Mo he ing in he Me opolis’, a esea ch p ojec on how women o ganize esou ces o child en in a ious neighbou hood con- ex s, consis ing o semi- s uc u ed in e - iews and e hnog aphic no es be ween 2010 and 2014. We conduc ed 39 in e iews in a Be lin neighbou hood ‘Dee ield’ and 37 in ‘Fo es Lake’, ansc ibed and coded in MAXQDA.3 Pa icipan s we e ec ui ed in public elemen a y schools h ough emailing pa en s in wo classes in a Fo es Lake school, a school- wide email in one Dee ield school (D1), and snowballing om ou con ac s in school D2. All bu wo pa en s who ag eed o in e iews iden i ied as women. Fou in e - iewees had child en on a second Fo es Lake school; in Dee ield, 18 in e iewees had child en in school D1, 16 in school D2 and 5 in a hi d school.4 In e iewe s isi ed mos TALJA BLOKLAND210 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. in e iewees a hei homes and, in Dee ield, in he school’s ca é (D2). In e iews las ed om 40 minu es o 2.5 hou s. Two public schools had special educa ional p og ams: a Mon esso i p og am (Fo es Lake), and a p og am o in ellec ual gi edness (D1). S ic ly speaking, hese schools we e no neighbou hood schools as hei admissions did no depend on ca chmen a eas. Ye , all bu h ee in e iewees li ed close o he schools. D1’s p og am may ha e made he school socio- economically mo e di e se han D2 (bu Be lin makes no s a is ics a ailable on his). Wi h no sys ema ic sampling, i is impossible o d aw empi ical gene aliza ions om he da a, no is his in ended. Following a p agma ic- ealis app oach, I compa e he con ex ual condi ions (as in Saye  2000, p. 118) o he p ac ices o mo he ing (as women e old hem when hey spoke wi h us) in pa icula schools in pa icula neighbou - hoods5 whe e hey we e posi ioned and lo- ca ed in o de o add ess a heo e ical conce n. Fo es Lake is an ea ly 20 h cen u y ‘ illa colony’, bu also has ou - s o y 1970s apa - men buildings. Dee ield was buil o wo ke s in he la e 19 h cen u y, wi h housing s ock e- newed and added a e WWII. The indica o s in Table1 sugges di e ences in economic and cul u al capi al, which was he eason o choose he esea ch si es. Dee ield sco es low in s a is- ics on school pe o mance. Fewe pupils con- inue in he uni e si y- p epa a ion high- school acks han in Fo es Lake (Vie 2014). As we will see, mo he s wi h s ong cul u al class po- si ions in Dee ield cons uc ed ad an ages ou o his di e ence, whe eas mo he s wi h cul- u al esou ces di e gen om local s anda ds in Fo es Lake did no . MOTHERING THROUGH PARTICIPATION Schools depend on he habi us o eache s, child en and pa en s o do hings, in cong u- ence wi h unw i en ules, localized expe i- ences and expec a ions, embedded in s a e logics o law and o s a e policy demands (Holloway & Pimlo - Wilson 2012, p. 641). Schools hus e eal he ela ion o ci izens and he localized s a e, because habi us gene a es ‘common sense beha io s’ possible wi hin ‘limi s o egula ions’ and excluding ‘ex a - agances’ (Bou dieu1990, p. 57). The habi us enables an ins i u ion i s ‘ ull ealiza ion’: An ins i u ion (…) is comple e and ully iable only i i is du ably objec i ied no only (…) in he logic, anscending indi idual agen s o a Table 1. S anda d demog aphic da a on Dee ield & Fo es lake. Dee ield Fo es lake S anda d demog aphic da a (in e iews) Numbe o in e iews 39 37 Numbe o child en (mean) 2.24 2.32 Numbe o child en (median) 2 2 Sha e o single mo he s 23.68% 18.75% Mo he s wi h highe educa ion (M.A., Ph.D.) 16.66% 66.66% Mo he s wi h seconda y school deg ee o less 22.22% 20% Median Income (based on a e aged income classes) 16.500 € 71.500 € A e age Income (based on a e aged income classes) 20.821 € 66.000 € S anda d da a o neighbou hoods (ci y council) Popula ion ( o al) 29,707 11,156 Sha e o child en unde 12 9.54% 9.63% Sha e o popula ion wi h mig a ion backg ound 51.45% 28.9% Sha e o unde age popula ion wi h mig a ion backg ound 75.26% 29.34% Fo eign ecipien s o social wel a e 31.03% 4.47% Child po e y (child en li ing o social wel a e) 51.7% 4.06% Sha e o unemployed 7.51% 1.29% Sou ce: Am ü S a is ik Be lin– B andenbu g; own calcula ions. MOTHERING, HABITUS AND HABITAT 211 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. pa icula ield, bu also in bodies, in du able disposi ions o ecognize and comply wi h he de- mands immanen in he ield. (ibid, p. 58) Mo he ing means de eloping a eel o ‘ he game’ (a e Bou dieu 1990) called ‘pa ic- ipa ing’ in school. This sec ion highligh s di e ences in Dee ield and Fo es Lake o mo he ing in schools, a he in e sec ion o e hnic/ acial and class posi ions o women. Ge man s a e law6 gi es pa en s a igh o in o ma ion and o ganiza ion. The Gesam el e n e e ung (GEV) (gene al pa - en s commi ee, wi h elec ed ep esen a- i es om each class) delega es membe s o he Schulkon e enz (assembly o school leade ship, eache s, pa en s and s uden s) and a ious commi ees. In each class, eache s mus pe iodically call pa en mee - ings (PMs). No legally equi ed bu com- mon a e Schul ö de e eine (SFV), olun a y membe ship- based associa ions ha suppo educa ional goals. Be lin public schools hus ha e o malized pa en s’ in ol emen . PMs and GEVs wo k wi h agendas, chai s, elec- ions and minu es. The minis y o educa ion has long ecognized ha pa icipa ion is no ideal in all Be lin schools. I sees he de ici s in pa en s: […] Especially schools in so called ‘social ho spo s’ [soziale B ennpunk e] [ha e] di icul- ies inding pa en s o he GEV. Many pa - en s don’ know wha school looks like oday and wha hei ole in coope a ion could be. Di e en language and cul u al backg ounds and di e en socializa ion expe iences o school biog aphies o pa en s and eache s and he expec a ions, p ejudices and ole images make coope a ion di icul .7 A minis e ial b ie ing in 2008 connec s pupils’ de ici s – low es esul s – di ec ly wi h de ici s o pa en s: o no u he widen he gap be ween “educa ion- o ien ed pa en s”, who can use [ he] […] pa icipa ion- possibili ies in in e es o hei chil- d en and pa en s wi h mig a ion backg ound, whom o en a e no awa e o he alue o coop- e a ion wi h he school o he lea ning de elop- men o hei child en, pa icipa ion o e s mus be made ha a e be e ailo ed o he p econ- di ions and con ex s o pa en s wi h mig a ion backg ound.8 The policy b ie illus a es he s a e logic o- wa ds in eg a ion: pa en s need ‘posi i e in- eg a ion expe iences and agency o a i e a a posi ion o unde s and he Be lin edu- ca ion sys em and pa icipa e in i . This will help [ hem] de elop accep ance and es eem o educa ion.’ This e lec s Ge many’s pub- lic deba e ha de ines educa ional inequali y as p oduc o ci cums ances wi hin amilies wi hou ‘enough’ pa en al suppo . Such am- ilies a e o en called bildungs e n, ansla ing as ‘uneduca ed’, bu li e ally meaning ‘ a om educa ion.’ The e m easily acqui es a mo al conno a ion o no in e es ed in educa ion. By consequence, schools in a eas wi h high concen a ions o ‘bildungs e ne’ amilies a e as- sumed o be low pe o ming. Neighbou hood as mo al geog aphy in pa en – pa en ela ions – In Dee ield and Fo es Lake, elec ed whi e middle- class mo he s (and some a he s) un he SFVs and GEVs. In Dee ield, hey alked abou hei engagemen s wi h a gene al e e ence o he school’s loca ions in a disad an aged a ea wi h ‘many o eigne s and people who do no ha e much ‘Bildung’. Whi e s ay- a - home mum Y e a li ed on he edge o Dee ield acing a pa k, had an M.A. deg ee and was ma ied o a lobbyis . She was ice- chai o he SFV a D2. She called Dee ield ‘ e y mul icul u al bu no child- iendly’, busy, ‘lacking good in as uc u e’ and ‘wi hou nice places o go o.’ She did no use i s playg ounds, as he child en had many o ganized ac i i ies, and used only speci ic local shops. She explained a leng h how she an school ac i i ies, ini ia ed sponso ships and had pu o wa d ideas. She no ed lowe pa icipa ion among mig an mo he s: ‘ o o eign child en i is mo e likely he a he s … because depending on eh… he mo he s do no lea e he house so much’ and ‘language is a ba ie because we canno and do no wan o ansla e e e y hing.’ Y e a explained ha p ac ical e en s, ‘Kleink am’ (‘inciden als’), go done by a ‘ a he sepa a e ci cle’ o mo he s, ac i a ed h ough he school’s social wo ke , mo he s ‘ om he pa en s’ ca é.’ Hannah, whi e p o essional esiden o Dee ield, membe o he GEV a D1, explained TALJA BLOKLAND212 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. ha he school’s p og am o gi edness was also a ended by child en who li ed in an ad- jacen , mo e middle- class a ea. This mean ha ‘we ha e people ha a e eally supe - i (…) who can b ing a lo (…) and ha sa es he school a li le (…) because (…) he e a e pa en s om he o he [non- special p og am] classes, bu he e a e clea ly ewe , who eh… who help ou .’ She explained ha women like he sel , ‘wi h a be e educa ion who a e mo e engaged’ el ecognized o ‘ he mo e con- s uc i e c i icism hey b ing o wa d’. Such ecogni ion depended on doing some hing be e han o he s in he school ha needed o be ‘sa ed’ om i s loca ion in a disad an aged neighbou hood. No e ha he necessi y ha Hannah el o poin ou ha pa en s came om ou side cons uc s a mo al geog aphy: i asc ibed a place- oo ed cul u al ai (see abo e). Hannah and Y e a cons uc ed a hie a chy in who did wha ha posi ioned hem as es- pecially skilled middle- class whi e women in a mo al geog aphy o localized p ac ices o socia- bili y and p ac ical help. Bo h epo ed ‘sho lines’ o he school in case hey needed o o - ganize access o hei own child en. Taking p ide in add essing he p incipal wi h ‘Du’, Ge man’s in o mal add ess o o he people o ‘you’ which adul s o e o one ano he o signi y closeness o downplay hie a chies (‘das Du anbie en’) and alking ‘on he highes le el’, Y e a emphasized he impo ance o he wo k o he school. Dee ield wo king- class mo he s spoke di e en ly abou hei pa icipa ion. Awa e o he expec a ion o be ‘in ol ed’, some women juggled his wi h limi ed ime e- sou ces. Sha on, a sec e a y, belie ed being ‘in ol ed’ had ‘ alue’: ‘I I wasn’ a single pa en , maybe I had mo e capaci ies and I could ge in o he social ne wo k o he school mo e.’ Josie, a whi e woman, planned o ge ‘mo e in ol ed’: ‘I eally could no [ge in ol ed] because I had my new son and I was in my oca ional aining. I was a lo o s ess, oo. Now I simply y, as much as I can, I y o keep ack’. Simone, a whi e wo king- class s ay- a - home mo he , wo ked on D2’s ga den p ojec and was a GEV ep- esen a i e, because she belie ed i helped he o ‘know wha happened’ in school. Ayse, bo n in Be lin o pa en s om Tu key, ull- ime mo he ma ied a e seconda y school o a logis ics wo ke , explained: I am always in ouch wi h he eache s, a all he mee ings, I am always he e. I ha e always ied o be, when possible, elec ed o some hing, so ha I always ha e insigh (…) I y o p o ec my child en. Sil i, om Be lin wi h Tu kish amily oo s, wi h a oca ional aining deg ee, was a pa - en ep esen a i e o ensu e o ‘ha e an idea (Ahnung) o all aspec s’ o he D2 school. In hese in e iews, women s i ed o en e ne wo ks o secu e knowledge, in a con ex whe e leade s o SFV o GEV assumed ha hey we e no in e es ed o compe en . They amed pa icipa ion as joining, no lead- ing, aimed a being in o med, no unning hings. While Ayse ied o always be ‘ he e’ and Josie ‘ o keep ack’, Y e a and Hannah spoke o pa icipa ion wi h owne ship. Thei ‘ ecognizable, accep ed p ac ices’ ga e le- gi imacy o and ein o ced he ins i u ional logics o pa icipa ion.9 The o mal pa ic- ipa ion s uc u es mean ha one mus ac- qui e he ‘language’ o he cul u al p ac ices (Mille 2005, p. 39). All hese accoun s sug- ges ha GEV and SFV p ac ices alida ed ce ain cul u al esou ces (Skeggs 2004) ha ma ched wi h a habi us usually associ- a ed wi h middle classes, while d awing on a mo al geog aphy o he neighbou hood as bildungs e n. In Fo es Lake, mo he ing included a - ending mee ings as well as baking and e en cleaning. In he school applica ion p ocess, pa en s answe ed a ques ionnai e, including: ‘in ou school, pa en s engage hemsel es a lo . How will you engage in ou school?’ Once a place is o e ed, pa en s a end wo kshops on Mon esso i pedagogy, one o he esul s o Schulkon e enz ac ions.10 This landed well in he neighbou hood, an a ea conduci e o ‘conce ed cul i a ion’ (La eau 2015), wi h i s in as uc u e o music lessons, dance schools, spo s clubs, c ea i e a s cou ses and he apis s. Wi h g ades 1– 3 in one class- oom, new pa en s always en e ed an al eady es ablished g oup o pa en s a he PM, who ew ques ioned he gende ed school ou- ines. Mo he s’ in ensi e use o he local MOTHERING, HABITUS AND HABITAT 213 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. in as uc u e made he school one o he si es o a mo al geog aphy, sus ained by eco- nomically se led, he e ono ma i e amilies wi hou mig a ion backg ounds. Tha women unde s ood mo he ing as a mo al geog aphy in which hey localized and posi ioned hem- sel es showed hei compa isons o o he neighbou hoods. They exp essed ‘ o une’ o no ha ing o deal wi h ‘di icul ’ pupils, es- ona ing Be nelius e al.(2021)’s inding ha di icul beha iou was loca ed in ‘no o ious’ neighbou hoods. They asc ibed o hei a ea a common sense o ‘se iousness’ abou child aising. Mo e han in Dee ield, women e- po ed o s ay home in o de o be ully a ail- able as mo he s. Pa icipa ion wen beyond legally equi ed s uc u es. GEV, p incipal and eache s ag eed ha he egula class- oom cleaning wasn’ enough. On a (bi- ) mon hly basis, 3– 4 mo he s signed up a he PM o ge he class oom key a e ecess and washed shel es, desks and ma e ials. Food o school- e en s like he Ch is mas baza mus be eshly p epa ed o home baked. Ilse, a whi e lawye wi h wo child en, ela ed: Ou school is eally ac i e he e, so o say […] and he pa en s a e igh om he s a hen e- qui ed [au ge o de ] o ge hemsel es in ol ed, as a pa en p esen a i e o a membe o he SFV o some so o ac ions aking place in he class- oom […]. When au ho i a i e knowledge o wha chil- d en ‘need’ is ins i u ionalized (Mille 2005, p. 30), i s na u aliza ion ‘lea es li le cul- u al space o al e na i e ways o knowing’ (Mille 2005, p. 40). This became appa en 11 when Ma ia’s son go in ol ed in a class oom con lic . Ma ia, en ing in he apa men buildings, was a whi e single pa en o ou boys. He younges was in 3 d g ade. She wo ked shi s as an ai po baggage handle and egula ly picked up he son in wo k clo hes. The con lic was discussed a he PM in he absence. He child’s beha iou was in e p e ed as an ‘absence’ o ‘pa en ing’ ( ehlende E ziehung). Someone commen ed ha ‘o cou se she doesn’ ca e so much, she doesn’ ha e he ime o aise he child en p ope ly because she is always wo king’. Ma ia was no isibly pe o ming in ensi e pa en - ing. The cul u al alida ion o all o ms o pa icipa ion as a necessa y display o p ope mo he ing disquali ied Ma ia. The Fo es Lake school depended on such a mo al geog- aphy o mo he ing o ope a e as i did. Mo al geog aphies o mo he ing in pa en – school ela ions – In Fo es Lake, pa en s en e ed he educa ional se ings o class ooms, o example, when Sheila, a s ay- a - home mo he wi h a eache ’s deg ee, had a newbo n. She appea ed wi h he baby in he class o 3 d g ade son, and she and he eache augh sexual educa ion oge he . The school d ew on localized expec a ions ha pa en s will engage, and all assumed hei willingness o adhe e o his no m. This engagemen is child- and school- o ien ed and less o ien ed on ne wo king among pa en s. Ne wo king happened as a by- p oduc in he school and o he neighbou hood si es cons an ly: ‘e e yone seems o know e e yone’, Sheila no ed. The high- cul u al capi al o pa en s ed a ma ch o habi us and habi a . High cul u al and economic capi al o he neighbou hood popula ion who could easonably access he school’s loca ion as hey li ed nea by mean ha mo he ing h ough pa icipa ion did li le bounda y wo k. Bu lack o pa icipa ion did wo k o exclude, as in Ma ia’s case. No ms, howe e , mus be ca ied ou o de elop a pe manency. Newcome s mus be socialized in o he habi ual no ms. La ge- scale ideologies in socie y do no explain how hings ge done: habi ua ion and socializa ion a e p ac ices. Such p ac ices o e y day- o- day doings o small hings h ough habi ua ion become a habi a . Nina, a whi e s ay- a - home mo he ma ied o a diploma e, explained: You ha e o pa icipa e always an aw ul lo , (…) I was ac i e in he lib a y, a he momen I ca e o he aqua ium in he class oom. Tha is my ask. Bu you always ha e o engage in some hing, and hey a e all so e y engaged. Those a e inc edibly engaged pa en s. Fo es Lake mo he s o en elabo a ed ha hey pa icipa ed as di ec in es men o hei child en. They ound ways in o he class ooms: hey olun ee ed as ‘ eading mum’ (Lesemu e ) o spend ime in hei child en’s class oom and obse e he eache . TALJA BLOKLAND220 © 2023 The Au ho s. Tijdsch i oo Economische en Sociale Geog a ie published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o Royal Du ch Geog aphical Socie y / Koninklijk Nede lands Aa d ijkskundig Genoo schap. Ques ion o Social Class and Family- school Rela ions. Poe ics 31, pp. 375– 402. Why e, K.L. & A. Ka abon (2016), T ans o ming Teache – Family Rela ionships: Shi ing Roles and Pe cep ions o Home Visi s Th ough he Funds o Knowledge App oach. Ea ly Yea s 36, pp. 207– 221. Young, I.M. (1997), In e sec ing Voices: Dilemmas o Gende , Poli ical Philosophy, and Policy, P ince on UP: P ince on. Ze uba el, E. (1991), The Fine Line: Making Dis inc ions in E e yday Li e, New Yo k: F ee P ess.