Agricultural digitalisation and just transition: A framework for the analysis

Benegiamo, Mau a; Co ado, Alessand a; Fama, Ma co A icle Ag icul u al digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion: A amewo k o he analysis I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics (REA) P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Fi enze Uni e si y P ess Sugges ed Ci a ion: Benegiamo, Mau a; Co ado, Alessand a; Fama, Ma co (2023) : Ag icul u al digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion: A amewo k o he analysis, I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics (REA), ISSN 2281-1559, Fi enze Uni e si y P ess, Flo ence, Vol. 78, Iss. 2, pp. 5-17, h ps://doi.o g/10.36253/ ea-14491 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/325654 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. 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I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics Vol. 78, n. 2: 5-17, 2023 Fi enze Uni e si y P ess www. up ess.com/ ea ISSN 0035-6190 (p in ) | ISSN 2281-1559 (online) | DOI: 10.36253/ ea-14491 REA ITALIAN REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS ITALIAN REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS Ci a ion: Benegiamo M., Co ado A., Fama M. (2023). Ag icul u al digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion: a amewo k o he analysis. I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics 78(2): 5-17. DOI: 10.36253/ ea-14491 Recei ed: May 16, 2023 Re ised: July 18, 2023 Accep ed: July 26, 2023 Copy igh : © 2023 Benegiamo M., Co - ado A., Fama M. This is an open access, pee - e iewed a icle pub- lished by Fi enze Uni e si y P ess (h p://www. up ess.com/ ea) and dis- ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea- i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis i- bu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medi- um, p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c edi ed. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : All el- e an da a a e wi hin he pape and i s Suppo ing In o ma ion iles. Compe ing In e es s: The Au ho (s) decla e(s) no con lic o in e es . Co esponding Edi o : Ma cello De Rosa Digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion - Resea ch a icle Ag icul u al digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion: a amewo k o he analysis Mau a Benegiamo1, Alessand a Co ado2, Ma co Fama3,* 1 Uni e si à di Pisa, I aly 2 Uni e si à della Calab ia, I aly 3 Uni e si à degli S udi di Be gamo, I aly *Co esponding au ho . E-mail: ma co[email p o ec ed] Abs ac . Digi al ag icul u e is gene ally depic ed as a new echnological on ie allowing bo h he e iciency and sus ainabili y o he ag i- ood sec o o be inc eased h ough he in oduc ion o inno a i e “g een” and cos -e ec i e solu ions. Howe e , he e is s ill li le empi ical e idence on he wide en i onmen al and socio-econom- ic implica ions o ongoing ag icul u al digi alisa ion p ocesses. The pape makes he poin ha he digi alisa ion o ag icul u e is a poli ical and ecological p ocess ep e- sen ing an impo an elemen o he une en and combined pa e ns o he capi alis de elopmen o ag icul u e. A he same ime, he p ac ices ha in o m ag icul u al digi alisa ion a e shaped by social, economic and en i onmen al ac o s ha change acco ding o he con ex . S a ing om hese p emises, he au ho s p opose a c i ical amewo k o equipping empi ical esea ch on digi al ag icul u e wi h a mo e com- p ehensi e unde s anding o local con ex s, while also e aining a wide poli ical econ- omy pe spec i e inspi ed by he concep o “jus ansi ion”. Keywo ds: ag icul u al digi alisa ion, ood sys em, sus ainabili y, ag a ian labou , jus ansi ion. JEL codes: O1, O3, Q1. HIGHLIGHTS · Ag icul u al digi alisa ion is a poli ical and ecological p ocess ep esen - ing an impo an ing edien o he une en and combined pa e ns o he capi alis de elopmen o ag icul u e. · Empi ical esea ch on ag icul u al digi alisa ion is needed, as long as i is suppo ed by app op ia e amewo ks enabling a mo e nuanced unde - s anding o local con ex s while also e aining a wide poli ical economy pe spec i e. · The “jus ansi ion” pe spec i e o e s aluable insigh s in o he socio- ecological impac o ag icul u al digi alisa ion. 6Mau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co FamaMau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co Fama 1. INTRODUCTION Ag icul u al digi alisa ion is gene ally po ayed as a necessa y ans o ma ion o he ag i- ood sys em, allowing p oduc ion a ge s o be econciled wi h sus- ainabili y goals hanks o he di usion o new cos - e ec i e and eco- iendly a ming solu ions (OECD, 2022; Mondeja e al., 2021; Lajoie-O’Mailey e al., 2020). I is also p esen ed as a p ocess ha can con ibu e o coun e ac ing he u al exodus, es ablishing new con- nec ions be ween u al and u ban a eas, c ea ing new oppo uni ies o endogenous de elopmen , and imp o - ing ood sys em ou comes (FAO, 2022; T endo , 2019; Wo d Bank, 2017, 2019). In line wi h hese expec a ions, he Eu opean G een Deal a ibu es a cen al ole o digi al ag icul u e in he ecological ansi ion and sus ainable g ow h (Eu o- pean Commission, 2019). Eu opean Union (EU) Mem- be S a es s ongly en isaged “a sma and sus ainable digi al u u e o Eu opean ag icul u e and u al a eas” (Eu opean Commission, 2020), and se e al EU policies, ins umen s and unds a e cu en ly se ing he scope o digi alisa ion o ag icul u e (Reinha d , 2022). Also he Fa m o Fo k (F2F) s a egy, which is a pilla o he EU’s G een Deal, places a s ong emphasis on he ole o esea ch and (digi al) inno a ion in add essing he chal- lenges o sus ainable ood sys ems. No wi hs anding he inc easing en husiasm owa ds digi al ag icul u e, howe e , he e is s ill li le empi i- cal e idence on i s deepes en i onmen al and socio- economic implica ions. The exis ing li e a u e ends o ocus on he po en ial ou comes o ag icul u al digi- alisa ion in e ms o p oduc i i y and ma ke possi- bili ies o a me s (Phillips e al., 2019). Ag onomic and enginee ing pe spec i es ha ocus on he pull and push ac o s o digi al ag icul u e and i s en i onmen- al impac unde s ood as e iciency a e no a e (Wol - e e al., 2017; Bucci e al., 2019). On he con a y, issues ela ed o he b oade e ec s ha digi alisa ion may ha e on local ecosys ems and ag a ian s uc u es a e o en neglec ed. Fo ins ance, he e is s ill much o know abou he po en ial ole o digi al echnologies in ein o cing o con as ing exis ing powe asymme ies and inequali ies in ag icul u e and u al a eas, as well as abou hei impac on he econ igu a ion o he ela- ionship be ween ag icul u al wo k and e i o ial sus- ainabili y (McMichael, 2023). Though se e al s udies ha e explo ed he po en ial consequences de i ing om asymme ies in digi al echnology adop ion, as well as p oblems ela ed o da a access and con ol (S one, 2022; Rolandi e al., 2021; Die z and D echsel, 2021; Ro z e al., 2019; Hack o , 2011), he e is s ill oom o u he p ob- lema ise he ole o digi al ag icul u e (B uno i, 2022), especially wi h ega d o labou issues and hei in e - wining wi h sus ainabili y goals (Ca olan, 2020). No su p isingly, ins i u ional ini ia i es o p o- mo e digi alisa ion in u al con ex s a e usually based on a ee-ma ke a ionale and a ely conside con ex- ual speci ici ies (Salemink e al., 2017). In his espec , Alis ai F ase (2022) has wa ned agains he isk o sma ag icul u e de eloping h ough he p oduc ion o “miscon igu ed inno a ions”, mainly due o he limi ed pa ame e s wi hin which inno a ions a e se o ope a e. Acco ding o him, “ag icul u al inno a ion p ocesses will con inue o in oduce new miscon igu a ions when hey pu sue disc e e solu ions o speci ic p oblems, a h- e han in eg a ed de elopmen s based on inc emen al adjus men s in in o ma ion-in ensi e i e a i e p ocesses ha a ge sys emic o s uc u al change” (ibidem: 203). To a oid his isk, in-dep h empi ical s udies a e e y much needed, as long as hey a e in o med by c i i- cal pe spec i es able o shed ligh on he expec ed and unexpec ed ou comes ha ag icul u al digi alisa ion may p oduce in each pa icula con ex , while also con- nec ing i wi h he b oade pic u e o he socio-ecologi- cal ag a ian sys em. Ou assump ion is ha he digi alisa ion o ag icul- u e is a poli ical and ecological p ocess ep esen ing a u he ing edien o he une en and combined pa e ns o he capi alis de elopmen o ag icul u e (Ala cón e al., 2023; Smi h, 2020). As such, b oade pe spec i es on poli ical economy and c i ical ag icul u al s udies a e needed o add ess his ans o ma ion and can p o ide ele an insigh s in o he p ocess o digi alisa ion and i s consequences (Ro z e al., 2019; Die z and D echsel, 2023). A he same ime, i is also impo an o conside ha he p ac ices and discou ses ha in o m ag icul u - al digi alisa ion a e s ongly shaped by social, economic and en i onmen al ac o s ha may a y eno mously ac oss di e en se ings. To accoun o his complexi y and acili a e a socio- ecological analysis o how digi alisa ion impac s ag a - ian change dynamics a a local le el we sugges he ele ance o a “jus ansi ion” pe spec i e (Mo ena e al., 2020; Benegiamo e al., 2023). The concep o a jus ansi ion (JT) is hinged on he idea o ensu ing ha he shi owa ds mo e sus ainable sys ems does no disp o- po iona ely ha m ce ain g oups, indi iduals o com- muni ies (ILO, 2015). This implies ecognising ha he ecological ansi ion may ha e dis up i e e ec s on he li elihoods o wo ke s and a me s, and lea e ulne able g oups behind. Conside ing all he abo e, he main goal o his a icle is o elabo a e a amewo k o equipping empi i- 7 Ag icul u al digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion: a amewo k o he analysis cal esea ch on digi al ag icul u e wi h a mo e nuanced unde s anding o local con ex s, while simul aneously explo ing ongoing dynamics o ag a ian change om a JT pe spec i e. The a icle is s uc u ed as ollows: in he i s sec- ion we se he con ex o ag icul u al digi alisa ion om a poli ical economy pe spec i e, p o iding a e iew o he exis ing li e a u e on c i ical ag a ian s udies; in he second sec ion we b ie ly in oduce he concep o JT and he ongoing deba e su ounding i s applica ion in he ag i- ood sec o , s essing he po en ial o he JT pe - spec i e in add essing he social impac o digi al ag i- cul u e; in he hi d sec ion, we p opose a amewo k o suppo empi ical esea ch on ag icul u al digi alisa ion in o de o o e come he exis ing knowledge and ana- ly ical gaps. 2. AGRICULTURAL DIGITALISATION AND DYNAMICS OF AGRARIAN CHANGE: A BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW Concep s such as “digi al ag icul u e”, “sma ag i- cul u e”, “ag icul u e 4.0” a e o en used in e changeably in e e ence o a b oad se o digi al echnologies, ools, so wa e and da a-d i en solu ions allowing ag icul u - al p ocesses o be op imised, om ag icul u al inpu s (seeds, insu ance and inances) and on- a m ope a ions, o ood p ocessing, anspo , s o age, e ail and con- sump ion (Clapp and Rude , 2020; Ro z e al., 2019). He e, we e e o “ag icul u al digi alisa ion” as a phenomenon ha is a om being simply a u he s ep in he p ocess h ough which echnology is inco po a ed wi hin a ming sys ems. F om a wide poli ical economy pe spec i e, indeed, he pene a ion o digi alisa ion in o ag icul u e can be unde s ood as a socio-economic p o- cess ep esen ing an impo an ing edien o he de el- opmen o he capi alis ag i ood sys em in he con ex o mul iple and sys emic socio-ecological c ises (Ak am- Lodhi, 2021; Ak am-Lodhi, Kay, 2010a, 2010b; Smi h, 2020; F iedmann, 1993; McMichael, 2013b). Ag a ian de elopmen has long been d i en by he goal o inc easing p oduc i i y h ough mechanical ech- nologies and chemical inpu s, esul ing in a deep econ- igu a ion o local ag a ian s uc u es. Pu suing he decla ed goals o “ eeding he wo ld” while also imp o - ing incomes a a m le el, he p oduc i is app oach adop ed by go e nmen s and key global de elopmen ac o s om he 1950s onwa ds has p oduced highly con- o e sial ou comes. Al hough wi h some signi ican egional di e ences, he ag icul u al sec o has been cha ac e ised by a d ama ic decline in employmen le els and an inc easing concen a ion o a able land (Baglio- ni, Gibbon, 2013), combined wi h he di usion o ag o- indus ial in ensi ica ion and g owing en i onmen al deg ada ion (Rasmussen e al., 2018). Especially wi h he ise o he so-called neolibe al “co po a e-en i onmen al ood egime” (McMichael, 2005; F iedmann, 2013) – implying con e gence o en i onmen al poli ics and co - po a e powe concen a ion – ood c ises ha e g own in equency and in ensi y (Fama, Con i, 2022; FAO, 2021), exposing a me s o p ice-squeeze dynamics and making hem inc easingly dependen on he global alue-chains con olled by ansna ional co po a ions (TNCs). A he same ime, as he limi s o he e o s o mod- e nise ag icul u e ha e become mo e e iden , ising social claims and ma ke endencies ha e i s pushed o a shi owa ds a pos -p oduc i is pa adigm, inally se ing he scene o an “ecological ansi ion” wi hin he con ex o ma ke libe alisa ion. In he Eu opean con- ex , he p ocess o he Common Ag icul u al Policy (CAP) e o m and i s ollowing implemen a ion a he Membe S a e le el has displayed clea ensions be ween, on he one hand, he s uc u al pa h-dependency and o he mechanisms ha lock en ep eneu ial a me s in o he dominan socio- echnical egime, and, on he o he hand, he ambi ion o suppo he ansi ion owa ds mo e sus ainable sys ems o ood and a ming, in line wi h he Eu opean G een Deal (Ploeg, 2020). In his scena io, he ole played by digi al ag icul u e can be amed in highly di e en ways. Mos en husias ic na a i es end o depic i as a new echnological on ie allowing he ag icul u al sec o o be e i alised and sus- ainabili y imp o ed h ough he in oduc ion o inno a- i e “g een” and cos -e ec i e solu ions (Fo esigh . The Fu u e o Food and Fa ming, 2011; F anks, 2014). To be su e, ag icul u al digi alisa ion as a suppo o p ecision a ming can help a me s in op imising he use o chemi- cal inpu s and a ionalising wa e consump ion. Mo eo- e , digi al pla o ms can be used o educe in e medi- a ies, imp o e p ice anspa ency and ensu e p oduc aceabili y. Howe e , he idea ha digi al inno a ion pe se can p o ide e ec i e esponses o he ongoing “ag o- en i onmen al c isis” (Ploeg, 2018) and imp o e equi y in he ag i- ood sys em has o be ques ioned. Acco ding o c i ical ag a ian s udies, o ins ance, “g een” echnologies a e a key componen o neolibe al poli ics ha is u he exace ba ing he socio-ecological con adic ions o capi alism (Ak am-Lodhi, 2021; Bo - as, F anco, 2018; Fai head e al., 2012; Weis, 2010). F om his poin o iew, he digi alisa ion o ag icul- u e does no challenge he ag o-indus ial model and i s socio-ecological lock-in bu a he isks accen ua - ing i s ma ix, encou aging a p og essi e inc ease in 8Mau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co FamaMau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co Fama he ag icul u al scale and concen a ion o p oduc ion means, wi h consequences in e ms o u al disposses- sion and depopula ion, a wo sening o ood secu i y and he eme gence o new p oblems o access o and con ol o p oduc ion and ep oduc ion ac o s o small a me s (Mooney, 2018; Ro z e al., 2019; Benegiamo, 2023). In his ega d, Hack o (2021) obse ed ha he adop ion and de elopmen o digi al ag icul u e a e embedded wi h powe ela ions ha end up eeding a leas i e pa e ns o inequali ies: in digi al echnology de elopmen ; in he dis ibu ion o bene i s om he use o digi al echnologies; in so e eign y o e da a, ha d- wa e and digi al in as uc u e; in skills and knowledge; and in p oblem de ini ion. Along he same line, Ro z e al. (2019) iden i ied h ee main challenges ela ed o: da a owne ship and con ol; he p oduc ion o echnologies and da a de el- opmen ; da a secu i y. The poin made by he au ho s is ha , since echnological solu ions a e usually de eloped in ways ha empowe co po a e ac o s a he han sup- po ing independen a me s, he cu en pa hs o ag i- cul u al echnology “may exace ba e inequi ies o ma - ginalised ood sys em ac o s, speci ically be ween di e - en sized a me s as well as a me s and ag o- ood co - po a ions” (ibidem: 222). Howe e , hey do no conside ag i- ood digi alisa ion as some hing in sha p con as wi h he possibili y o engende g ea e equi y in ag i- cul u e, o ins ance by suppo ing he di usion o ag o- ecological me hods and app oaches. Acco ding o Glenn Da is S one (2022), while digi- alisa ion does no necessa ily pose a h ea o he au on- omy o “indus ialised a me s”, i is likely o jeopa dise ha o “peasan s” in he Global Sou h, who s ill p oduce a ele an po ion o he ood consumed globally (Ric- cia di e al., 2018; Sambe g e al., 2016). Fo his as class o a me s, S one (2022: 610) a gues, he pene a- ion o digi al echnologies calls di ec ly in o ques ion a se o “in o ma ional ela ions o p oduc ion, de ined as ela ionships ha con ol he c ea ion, in e p e a ion, dissemina ion and deploymen o in o ma ion needed o p oduc i e p ocesses” and he e is no doub ha some o hese echnologies “can – indeed aim o – dis- up and e o mula e such ela ions”. Agains his backg ound, i is impo an o dis in- guish he echnologies ha can suppo decision-making o small a me s om hose ha a e used o app op ia e hei knowledge and inc ease hei dependence on ma - ke dynamics (Liou as e al., 2019: 1). A he same ime, a less echnocen ic and mo e holis ic app oach is need- ed, ocused on digi al ag icul u e as a mul idimensional phenomenon in which di e en combina ions o p ac- ices, ac o s and a e ac s a e es ablished, ans o ming he social and physical s uc u es o he ag i- ood sys- em (Ala con e al., 2023; Higgins, B yan , 2020; Liou as, Cha a sa i, 2021). 3. PROBLEMATISING AGRICULTURAL DIGITALISATION FROM A “JUST TRANSITION” PERSPECTIVE As al eady men ioned, he idea o digi al ag icul- u e is s ongly amed wi hin he deba es and policies o he ecological ansi ion in ag i ood, made pa icu- la ly u gen by he impac s o and con ibu ions o cli- ma e change by indus ialised ag icul u e. Despi e his, he possible social implica ions and changes o a me s’ and a mwo ke s’ condi ions and li elihoods d i en by digi al ans o ma ion a e s ill poo ly discussed. This, as no ed by Aube e al. (2021), can be pa ly comp ehend- ed as a lack o ecological mac oeconomics amewo ks o he ag o-indus ial sec o able o cap u e he socio- economic impac s o he ans o ma ion needed o b ing i back wi hin plane a y bounda ies. As a eac ion o his gap, ecen ly, a bu geoning discussion on jus ansi- ion (hence o h JT) in ag icul u e has been es ablished (Bla ne , 2020; Moilanen, Alasoini, 2023; Kaljonen e al., 2023), based on he idea ha a ai ansi ion p ocess is one ha does no lea e behind a me s and a mwo k- e s and he communi ies conce ned. The idea o JT implies ha he ansi ion o a cli- ma e-neu al economy mus a he same ime secu e he u u e and li elihoods o wo ke s and hei communi- ies. This means ha social jus ice, wi h a special ocus on decen wo k and quali y jobs, mus emain a he cen e o any en i onmen al analysis and policy ega d- ing he ecological ansi ion (ILO, 2015; OECD, 2017). Acco ding o ILO, he ision o a JT is embedded wi h he no ion o socioeconomic sus ainabili y, and he ILO’s guidelines s a e ha : «a jus ansi ion o all owa ds an en i onmen ally sus ainable economy […] needs o be well managed and con ibu e o he goals o decen wo k o all, social inclusion and he e adica ion o po e y» (ILO, 2015). The concep o JT o igina ed wi h he Uni ed S a es labou mo emen o he 1970s and b oadened as labou o ganisa ions o ged alliances wi h en i onmen al jus- ice g oups s a ing in he 1990s. Ini ially, he idea o JT eme ged in esponse o inc eased egula ion o pollu - ing indus ies in he wake o he Na ional En i onmen- al Policy Ac and he es ablishmen o a ede al Supe - und law in he U.S. Labou unions like he Oil, Chemi- cal, and A omic Wo ke s (OCAW), long ocal abou he en i onmen al impac s o hei wo k, aced widesp ead 9 Ag icul u al digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion: a amewo k o he analysis job losses despi e hea ily unded cleanup e o s a con- amina ed wo k si es. Wo ke s demanded a “supe und o wo ke s” and a “supe und o communi ies” ha included, in addi ion o e aining p og ammes and communi y suppo , b oade e o s o plan and design a mo e en i onmen ally- iendly app oach o indus ial p oduc ion (Hen y e al., 2020; Mazzochi, 1993). Wo k- e s and hei communi ies we e called upon o play a leading ole in his e hinking o wo k i sel and o he ela ionship be ween he ac o y and he e i o y, based on he dual p inciple o he “ igh o know” and he “ igh o ac ” (Mo ena e al., 2020). Since 2015, wi h i s inclusion in he Pa is Ag eemen ha esul ed om COP21, he concep o JT has become inc easingly widesp ead in he na a i e used in he go - e nmen al a ena. As conce ns he ag i ood sec o , he 2015 Pa is Clima e Ag eemen al eady ecognised he need o a “jus ansi ion o he wo k o ce, and he c e- a ion o decen wo k and quali y jobs, including in ag i- cul u e, o es y, and o he land uses” (UNFCCC, 2015). Mo e ecen ly, he p inciple o JT has also been adop ed by he Eu opean Union as an impo an dimen- sion o he Eu opean G een Deal1. Howe e , as a ecen epo by he Ins i u e o Eu opean En i onmen al Policy (IEEP) s a es, compa ed o o he indus ial sec- o s he concep o ansi ion and JT “ ake on a dis inc- i e cha ac e when applied o he ag icul u al and ood sec o s”, making i s ealisa ion pa icula ly challenging. Indeed, as s essed by he IEED, and wi h some excep- ions in he mea alue chain: “Unlike sec o s acing edundan echnologies and ou igh ac o y closu e and cessa ion o p oduc ion, ag icul u e and land use will con inue in many cases bu has o be ans o med. Jus ansi ion o his sec o will he e o e go beyond he classical policy ins umen s o his pu pose namely: inancial edundancy paymen s, e aining and skilling, egional in es men s a egies and ensu ing he mobili y o he wo k o ce” (Baldock, Buckwell, 2021: 2). A u he le el o complexi y a ises om he di e - si y ha cha ac e ises ag icul u al and ood sys ems bo h globally and in Eu ope, whe e la ge comme cial a ms and highly indus ialised monocul u es con as wi h he g ea agmen a ion in o small and mic o am- ily a ms h oughou u al landscapes. Mo eo e , in his con ex , as Van de Ploeg (2018) ou lines, he indus ial ag icul u al sys em is unde going a p ocess o disag- g ega ion, wi h mul iple ajec o ies o change coexis - ing, on which he p ocesses o digi alisa ion a e g a ed, 1 The Jus T ansi ion Mechanism (JTM) is based on a se o ools, including inancial ones, ha ha e been inco po a ed wi hin he Eu o- pean G een Deal “ o ensu e ha he ansi ion o a clima e-neu al economy happens in a ai way, lea ing no one behind” (EC, 2020b). making i di icul o p edic he o e all ou come o ongoing ans o ma ions. Agains his backd op e y di e en pa e ns o ansi ion and digi al ansi ion need o be imagined and i would be mo e app op ia e o alk o plu al an- si ions o digi al ag icul u e (see also Bock e al., 2020). This is also ela ed o he di e si y o socio-economic con ex s, u al ecosys ems, soils and clima e in which a ms ope a e. Fo ins ance, a me s in ma ginal o pe iphe al lands, o esiding in egions wi h ela i ely limi ed go e nmen suppo o he ansi ion, as well as elde ly a me s, a e less likely o es ablish a compe i i e posi ion in he use o new echnologies (Mu phy e al., 2022) and a e a g ea e isk o being pu ou o compe- i ion by ea ly adop e s mo e able o bea he economic cos o digi al in es men . The agmen a ion and disagg ega ion o he ag a - ian landscape a e also e lec ed in he p esence o e y di e en labou posi ions ha may be uniquely impac - ed by ansi ion p ocesses, including he one en isaged by digi alisa ion. En ep eneu s, consul an s, amilies and seasonal wo ke s o en co-exis in he same sec- o s. Mo eo e , manual and seasonal jobs a e o en pe - o med by i egula and poo ly p o ec ed mig an wo k- e s, mos ly in condi ions o se e e exploi a ion (Co ado e al., 2016; Rye, Sco , 2018). A he same ime, while aking in o accoun he di e en and non-compa able labou posi ions, i is impo an o s ess he gene al need, ups eam o ansi ion p ocesses, o imp o e wo k- ing condi ions in a sec o whe e hey a e o en oo poo . Rega ding he impac o digi alisa ion on a me s and a mwo ke s, wo main scena ios can be ou lined. On he one hand, he e is he idea ha digi alisa ion will educe he need o physical inpu s, wi h a consequen dec ease in he demand o labou (Wol e e al., 2017; Go ba , 2012), bu also a quali a i e econ igu a ion o ag icul u al employmen ha may lead o he g adual elimina ion o mos p eca ious job posi ions (i.e. seasonal picke s, shep- he ds and li es ock wo ke s) o a u he casualisa ion o he same asks. On he o he hand, new o ms o p e- ca ious wo k could be associa ed wi h he speci ic needs o digi al echnologies and hei use (i.e. logis ics po e s and ood deli e y cou ie s). A he same ime, economic bu dens om in es ing in he ansi ion o digi al ag icul- u e could exace ba e he labou -capi al con lic , inducing a me s o ely on less ai wo k schemes. Ano he aspec o conside is he po en ial o digi- alisa ion o exace ba e powe asymme ies be ween, on one side, la ge a me s and, on he o he side, peas- an s and ag oecological a me s. The la e a e o en excluded om unding and incen i e p og ammes, and digi al echnologies may no be sui ed o hem, as 10 Mau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co FamaMau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co Fama hey end o be ailo ed o he needs o la ge and mo e in luen ial playe s. Agains his backd op, assuming a JT pe spec- i e allows he po en ial impac o digi al ag icul u e o be assessed on all he di e en playe s wi hin he ag i- ood sys em, bu also o conside a me s and wo ke s as social ac o s who can be d i e s o emancipa o y ech- nical inno a ion, coun e ac ing he endency o analyse labou , sus ainabili y and inno a ion as sepa a e issues (Ra hzel e al., 2021). A a policy le el, indeed, digi alisa ion can o e he oppo uni y o p omo e a escaling o ag icul u e owa ds place-based models and p ac ices ha ha e p o en o be mo e esilien and capable o ensu ing ood sa e y and secu i y (Ma sden, 2013). To his end, policy in e en ions should be in o med by a JT app oach ha pe cei es wo k as in e connec ed wi h he communi y, bo h he place-based communi y o he su ounding a ea and he wide communi y ha connec s consume s o p oduce s (Mu phy e al., 2022). Such an app oach is c ucial o conside he ood sys em as a whole, also in o de o a oid placing he bu den o he ansi ion solely on he shoulde s o a me s. The amewo k de eloped by Aube e al. (2021) o he ecological ansi ion o he F ench dai y sec o is in line wi h hese conside a ions. Based on he equi e- men s o he F ench Na ional Low Ca bon S a egy he au ho s de ised wo di e en scena ios. The i s one, associa ed wi h g ea e job losses, en isages an adap a- ion and compensa ion s a egy o he indus ial sec o which is limi ed o ob aining esul s in e ms o educ- ing he emissions o indi idual companies. The second scena io, on he con a y, simul aneously conside s he e ec s on biodi e si y, heal h and employmen by in e- g a ing a JT pe spec i e. This allows mo e in eg al pol- icy measu es able o suppo he ecological ansi ion while also p ese ing employmen le els. 4. A JT FRAMEWORK FOR EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF DIGITAL AGRICULTURE As highligh ed in he abo e-men ioned deba es, he pene a ion o digi alisa ion in o ag icul u e en ails isks and oppo uni ies o he sus ainabili y o he ood sys em, depending on a ious echnological, econom- ic, en i onmen al and social ac o s. The e o e, mo e nuanced empi ical esea ch is equi ed o obse e how hese ac o s a e combined wi hin each speci ic con ex . In o de o shed ligh on he socio-economic implica- ions o digi al ag icul u e, i is also undamen al o g asp he d i e s o he di e se digi alisa ion pa e ns, how hese a ec , and a e a ec ed by, he decisions made by he ac o s in ol ed, and how hese decisions a e, in u n, in luenced by he ins i u ional amings o he eco- logical ansi ion. To be e o ien empi ical esea ch, a amewo k able o cap u e he in e play o all he dimensions o ag icul u al digi alisa ion can be help ul. The e m “ amewo k” e e s o a heu is ic model ha can help guide empi ical esea ch and de elop a comp ehensi e app oach o unde s anding a complex phenomenon. I should by no means be conside ed as a igid scheme o be ollowed s ic ly, bu a he as a lexible ool o be adap ed and e ined acco ding o he speci ic esea ch ques ion and con ex . I is also impo an o ecognise ha , while i can o e impo an desc ip i e in o ma- ion, a amewo k does no in i sel p o ide a deep ana- ly ical unde s anding o he phenomenon being s udied. Hence, i is essen ial o adop i in conjunc ion wi h o h- e analy ical ools and app oaches. A well-known exam- ple o a amewo k is he one de eloped by Ian Scoones (1998) o he analysis o sus ainable u al li elihoods, whe e all ac o s a ec ing he subsis ence o indi idu- als a e schema ically illus a ed in ela ion o i e key indica o s (con ex , condi ions and ends; li elihood esou ces; ins i u ional p ocesses and o ganisa ional s uc u es; li elihood s a egies; sus ainable li elihood ou comes). In ou amewo k, we p opose o conside six dimensions, lis ed in Table 1. A se o ques ions is asso- cia ed o each dimension. In addi ion, we ha e ocussed on he idea o jus ansi ion, as an app oach capable o combining wo k and e i o y wi hin a ansi ion pe - spec i e a en i e o he in e sec ional impac s o ans- o ma ions in indus y sec o models. Building on T ibaldos, Ko e mäki (2022), o each dimension we ha e also iden i ied c i e ia o jus an- si ion in ood sys ems po en ially applicable a a p o- cess- / policy-pa hway e alua ion le el. These c i e ia a e in ended o p o ide guidelines and no ma i e isions ega ding desi ed di ec ions o change, aiding cla i ica- ion and discussion o wha makes ansi ions jus (see ILO, 2015; UNFCCC, 2020). The c i e ia a e de i ed om basic p inciples and undamen al ules o jus ice es ablished in philosophy and social heo ies o social jus ice – co esponding o “A-le el p inciples” in he model p oposed by T ib- aldos, Ko e mäki (2022)2. Fo each A-le el p inciple, mo e p ac ical ules o jus ice se ing as an analy ical lens o jus ansi ioncan be in e ed – co esponding o 2 Acco ding o he wo au ho s, hese a e: dis ibu i e jus ice, cosmopol- i an jus ice, ecology and non-human beings, p ocedu al jus ice, ecogni- ion jus ice, capaci ies. 11 Ag icul u al digi alisa ion and jus ansi ion: a amewo k o he analysis “B-le el p inciples”. In ou case, we ha e iden i ied a lis o B-le el p inciples ha include, bu a e no limi ed o: 1. igh o ood, labou jus ice (incl. a me s, he de s and ishe men); 2. jus ood-chain s uc u es and li elihood oppo uni ies, (dis ibu i e jus ice); 3. global ai ness (cosmopoli an jus ice), in e gene a ional jus ice and ai - ness; 4. ecological in eg i y and jus ice o animals (ecol- ogy and non-human beings); 5. jus p ocesses and access o ele an in o ma ion (p ocedu al jus ice); 6. espec ul plu alism and es eem ecogni ion and non-disc imina- ion ( ecogni ion and in e sec ional jus ice); 7. capaci y building (capaci ies). Fo each o he dimensions iden i ied, and wi h he aim o subs an ia ing and ope a ionalising hem, Fig- u e 1 lis s a se o po en ial ques ions whose a icula ion wi h he c i e ia in Figu e 2 makes i possible o na ow he ocus o he analysis, acco ding o he poli ical econ- omy pe spec i e o he JT app oach. Answe ing he ques ions lis ed in Figu e 1 allows a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o be gained o how he digi alisa ion pa adigm and speci ic digi al echnolo- gies a icula e in o he esea ch con ex , going beyond sec o al analysis abou ag icul u al digi alisa ion. Taking in o accoun he complexi y o he analysed phenom- ena is indeed an inc easingly ecognised equi emen o inno a ion and ansi ion p ocesses. This also includes he need o b oaden he scien i ic capaci y o include di - e en pe spec i es and in e es s di ec ly in he p oblem aming, as well as in he decision-making and imple- men a ion p ocess, in o de o ecognise he sys emic, no ma i e and unce ain cha ac e o socio- echnical ans o ma ion p ocesses, such as hose ela ed o he challenges o clima e change and sus ainabili y (Fun o- wicz, Ra e z, 2003). In line wi h hese a gumen s, once he abo e dimensions ha e been examined, we sugges in eg a ing a poli ical economy pe spec i e based on he p e iously lis ed dimensions o jus ice as subs an i e ele- men s o a JT app oach. This makes i possible o de el- op a amewo k o assess whe he and how, in a gi en con ex , he digi al ans o ma ions o ag icul u e a e Table 1. Dimensions o ag icul u al digi alisa ion Dimension Desc ip ion Con ex This dimension e e s o all he con ex -speci ic ac o s ha a ec he adop ion and ou comes o digi al ag icul u e. Rela ed ques ions should explo e how he con ex shapes local ag icul u al p ac ices, he s a egies adop ed by he ac o s and he di e en ools o ag icul u al digi alisa ion p oposed and/o adop ed. Ac o s and socio- cul u al dynamics This dimension e e s o he impac ha digi al ag icul u e has on social s uc u es and u al communi ies as well as i s ela ion wi h he symbolic and cul u al sphe es. Rela ed ques ions should analyse he ac o s in ol ed and he social ne wo ks in which hei digi al p ac ices a e embedded, he ela ed p ocesses o knowledge c ea ion and ans e , and he ac o s (in e ms o esou ces, alues, belie s) ha a ec digi al ag icul u e ools adop ion and impac . Technological in as uc u e This dimension e e s o he ha dwa e, so wa e and connec i i y equi ed o he digi alisa ion o ag icul u e. Rela ed ques ions should explo e he accessibili y and quali y o he echnical op ions a ailable in a gi en con ex , hei po en ial socio-economic ou comes, as well as he ac o s ha in luence he ex en o echnology adop ion, such as business s uc u e, ype o a m p oduc ion, cos , pe cei ed isks and bene i s, cul u al a i udes, li e acy among a me s, e c.. Economic model This dimension e e s o he de elopmen model ollowed by he a ms ha inno a e digi ally, hei scale and posi ion wi hin he alue chains, and he b oade economic implica ions o digi al ag icul u e. Rela ed ques ions should explo e how digi alisa ion is connec ed wi h he di e en ajec o ies o ag icul u al de elopmen , i s impac on alue c ea ion and dis ibu ion and he way i is a ec ing he labou ma ke and he socio-economic s uc u e o ag i- ood p oduc ion. In a di e en ein, i is also ele an o g asp he economic con ex wi hin which digi al echnologies a e embedded, ab ica ed and p omo ed on he ma ke . To assess he speci ici y o he echnoscience ma ke and i s ela ions wi h, o example, inancial ools o public incen i es, on one side, and he speci ici y o he a m economy on he o he . En i onmen al implica ions This dimension e e s o how digi al ag icul u e a ec s he “social p oduc ion o na u e” and he in luence o na u e o e social p oduc ion and ep oduc ion. Rela ed ques ions should in es iga e he immedia e digi al ag icul u e impac on he ecosys ems, bu also he unin ended e ec s ha he new p ac ices induced by digi alisa ion can ha e in e ms o biodi e si y loss and ecosys em al e a ion, as well as he po en ial eme gence o new consump ion pa e ns and ma ke dynamics ha may ha e o - a ms en i onmen al implica ions. A ocus on he en i e alue chain may also be ele an , including he impac o he ag i ech sec o , as well as he unde lying g eenhouse gas and en i onmen al oo p in due o da a mining and s o age, which is becoming inc easingly signi ican in e ms o he o e all oo p in o IT. Ins i u ions, go e nance and policies This dimension e e s o he ins i u ional p ocesses, he egula o y amewo k and poli ical dynamics go e ning ag icul u al digi alisa ion. Rela ed ques ions should explo e how he ou comes o digi al ag icul u e a e nego ia ed and a ec ed by ins i u ional ac o s, he in luence exe cised by policies and go e nance s uc u es a local, na ional, and in e na ional le els, and he po en ial con lic s ha may a ise. This la e aspec is also ela ed o he p esence and ype o pa icipa ion mechanisms and he deg ee o inclusion o po en ial s akeholde s, as well as hei de ini ion and ela i e powe assimila ions. 12 Mau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co FamaMau a Benegiamo, Alessand a Co ado, Ma co Fama Figu e 1. Explo ing he impac o digi al ag icul u e: po en ial ques ions.