Industrial Cannabis sativa (Hemp or fiber type): Antiviral Activities-An updated Review

 Corresponding author: Ravindra B. Malabadi Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Hemp or fiber type): Antiviral Activities-An updated Review Raju K. Chalannavar 1, Hosamani PA 2, Divakar MS 3 and Ravindra B. Malabadi 1, * 1 Department of Applied Botany, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri-574199, Mangalore, Karnataka State, India. 2 Department of Botany, Bangurnagar Arts, Science and Commerce College, Dandeli-581325, Karnataka State, India. 3 Food Science and Nutrition, Department of Biosciences, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri574199, Karnataka State, India GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 Publication history: Received on 23 September 2025; revised on 24 October 2025; accepted on 12 November 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/gscarr.2025.25.2.0328 Abstract Cannabis sativa has been used for thousands of years for recreational, medicinal, or religious purposes. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Hemp of fiber type) has been cultivated for millennia as a source of fiber, food, medicine and utilization of hemp for essential oils. Cannabinoids have been shown to have activity against herpes viruses, which are DNA-type viruses, as well as the RNA-type viruses, SARS-COV-2 and HIV/SIV. Tribal people in the Indian Himalayan region used cannabis as a home made herbal medicine for many diseases. During, Covid-19, the infusion of cannabis flower with a morning cup of tea has saved the life of many people. Antiviral activities of some of the most abundant cannabinoids have been documented in silico, in vitro, and in vivo. Studies of the antiviral activities of the more than 100 less abundant cannabinoids are still needed as are carefully designed clinical trials. Based on the established therapeutic efficacy of CBD and Λ 9-THC, these and other cannabinoids are under investigation for additional pharmacological activities, including activity as antiviral agents. However, clinical trials and scientific data supporting antiviral activity of cannabis oil against dengue, Covid-19, Nipah virus (NiV), monkeypox, and lumpy skin viral disease is lacking. Keywords: Cannabis sativa; CBDCannabidiol; CBDACannabidiolic acid; CBGA-Cannabigerolic acid; Hemp; Dengue; SARS-COV-2; Monkeypox; Nipah virus; Lumpy skin viral disease 1. Introduction Cannabis sativa is a flowering plant from the Cannabaceae family and genus Cannabis. Cannabis is a plant notorious for its psychoactive effect, but when used correctly, it provides a plethora of medicinal benefits [1-47]. Cannabis has been used for thousands of years for recreational, medicinal, or religious purposes. Cannabis is also a wild noxious weed with notorious psychoactive principle, Λ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) found growing in India, China, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Morocco[1-45]. Cannabis has a long history in India, recorded in legends and religion. It was found in various habitats ranging from sea level to the temperate and alpine foothills of the Indian Himalaya Region from where it was probably spread over the last 10,000 years [1-25-45]. Many historians believed that Indian Himalayan Region was the centre of origin of Cannabis sativa L. and Cannabis indica L. [1-49]. Tribal people in the Himalayan region used Cannabis as a home made herbal medicine for many diseases. During, Covid-19, the infusion of Cannabis flower with a morning cup of tea has saved the life of many people [1-23]. Cannabis oil was used as dengue mosquito repellent for controlling dengue viral fever , bacterial infections and fungal diseases [1-49-87]. However, due to the presence of psychoactive molecules, Λ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Λ9-THC) and Λ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Λ8-THC), Cannabis cultivation and its use is restricted/regulated in many countries [1-49-82-85]. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 472 Introduced into Western medicine by William O’Shaughnessy in 1838 to treat a variety of conditions, including rheumatic pain and epilepsy, the use of cannabinoids (CBs) in clinical practice entered a period of latency and oblivion due to political barriers and problems in establishing quality control [1-45]. Cannabis was (re) introduced into British medical practice in the early 1840’s by Irish physician Dr. William O’Shaughnessy, an army surgeon serving in Calcutta, India [145-82-85-87]. In the Victorian period, cannabis was widely used for a variety of ailments, including muscle spasms, menstrual cramps, rheumatism, the convulsions of tetanus, rabies, and epilepsy, and as a sedative [1-45]. Cannabis sativa extracts were typically administered orally in the form of an alcoholic tincture and were commonly incorporated in proprietary medicines [1-45]. With the introduction of synthetic drugs, herbal remedies were increasingly viewed as unpredictable and many of them, including cannabis extracts and tinctures, were removed from the British Pharmacopoeia of 1932 but retained in the British Pharmaceutical Codex of 1949 [1-44-82-87]. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Hemp of fiber type) has been cultivated for millennia as a source of fiber, food, medicine for cancer, wound healing, antiviral activity, and utilization of hemp for essential oils [1-48]. In addition to fiber and essential oils, the hemp plant produces hundreds of secondary metabolites including flavonoids, diterpenes, triterpenes, and cannabinoids [1-48]. Unlike primary metabolites such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates that are essential for life, secondary metabolites benefit plants in other ways such as deterring predators, attracting pollinators, or preventing infection [1-48]. 2. Cannabis sativa: Classified into 2 types Cannabis sativa L., is classified into two types as Industrial Cannabis sativa, hemp or fibre type and Medical Cannabis sativa L.(drug or marijuana) based on its THC content [1-45]. Medical Cannabis sativa (drug or marijuana) contains a very high levels of THC (above 0.3 to 38% of dry weight) [1-45, 82-87]. On the other hand Industrial Cannabis sativa L. (Hemp) contains very low levels of THC (0 to 0.3% of dry weight) [1-45]. Industrial Cannabis sativa (hemp), as a diverse plant, can be a revolutionary crop for a better future and for upcoming generations [1-48]. It is an eco-friendly and worthwhile crop that complements a sustainable growth system. Industrial hemp farming has the potential to dramatically minimize the amount of carbon impact on the environment and can be cultivated with a little or no usage of chemical pesticides or fertilizers [1-49]. The stalks, seeds, and leaves are converted into various construction materials, textiles, paper, food, furniture, cosmetics, and healthcare products [1-45]. Biochar, bioplastics, biofuels, and biopesticides are some of the innovative applications of the hemp plant, which are subjects of research and debate at present time [1-45, 82-87]. 3. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Hemp); Secondary metabolites In addition to fiber and essential oils, the hemp plant produces hundreds of secondary metabolites including flavonoids, diterpenes, triterpenes, and Cannabinoids [1-50]. Unlike primary metabolites such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates that are essential for life, secondary metabolites benefit plants in other ways such as deterring predators, attracting pollinators, or preventing infection [1-49-87]. Several secondary metabolites that are unique to Cannabis sativa L. include some Cannflavins (flavonoids), Cannabisins (lignans), and Cannabinoids [1-48]. Hemp produces over 100 Cannabinoids including Cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), the psychotropic Cannabinoid, Λ9tetrahydrocannabinol (Λ9-THC), Λ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (Λ9-THCA-A), Cannabigerol (CBG), Cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), and Λ9-tetrahydrocannabutol [1-50]. Despite legal restrictions, Cannabinoids and other compounds from hemp have a long and extensive history of safe use in humans[188]. These products have been administered orally, sublingually, dermally, and by inhalation. As a class of natural products, Cannabinoids have been shown to have suitable oral bioavailability, metabolism, blood–brain barrier permeability, and safety for use as therapeutic agents [1-49-87]. Based on the established therapeutic efficacy of Cannabidiol (CBD) and Λ9-tetrahydrocannabutol (Λ9THC), these and other cannabinoids are under investigation for additional pharmacological activities, including activity as antiviral agents [1-50]. Among the vast range of compounds, multiple research papers have shown that Cannabinoids, such as Cannabidiol (CBD)and Λ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) have antiviral effects[1-50]. There is limited evidence that demonstrates the therapeutic effects of Cannabinoids in viral infections [1-50]. Some scientists believed that Λ9-tetrahydrocannabutol (Λ9THC), may be advantageous in viral illnesses, when the inflammatory response of the host is pathogenic[1-50]. The antiinflammatory properties of Cannabinoids were found to be associated with the treatment of COVID-19 [1-49-88]. Female Cannabis flowers have densely packed glandular structures called trichomes that store the phytocannabinoids, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) and Cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) which must be decarboxylated by heat to produce Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC: intoxicating) and Cannabidiol (CBD: non-intoxicating) [1-45]. The two cannabinoids GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 473 the most well known for their therapeutic properties are, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and Cannabidiol (CBD) [150]. THC and CBD are the neutral homologs of tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA) and Cannabidiol acid (CBDA) respectively [1-50]. A conventional classification model of Cannabinoids is due to their chemical contents dividing them to eleven subclasses including Cannabigerol (CBG), Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), Cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabichromene (CBC), Cannabinol (CBN), (−)-Δ8-transtetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), Cannabicyclol (CBL), Cannabinodiol (CBND), Cannabielsoin (CBE), Cannabitriol (CBT) and miscellaneous [1-45, 82-88]. Synthetic Λ 9-THC was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1985 as the drug dronabinol for the treatment of nausea associated with cancer chemotherapy and for anorexia associated with weight loss in AIDS patients [1-50]. The synthetic Λ 9-THC analog nabilone has been approved in the United States for the control of chemotherapy-induced nausea and in Canada as an adjunct therapy for chronic pain management [1-50]. Discovered in 1940, CBD lacks the psychotropic properties of Λ 9-THC but exhibits other activities including some with established therapeutic benefit. In 2018, CBD isolated from hemp was approved in the United States as the drug epidiolex for the treatment of epileptic seizures known as Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome [1-50]. 4. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Hemp): Antiviral Activities During most of the last century, legal restrictions impeded cultivation of hemp, isolation of cannabinoids, and research on the antiviral properties of cannabinoids and other hemp secondary metabolites[1-70, 76-81]. On the basis of literature survey and van Breemen, Simchuk (2023) [48] reported that cannabinoids have been shown to have activity against herpes viruses, which are DNA-type viruses, as well as the RNA-type viruses SARS-COV-2 and HIV/SIV [48-58, 76-81]. The most studied antiviral cannabinoids to date have been CBD and Λ 9-THC, which have been approved as drugs by the FDA for unrelated pharmacological activities[48-75-81]. These two cannabinoids function as antiviral agents through multiple mechanisms of action, some of which overlap such as inhibition of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease 3CLpro and inhibition of ACE2, which is the human cell receptor for SARS-CoV-2, CBD and Λ 9-THC also have anti-inflammatory activities that can help suppress the pro-inflammatory effects of SARS-CoV-2 and HIV/SI [48-58, 7683]. Other cannabinoids have recently been shown to have antiviral activities that include some unique mechanisms of action[1-48-58, 76-81]. For example, CBDA and CBGA can prevent cell entry and infection by SARS-CoV-2 [48-58, 7681]. Research on the antiviral activities of the more than 100 less abundant cannabinoids is just beginning, and there is potential to discover even more potent antiviral agents among these unique chemical structures[1-48-75-85]. Importantly, clinical trials are needed to explore the safety and efficacy of antiviral cannabinoids. Based on the multiplicity of active cannabinoids acting by different mechanisms of action, combinations of cannabinoids should be explored for activity. Combination therapy has become the mainstay of HIV antiretroviral therapy due to the superior activity of drug mixtures that act by complementary mechanisms of action [1-48]. van Breemen, Simchuk (2023) [48] reported that although most antiviral cannabinoids have shown individual activities in the low micromolar range, combinations of cannabinoids acting through complementary mechanisms of action might show synergistic effects that might be efficacious at lower concentrations [48]. Synergy among cannabinoids known as an entourage effect has already been established for pharmacological activities such as pain management [47]. Nipah virus (NiV), an emerging zoonotic bat borne virus that can cause severe respiratory illness and deadly encephalitis in humans [22]. Nipah virus (NiV) outbreak was first reported in 1998 from Malaysia and then recorded in Bangladesh, India, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand[22]. A recent fifth outbreak of Nipah virus (NiV) during August-September 2023 in Kerala State, India brought this emerging-re-emerging virus into the spotlight again[22]. Due to the lack of vaccines and drugs with proven effectiveness against Nipah virus (NiV), treatment of patients is limited to supportive and prophylactic[22], Fruit bats are the main reservoir for this virus, which can cause disease in humans and animals[22]. Nipah virus (NiV) can be transmitted from bats or livestock to humans, typically via contaminated food (fruit or raw date palm sap), and person-to-person through respiratory secretions[22]. Hemp seed oil has gained remarkable popularity due to its perceived therapeutic properties, particularly antiviral properties for potential health benefits[22]. During the recent outbreak of Nipah virus (NiV), the local traditional healers in India used hemp oil as the mouth wash for controlling throat infections, head ache, vomiting and suggested for the consumption of hemp seeds and oil as the functional food[22]. The consumption of hemp seed and oil has drastically reduced the fever. Therefore, there is a growing evidence that hemp oil might inactivate the Nipah virus (NiV). However, clinical trials and scientific data supporting antiviral activity of Cannabis oil (CBD oil) against Nipah virus (NiV) is lacking[22]. Therefore, further research should focus on exploring the molecular mechanisms of hemp oil against Nipah virus (NiV) is warranted [22]. Multicenter clinical trials should be performed to validate the efficacy of hemp oil alone or in the form of formulations for the treatment of viral diseases [22]. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 474 Hemp plants produced a diversity of chemical constituents with the potential to inhibit viral replication [1-76]. However, clinical trials and scientific data supporting antiviral activity of Cannabis oil against Nipah virus (NiV) is lacking [22]. Therefore, further research should focus on exploring the molecular mechanisms of essential oils particularly hemp oil and their individual chemical compounds against Nipah virus (NiV) is warranted[22]. Local traditional healers in the rural part of India used Cannabis oil as the dengue mosquito, Aedes aegypti repellent [19, 63-75]. Cannabis oil was used as dengue mosquito repellent for controlling dengue viral fever, bacterial infections and fungal diseases [19, 63-75]. Tribal people in the Indian Himalayan region used Cannabis as a home made herbal medicine for many diseases[1-22-75]. During, Covid-19, the infusion of Cannabis flower with a morning cup of tea has saved the life of many people [1-49]. In India during the recent outbreak of Monkeypox, Cannabis oil was used for the external body applications as a preventive measures to control the monkeypox viral disease [59-60]. But the no of monkeypox cases in India were very low and preventive measures were adopted by the local traditional healers [5960]. Hemp oil was also used for controlling the monkeypox disease [59-60]. In addition to this, hemp oil was also used to control lumpy skin viral disease of cattle in India [53]. However, the clinical trials and scientific evidence is lacking. Antiviral activities of some of the most abundant cannabinoids have been documented in silico, in vitro, and in vivo [148-58, 76-81-83]. Studies of the antiviral activities of the more than 100 less abundant cannabinoids are still needed as are carefully designed clinical trials[1-48-58]. Based on the preclinical evidence of antiviral activity as well as oral bioavailability and long history of safe human use of cannabinoids individually or as mixtures, multiple clinical studies of antiviral cannabinoid safety a efficacy are in progress worldwide using CBD [48] and Λ -THC [48-59, 76-81]. There is very limited in vivo investigation of the antiviral effect of these compounds[48-59]. Despite the therapeutic effect, cannabis is an illicit drug that can be consumed in a harmful and abusive manner. Thus, preclinical and clinical trials in humans are very restricted due to the legalization of cannabis compounds in a few countries [1-75]. Studies on the effects of the compound containing both CBD and THC are also limited. Besides, there is still a gap in revealing the exact mechanism of how cannabinoids and terpenes help in reducing replication of various viruses [48-75]. Moreover, due to the wide range of activities of Cannabinoids and terpenes, further in vivo and clinical studies are essential to determine the effective dose of the cannabis compounds to maximize their therapeutic benefits in viral infections [1-75-81]. In short, we are still very far from the level of evidence required to consider cannabis compounds as a regimen for viral illnesses [1-75]. 5. Conclusion Industrial hemp, as a diverse plant, can be a revolutionary crop for a better future and for upcoming generations. It is an eco-friendly and worthwhile crop that complements a sustainable growth system. Industrial hemp farming has the potential to dramatically minimize the amount of carbon impact on the environment and can be cultivated with a little or no usage of chemical pesticides or fertilizers. The stalks, seeds, and leaves are converted into various construction materials, textiles, paper, food, furniture, cosmetics, and healthcare products. Biochar, bioplastics, biofuels, and biopesticides are some of the innovative applications of the hemp plant, which are subjects of research and debate at present time. However, due to the presence of psychoactive molecules, Λ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Λ9-THC) and Λ8tetrahydrocannabinol (Λ8-THC), cannabis cultivation and its use is restricted/regulated in many countries. Several secondary metabolites that are unique to Cannabis sativa L. include some cannflavins (flavonoids), cannabisins (lignans), and cannabinoids[1-49]. Hemp produces over 100 cannabinoids including cannabidiol (CBD), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), the psychotropic cannabinoid 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Λ9-THC), Λ 9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (Λ 9THCA-A), cannabigerol, cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), and Λ 9-tetrahydrocannabutol. Despite legal restrictions, cannabinoids and other compounds from hemp have a long and extensive history of safe use in humans. These products have been administered orally, sublingually, dermally, and by inhalation. As a class of natural products, cannabinoids have been shown to have suitable oral bioavailability, metabolism, blood–brain barrier permeability, and safety for use as therapeutic agents [1-49]. Based on the established therapeutic efficacy of CBD and Λ 9-THC, these and other cannabinoids are under investigation for additional pharmacological activities, including activity as antiviral agents. During the recent outbreak of Nipah virus (NiV), the local traditional healers in India used hemp oil as the mouth wash for controlling throat infections, head ache, vomiting and suggested all the patients for the consumption of hemp seeds and oil as the functional food. The consumption of hemp seed and oil has drastically reduced the fever. Therefore, there is a growing evidence that hemp oil might inactivate the Nipah virus (NiV). Hemp plants produced a diversity of chemical constituents with the potential to inhibit viral replication. However, clinical trials and scientific data supporting antiviral activity of cannabis oil against dengue, Nipah virus (NiV), monkeypox, and lumpy skin viral disease is lacking. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 475 Compliance with ethical standards Disclosure of conflict of interest No conflict of interest to be disclosed. References [1] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK. Cannabis sativa: Ethnobotany and Phytochemistry. International Journal of Innovation Scientific Research and Review. 2023; 5(2): 3990-3998. [2] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK. Cannabis sativa: Industrial hemp (fiber type)- An Ayurvedic traditional herbal medicine. International Journal of Innovation Scientific Research and Review 2023; 5 (2): 4040-4046. [3] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Achary M, Chalannavar RK. 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[34] Fernando de C, Lambert C, Barbosa Filh, EV, Castaño Coronado KV, Malabadi RB. Exploring the potentialities of industrial hemp for sustainable rural development. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences. 2024; 18(01): 305–320. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 477 [35] Malabadi RB, Sadiya MR, Prathima TC, Kolkar KP, Mammadova SS, Chalannavar RK. Cannabis sativa: Cervical cancer treatmentRole of phytocannabinoids-A story of concern. World Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Health Sciences. 2024; 17(02): 253–296. [36] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK, Baijnath H. Cannabis sativa: Monoecious species and Hermaphroditism: Feminized seed productionA breeding effort. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences. 2024; 20(03): 169-183. [37] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK, Baijnath H. Cannabis sativa: Extraction Methods for Phytocannabinoids -An Update. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences. 2024; 20(03): 018–058. [38] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK, Baijnath H. Cannabis sativa: Polyploidization-Triploid and Tetraploid Production. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences. 2024; 20(03), 567-587. [39] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK, Baijnath H. Plant Based Leather Production-An update. World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences. 2025;14(01): 031-059. [40] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Castaño Coronado KV, Chalannavar RK. Cannabis sativa: Quality control testing measures and guidelines: An update. World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences. 2025;14(01): 110-129. [41] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK, Munhoz ANR. In vitro Anther culture and Production of Haploids in Cannabis sativa. Open Access Research Journal of Science and Technology. 2025;13(01): 001-020. (https://doi.org/1.53022/oarjst.2025.13.1.0150). [42] Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Divakar MS , Swathi , Komalakshi KV, Kamble AA, Karamchand KS, Kolkar KP, Nethravathi TL, Castaño Coronado KV, Munhoz ANR. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Fiber or Hemp): 3D printing: Hempcrete-a sustainable building material. World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences. 2025;14(02): 253-282. [43] Chalannavar RK, Malabadi RB, Divakar MS, Swathi, Komalakshi KV, Kamble AA Kishore S. Karamchand KS, Kolkar KP, Castaño Coronado KV, Munhoz ANR. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Fiber or Hemp): Hemp made Leather. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews. 2025; 25(02): 2207-2218. [44] Kolkar KP, Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Divakar MS, Swathi, Kamble AA, Karamchand KS, Castaño-Coronado KV, Munhoz ANR, Mammadova SS. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Fiber or Hemp): Hemp Cottonization-Advantages and Current Challenges. International Journal of Science and Research Archive. 2025;14(03): 1233-1267. [45] Kolkar KP, Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK. Role of Cannabis sativa on wound healing: An update. GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2025; 32(03): 088–102. [46] Andre CM, Hausman JF, Guerriero G. Cannabis sativa: The plant of the thousand and one molecules. Front. Plant Sci. 2016; 7:19. Doi: 3389/fpls.2016. 00019. [47] Nath MK. Benefits of Cultivating Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa ssp. sativa)—A Versatile Plant for a Sustainable Future. Chem. Proc. 2022; 10: 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ IOCAG202212359. [48] van Breemen RB, Simchuk D. Antiviral activities of hemp cannabinoids. Clinical Science. 2023; 137 633–643. https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20220193. [49] Nguyen LC, Yang D, Nicolaescu V, Best TJ, Ohtsuki T, Chen SN, Friesen JB, Drayman N, Mohamed A, Dann C, Silva D, Gula H, Jones KA, Millis JM, Dickinson BC, Tay S, Oakes SA, Pauli GF, Meltzer DO, Randall G, Rosner MR. Cannabidiol Inhibits SARS-CoV-2 Replication and Promotes the Host Innate Immune Response. bioRxiv [Preprint]. 2021 Mar 10:2021.03.10.432967. doi: 10.1101/2021.03.10.432967. Update in: Sci Adv. 2022 Feb 25;8(8):eabi6110 [50] ] Nguyen LC, Yang D, Nicolaescu V. et al., Cannabidiol inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication through induction of the host ER stress and innate immune responses. Sci. Adv. 2022; 8: 1-18. eabi6110. [51] Wang B, Kovalchuk A, Li D, Ilnytskyy Y, Kovalchuk I, Kovalchuk O. In Search of Preventative Strategies: Novel Anti-Inflammatory High-CBD Cannabis Sativa Extracts Modulate ACE2 Expression in COVID-19 Gateway Tissues. Preprints. 2020; 2020040315. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202004.0315.v1 [52] Sea YL, Gee YJ, Lal SK, Choo WS. Cannabis as antivirals. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 2022; 134: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/jambio/lxac036. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 478 [53] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK. Outbreak of Lumpy Skin Viral disease of Cattle and buffalo in India in 2022: Ethnoveterinary Medicine Approach. International Journal of Innovation Scientific Research and Review. 2022; 4(11): 3562-3574. [54] Malabadi RB, Meti NT, Chalannavar RK. Role of herbal medicine for controlling Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease (COVID-19). International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2021; 8(2): 135-165. [55] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Meti NT, Chalannavar RK. Traditional herbal Folk medicine used for controlling coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease (covid-19). International Journal of Innovation Scientific Research and Review. 2021; 3 (7): 1507-1517. [56] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Meti NT, Chalannavar RK. Outbreak of Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) Delta variant (B.1.617.2) and Delta Plus (AY.1) with fungal infections, Mucormycosis: Herbal medicine treatment. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2021; 8(6): 59-70. [57] Malabadi RB, Meti NT, Chalannavar RK. Applications of nanotechnology in vaccine development for Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease (Covid-19). International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2021; 8(2): 191198. [58] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Meti NT, Chalannavar RK. Vaccine development for coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease (Covid-19); Lipid nanoparticles. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2021; 8(3): 189195. [59] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Acharya M, Nityasree BR, Chalannavar RK. Monkeypox :A disturbing viral outbreak in non-endemic region in 2022: Herbal treatment options. International Journal of Innovation Scientific Research and Review. 2022; 4(6): 2926-2938. [60] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK. Human Monkeypox detected first time in India: Role of Traditional Herbal Treatment. International Journal of Innovation Scientific Research and Review. 2022; 4(12): 3686-3691. [61] Acharya M, Divakar MS, Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used by the "Nalike" community in the Bantwala taluk of Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka, India. Plant Science Today. 2022; 9(2): 461-468. (Doi.org/10.14719/pst.1470). [62] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Meti NT, Chalannavar RK. Role of botanical essential oils as a therapy for controlling coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) disease (Covid-19). International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2021; 8(4): 105-118 (DOI: dx.doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2021.8407). [63] Malabadi RB, Mulgund GS, Nataraja K. Ethanobotanical survey of medicinal plants of Belgaum district, Karnataka, India. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences. 2007; 29 (2):70-77. [64] Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Supriya S, Nityasree BR, Sowmyashree K, Mulgund GS, Meti NT. Dengue Virus Disease: Current updates on the use of Carica papaya leaf extract as a potential herbal medicine. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2017; 4(8):36-50. [65] Malabadi RB, Ganguly A, Teixeira da Silva JA, Parashar A, Mavanur RS, Sunwoo HH. Overview of plant-derived vaccine antigens: Dengue virus. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2011; 14(3):400-413. [66] Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Supriya S, Nityasree BR, Sowmyashree K, Mulgund GS, Meti NT. Dengue virus disease: Recent updates on vaccine development. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2017; 4(7):08-29. [67] Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Supriya S, Nityasree BR, Sowmyashree K, Meti NT. Role of botanical drugs in controlling dengue virus disease. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovations. 2018; 5(7): 134159. [68] Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP, Chalannavar RK, Abdi G, Munhoz ANR, Baijnath H. Cannabis sativa: Dengue Viral DiseaseVector Control Measures. International Journal of Innovation Scientific Research and Review. 2023; 5(8): 50135016. [69] Ganguly A, Malabadi RB, Bhatnagar PK, Tang X, Das D, Loebenberg R, Mavanur RS, Sunwoo HH. Production and characterization of monospecific and bispecific antibodies against dengue virus NS1protein. Journal of Virological Methods. 2015; 220: 5-12 [70] Ganguly A, Malabadi RB, Loebenberg R, Mavanur RS, Sunwoo HH. Heterosandwich immunoswab assay for dengue virus NS1 antigen detection. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. 2014; 38(1):35-39 (DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.10.006). GSC Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 25(02), 471-479 479 [71] Ganguly A, Malabadi RB, Löebenberg R, Mavanur RS, Sunwoo HH. Development of an ultrasensitive heterosandwich ELISA assay based on bispecific monoclonal antibody for the detection of Dengue NS1 protein. Journal of Pharmacy Research. 2013; 7:374-380 (DOI: dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jopr.2013.05.013). [72] Ganguly A, Malabadi RB, Das D, Mavanur RS, Sunwoo HH. Enhanced prokaryotic expression of dengue virus envelope protein. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2013; 16(4):609-621 (DOI: https://doi.org/10.18433/J3PC80). [73] Ganguly A, Malabadi RB, Löbenberg R, Mavanur RS, Sunwoo HH. A minireview of dengue vaccine development. Research in Pharmacy. 2013; 3(2):18-25. [74] Ganguly A, Malabadi RB, Löbenberg R, Mavanur RS, Sunwoo HH. Dengue diagnostics; Current scenario. Research in Biotechnology. 2013; 4(2): 19-25. [75] Malabadi RB, Ganguly A, Sunwoo HH, Mavanur RS. Role of bi-specific monoclonal antibodies in immunodiagnostic assay. Research in Pharmacy. 2012; 2(3):08-14. [76] Raj V, Park JG, Cho KH, Choi P, Kim T, Ham J. et al. Assessment of antiviral potencies of cannabinoids against SARSCoV-2 using computational and in vitro approaches. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021; 168: 474–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.12.020. [77] Pitakbut T, Nguyen G-N, Kayser O. Activity of THC, CBD, and CBN on human ACE2 and SARS-CoV1/2 main protease to understand antiviral defense mechanism. Planta Med. 2022; 88: 1047–1059, https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1581-3707. [78] Liu C, Puopolo T, Li H, Cai A, Seeram NP, Ma H. Identification of SARS-CoV-2 Main protease inhibitors from a library of minor cannabinoids by biochemical inhibition assay and surface plasmon resonance characterized binding affinity. Molecules. 2022; 27: 6127. [79] Baral R, Tsampasian V, Debski M, Moran B, Garg P, Clark A. et al. Association between renin-angiotensinaldosterone system inhibitors and clinical outcomes in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review and metaanalysis. JAMA Netw. Open. 2021; 4: e213594. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.3594. [80] Anil SM, Shalev N, Vinayaka AC, Nadarajan S, Namdar D, Belausov E. et al. Cannabis compounds exhibit antiinflammatory activity in vitro in COVID-19-related inflammation in lung epithelial cells and pro-inflammatory activity in macrophages. Sci. Rep. 2021; 11, 1462, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81049-2. [81] Nguyen LC, Yang D, Nicolaescu V, Best TJ, Gula H, Saxena D. et al. Cannabidiol inhibits SARS-CoV-2 replication through induction of the host ER stress and innate immune responses. Sci. Adv. 2022; 8: 1–18, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abi6110. [82] Chalannavar RK, Hosmani PA, Divakar MS, Malabadi RB, Kolkar KP. Industrial Cannabis sativa (hemp or fibre): Hemp Cellulose Based Bioplastic Production. Magna Scientia Advanced Biology and Pharmacy. 2025; 16(01); 055-065 [83] Kolkar KP, Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK. Industrial Cannabis sativa (Hemp) seeds used as Probiotic Energy Milk Drink-An Update. GSC Advanced Research and Reviews. 2025; 25(01): 074-086. [84] Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Kolkar KP. Plant cell totipotency: Plant tissue culture applications-An updated review. World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences. 2025; 16(02): 112-135. [85] Chalannavar RK, Malabadi RB, Divakar MS , Swathi Komalakshi KV, Angitha B, Kamble AA, Karamchand KS, Kolkar KP, Castaño-Coronado KV, Munhoz ANR. Biodegradable plastics-advantages and challenges: An update. Open Access Research Journal of Science and Technology. 2025; 13(02), 042-056. [86] Kolkar KP, Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Divakar MS, Moramazi S. Probiotic hemp milk-market growth: An updated review. World Journal of Biology, Pharmacy and Health Sciences. 2025; 23(02): 133-143. [87] Chalannavar RK, Divakar MS, Malabadi RB, Kamble AA, Swathi, Karamchand KS, Kolkar KP, CastañoCoronado KV, Munhoz ANR, Mammadova SS. Plant derived Starch for the Production of Biodegradable Plastic. Global Journal of Engineering and Technology Advances. 2025; 22(03), 202-215. [88] Malabadi RB, Chalannavar RK, Kolkar KP. WUCHEL Gene Family: Transcription Factor-WOX2 As A Early Genetic Marker of Gene Expression During Induction of Somatic Embryogenesis: An updated Review. World Journal of Advanced Engineering Technology and Sciences. 2025; 16(03): 552-582. Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjaets.2025.16.3.1354.