Informal institution meets child development: Clan culture and child labor in China

Tang, Can; Zhao, Zhong Wo king Pape In o mal ins i u ion mee s child de elopmen : Clan cul u e and child labo in China UNU-MERIT Wo king Pape s, No. 2022-032 P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Maas ich Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e on Inno a ion and Technology (UNU-MERIT), Uni ed Na ions Uni e si y (UNU) Sugges ed Ci a ion: Tang, Can; Zhao, Zhong (2022) : In o mal ins i u ion mee s child de elopmen : Clan cul u e and child labo in China, UNU-MERIT Wo king Pape s, No. 2022-032, Uni ed Na ions Uni e si y (UNU), Maas ich Economic and Social Resea ch Ins i u e on Inno a ion and Technology (UNU-MERIT), Maas ich This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/326841 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. 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We ind ha clan cul u e signi ican ly educes he incidence o child labo and wo king hou s o child labo e . The esul s exhibi s ong boy bias, and a e d i en by boys a he han gi ls, which e lec s he pa ilineal na u e o Chinese clan cul u e. Mo eo e , he impac is g ea e on boys om households wi h lowe socioeconomic s a us, and in u al a eas. Clan cul u e ac s as a supplemen o o mal ins i u ions: educes he incidence o child labo h ough isk sha ing and easing c edi cons ain s, and helps o m social no ms o p omo e human capi al in es men . We also employ an ins umen a iable app oach and ca y ou a se ies o obus ness checks o u he con i m he indings. Keywo ds: In o mal ins i u ion; Clan cul u e; Child labo ; China JEL codes: J22, J81, O15  We a e g a e ul o e y insigh ul discussions wi h and commen s om E ic V. Edmonds and Douglas S aige , and would like o hank cons uc i e commen s om he edi o , wo anonymous e e ees, and con e ence pa icipan s o he 7 h In e na ional Wo kshop on Economic Analysis o Ins i u ions o ganized by Xiamen Uni e si y and semina pa icipan s a Xiamen Uni e si y, Cen al Uni e si y o Finance and Economics, Kobe Uni e si y and Shanghai Uni e si y o Finance and Economics o hei help ul commen s. We also hank he Ins i u e o Social Su ey a Peking Uni e si y o p o iding he China Family Panel S udies used in his pape . Can Tang acknowledges inancial suppo om he Na u al Science Founda ion o China (G an No. 72103130). Zhong Zhao acknowledges suppo by “Thema ic Resea ch P ojec on China's Income Dis ibu ion” (P ojec No. 21XNLG03) wi h unding om he esea ch und o Renmin Uni e si y o China. ※ Co esponding au ho : Zhong Zhao, m [email protected]. Zhong Zhao is also a membe o GLO. 1 1 In oduc ion Child labo has many sho - and long- e m nega i e e ec s, such as educ ion in human capi al accumula ion (Heady, 2003; Gunna sson e al., 2006; Dumas, 2012; O’Donnell e al., 2005) and ad e se e ec s on he u u e labo ma ke ou comes (Eme son and Souza, 2011). Ob iously, he wel a e a bo h indi idual le el and na ional le el will be impeded by such nega i e impac s. Unde s anding he ac o s behind child labo is an impo an opic in he li e a u e. In his pape , we ocus on he ole o clan cul u e on child labo in China. Ou s udy shows ha clan cul u e ac s as a supplemen o o mal inancial ma ke by educing he incidence o child labo h ough isk sha ing and easing c edi cons ain s, which en iches he li e a u e on he mac o ac o s behind he incidence o child labo , such as he ole o public policies, globaliza ion and inancial de elopmen (Dehejia and Ga i, 2005; Edmonds and Pa cnika, 2005; Dinopoulos and Zhao, 2007; Tang e al., 2020; Zhao e al., 2021). An impe ec inancial ma ke in de eloping coun ies leads o high le els o child labo engagemen o wo easons (Baland and Robinson, 2000; Ranjan, 2001; Ud y, 2003). Fi s ly, he bene i s o child labo come om he cu en wage ea ned by he child and he educed cos o schooling. Howe e , he cos o child labo is he u u e labo ea nings impeded by in ol ed in child labo . When acing c edi cons ain s, a highe in e es a e in an impe ec inancial ma ke leads o a lowe p esen discoun ed alue o he u u e labo ea nings. Thus, he bene i s would be highe ela i e o he cos , esul ing in highe incidence o child labo (Ud y, 2003). Secondly, decisions ega ding child labo and schooling a e gene ally made by pa en s, which aise he issue o agen p oblems. Agen p oblems become e en mo e salien when hey occu wi hin impe ec inancial ma ke s (Ud y, 2003). E en amongs al uis ic pa en s, he p opo ion o child labo can p oduce a socially ine icien equilib ium, as impe ec inancial ma ke s p e en pa en s om ully in e nalizing nega i e e ec s (Baland and Robinson, 2000; Ud y, 2003). Besides, as a pa o he household’s sel -insu ance 2 s a egy, child labo supply will inc ease when household acing nega i e shocks, especially when he insu ance ma ke is no well de eloped (Jacoby and Skou ias ,1996; Beegle e al., 2006; De Jan y e al., 2006). Cul u e is a i al in o mal ins i u ion, and is iden i ied in eme ging economies as a c ucial de e minan o many economic ou comes, especially when he o mal ins i u ion is poo ly de eloped (Guiso e al., 2006; Fe nández, 2011; Voig lände and Vo h, 2012; Alesina and Giuliano, 2015). Howe e , he e a e ew economic s udies ocusing on he impac o cul u e on child labo . Thus, ou s udy also con ibu es o he g owing li e a u e o cul u al economics by examining he impac o clan cul u e on he incidence o child labo in China. We ocus on China o h ee easons. Fi s ly, al hough he en ollmen a es o p ima y and junio high schools a e high in China 1 , app oxima ely 7.74% o child en aged be ween 10 and 15 yea s we e engaged in child labo in 2010 (Tang e al., 2018). I is c ucial o in es iga e how o educe he child labo pa icipa ion in China. Secondly, clan cul u e is a well-known hallma k o Chinese cul u e (G ei and Tabellini, 2010, 2017; Zhang, 2020). Whils o icial clan o ganiza ions we e la gely abolished ollowing he Chinese Communis Pa y’s ise o powe in 1949, he in luences o clan cul u e a e likely o pe sis and con inue o ha e an impo an impac on he beha io o indi iduals in mode n China (G ei and Tabellini, 2010, 2017). Thi dly, China is he la ges ansi ion and de eloping economy, bu has ye o es ablish a well-de eloped inancial ma ke , legal sys em, and social sa e y sys em, pa icula ly in u al a eas. In such con ex , clan cul u e plays he ole o o mal ins i u ions in p omo ing in o ma ion and isk sha ing, educing ansac ion cos s, o e coming inancial cons ain s o en e p ises, and easing c edi cons ain s o i s membe s (Webe , 1981; Peng, 2004; G ei and Tabellini, 2010; Cox and Fa champs, 2007; Zhang, 2020). Besides, clans also p o ide public goods and se ices o clan membe s (Fei, 1946; F eedman, 1965; Tsai, 2007; Ge a d e al., 2015). 1 The en ollmen a e o child en aged be ween 10 o 15 yea s is 97% in 2010, acco ding o ou calcula ion based on CFPS 2010. 3 Combing he heo ies o child labo de e mina ion and he unc ions o clan cul u e, we hypo hesize ha clan cul u e can in luence he engagemen o child labo . Clan cul u e, as a supplemen o o mal ins i u ions, may educe he labo supply o child en om poo amilies by easing c edi cons ain s and p omo ing isk sha ing. Mo eo e , his impac is supposed o be biased owa d boys due o he pa ilineal clan na u e. To es ou hypo heses, we use he indica o o whe he a household has a genealogy book as a key measu e o he s eng h o clan cul u e a he household le el ollowing exis ing li e a u e (Peng, 2004; Chen e al., 2016; G ei and Tabellini, 2017; Zhang, 2020). Ha ing a genealogy book means he household subsc ibing o a clan. Thus, his pape ocus on he di e ences be ween clan membe s and non-clan membe s, o he han he impac s o clan cul u e o egional ou comes o all indi iduals. Tha is, a he han explo ing he ole o ex e nal cul u al en i onmen (Guiso e al., 2004), we pay mo e a en ion o he in e gene a ional cul u al ansmission o p e e ences and belie s wi hin amilies (Tabellini, 2008), social no m among clan membe s, and he e ec o being a clan membe . Besides using a household le el indica o , we also explo e o measu e he s eng h o clan cul u e by he su name concen a ion in he illage ollowing Peng (2004). Employing ou wo measu es o clan cul u e, we a emp o sepa a ely iden i y he po en ial e ec s o ex e nal o igins and amily o igins. On he one hand, concen a ion o he same su name e lec s he s eng h o clan cul u e in he illage, ega dless o household no ms. On he o he hand, he genealogy book measu es he impo ance o clan cul u e o a pa icula household, a e con olling he illage le el indica o o clan cul u e. Based on na ional ep esen a i e da a, he China Family Panel S udies, we ind ha clan cul u e can signi ican ly educe he incidence o child labo . The esul s a e d i en by boys a he han gi ls. The di e en ial e ec s be ween boys and gi ls indica e a s ong eng ained bias owa ds boys wi hin he clan cul u e since i s pa ilineal na u e, which in luences pa en s o alloca e esou ces owa ds boys. Mo eo e , he impac is 4 g ea e on boys om households wi h lowe socioeconomic s a us, and in u al a eas. We in es iga e isk sha ing, in o mal inancial ins i u ion, social no m on p omo ing educa ion h ee mechanisms h ough which clan cul u e in luences he incidence o child labo . Speci ically, clan cul u e has a g ea e impac on educing child labo engagemen amongs boys when se ious disas e s occu . Addi ionally, clans a e mo e likely o help a he s o boys, i hey all in o di icul y. Finally, we p o ide e idence o how clan cul u e may inc ease s udy ime and household educa ional expendi u e on boys. Ou pape con ibu es o exis ing li e a u e in se e al ways. Fi s ly, i en iches he li e a u e o explo ing he impac s o cul u e on economic de elopmen . As exis ing li e a u e shows, cul u e can e ec i ely in luence labo pa icipa ion decision, e ili y decision, schooling decisions, academic pe o mance, wage a e, and labo mobili y (e.g., Fe nández, 2007; Guiso e al, 2008; Fe nández and Fogli, 2009; Gia azzi e al., 2013; Munshi and Rosenzweig, 2006; Pi , Rosenzweig and Hassan, 2012). Howe e , seldomly do hey ocus on child labo pa icipa ion. We emphasize ha cul u e can also in luence human capi al accumula ion and economic de elopmen h ough he child labo channel. Secondly, we con ibu e o exis ing child labo de e mina ion li e a u e (Dehejia and Ga i, 2005; Edmonds and Pa cnika, 2005; Basu e al., 2010; Tang e al., 2018; Tang e al. 2020; Zhao e al., 2021) by iden i ying a new in luencing ac o : clan cul u e. Since o mal ins i u ions a e weak in mos de eloping coun ies, explo ing he ole o cul u e in child labo p o ides a new insigh o unde s anding he de e mina ion and dis ibu ion o child labo . Thi dly, his pape highligh s he po en ial h ea associa ed wi h eliance on in o mal ins i u ions and cul u e, such as clans, o ill he oid o unde -de eloped o mal ins i u ions, since he in o mal ins i u ion and cul u e can be gende biased. The emainde o he pape is o ganized as ollows: Sec ion 2 b ie ly in oduces clan cul u e in China; Sec ion 3 desc ibes he da a and ou lines he empi ical s a egy; 5 Sec ion 4 p esen s and discusses he main esul s; Sec ion 5 p o ides obus ness checks; Sec ion 6 conduc s he e ogenei y analyses; Sec ion 7 explo es po en ial mechanisms and possible in e p e a ions o he main indings; Sec ion 8 p o ides concluding commen s. 2 Clan Cul u e in China and Rela ed Li e a u e Clan cul u e is a hallma k cul u e in China (G ei and Tabellini, 2010, 2017; Zhang, 2020). The clans a e kinship-based pa ilineal o ganiza ions made up o indi iduals wi h one common male ances o . The ea lies clan o ganiza ions appea ed wi hin he Zhou Dynas y (1046-256 BC) and hey p e ailed wi hin he Song Dynas y (960-1279 AD) when la ge con lic s b oke ou equen ly in no he n China, which led o g ea popula ion mig a ion o he sou h; he p esen spa ial dis ibu ion o clans was mainly o med a ha ime (Feng, 2013). Zhu Xi (1130–1200) was a e en ad oca e o clans and p o ided de ailed ins i u ional designs o Chinese clan o ganiza ions, which became he s anda d social p ac ices in he subsequen eigh cen u ies (Cheng e al., 2021). Fo managemen con enience and s onge cohesi eness, a adi ional clan ypically had an elde boa d o adminis e clan a ai s, an ances al emple o o e sac i ices o ances o s, a genealogy book eco ding b ie biog aphies o all descen s om he apical ances o , and a code o conduc o di ec and cons ain clan membe s. Besides, a ypical clan usually has common p ope ies ha can be used o assis membe s in need. Chinese clans ha e wo basic ea u es. Fi s ly, clans app ecia e amily alues, obliga ions and loyal y (Fei, 1946; Liu, 1959, Peng, 2004). Due o he sense o du y, clan membe s a e mo e inclined o make clan-o ien ed decisions. In e u n, clans also p o ide p o ec ion o loyal membe s. Howe e , clan cul u e leads o s ong boy p e e ence. As coope a ion o ganiza ions consis ing o pa ilineal households ha ace hei o igin o a common male ances o , clans emphasize pa ilineal descen so ha only males can pass on hei amily names o nex gene a ions and ha e he igh o be clan leade s (Feng, 2013). Along wi h clan cul u e, he Chinese amily sys em is pa ia chal, 12 All models a e es ima ed using he sample weigh s p o ided by he CFPS. In all eg essions, s anda d e o s a e adjus ed o clus e ing a he household le el o accoun o any po en ial co ela ion wi hin he same household (Be and e al., 2004) 9 . Al hough we only ha e c oss-sec ional da a, cul u e is usually ega ded as exogenous. The cul u al ai s ansmi om gene a ion o gene a ion (G ie , 1994; Guiso e al., 2006), and in luence economic ou comes h ough wo po en ial channels: belie s (i.e., p io s) and alues (i.e., p e e ences), which can only be eshaped in he long e m (Guiso e al., 2006). Thus, cul u e can be ega ded as pe sis en and s able. Acco ding o Becke (1996, p. 16): “Indi iduals ha e less con ol o e hei cul u e han o e o he social capi al. They canno al e hei e hnici y, ace o amily his o y, and only wi h di icul y can hey change hei coun y o eligion. Because o he di icul y o changing cul u e and i s low dep ecia ion a e, cul u e is la gely a ‘gi en’ o indi iduals h oughou hei li e imes.” Fu he mo e, whe he a household holds a genealogy book is ela i ely exogenous o he household. A genealogy book usually eco ds he his o y o a clan, including b ie biog aphies o all descen s om he apical ances o and desc ip ions o all mega e en s and hono able descen s in he clan. Compiling a genealogy equi es de ailed in o ma ion on all ex ended- amily membe s including p e ious gene a ions and cu en gene a ion. The e o e, whe he a household holds a genealogy book is mos ly de e mined by he ex ended- amily o he han an indi idual household. 4 Main Resul s In his sec ion, we i s ly p esen esul s om he baseline model, and hen deal wi h he po en ial endogenei y issues. The main ou comes o in e es a e child labo dummy a iable and sum o paid and unpaid o wo king hou s o child en. 9 We also conside clus e ing s anda d e o a he illage/communi y le el as obus ness checks. The main empi ical esul s a e s ill hold. 13 4.1 Baseline esul s Table 4 epo s he baseline esul s. All eg essions in Table 4 include indi idual cha ac e is ics, household cha ac e is ics, illage/communi y cha ac e is ics, and coun y ixed e ec s. The es ima ed coe icien s o clan cul u e s eng h a e nega i e and s a is ically signi ican in Column (1), sugges ing ha clan cul u e helps comba child labo . Pa icula ly, a child om a clan household is abou 2.7% less likely o be a child labo e . Since clans in China emphasize pa ilineal descen , clan cul u e leads o a s ong boy p e e ence. Thus, we u he explo e whe he clan cul u e has di e en ial e ec s on boys and gi ls. The esul s a e shown in Columns (2)-(4) in Table 4. We ind ha all he e ec s go h ough he in e ac ion e m o genealogy and boy; he coe icien s o genealogy become insigni ican in Column (2). In o he wo ds, clan cul u e helps comba child labo only o boys. We un sepa a e eg essions o quan i y he di e en ial impac on boys and gi ls, wi h he esul s o gi ls in Column (3) and boys in Column (4). Resul s show ha clan cul u e signi ican ly helps educe he incidence o child labo o boys. Howe e , i does no ha e a signi ican e ec o gi ls. [Table 4 abou he e] Since he e is no signi ican di e ence be ween he o e all likelihood o child labo o boys and gi ls in China (Tang e al., 2018), 10 he s onge impac o clan cul u e on boys may no come om he di e en le el o child labo incidence be ween boys and gi ls. When a amily is aced wi h se e e c edi cons ain s, bo h sons and daugh e s may ha e o engage in economic ac i i ies. Clan cul u e may elax household c edi cons ain s and lead o in a-household esou ce ealloca ion owa ds boys due o s ong boy p e e ence wi hin clans (we will e i y his he eina e ). Consequen ly, a elaxa ion o esou ce cons ain s by clans may c ea e di e en ial e ec s o boys and gi ls. 10 In he sample used in ou analyses, 7.6% o gi ls and 7.9% o boys engaged in child labo . 14 Besides economic ac i i ies, child en also in ol e non-economic housewo k, such as aking ca e o he amily and household cho es. We also examine he child en’s non- economic housewo k pa icipa ion. Acco ding o ou calcula ion om he CFPS 2010, 51.34% o child en pa icipa e in housewo k. On a e age, child labo e s spend 6.72 hou s pe day on indi idual wo k on a e age, whils hey only spend 0.847 hou s pe day on housewo k. When we conside he impac s o clan cul u e on child en’s housewo k pa icipa ion, we ind no signi ican e ec s. In o he wo ds, clan cul u e helps educe child en’s pa icipa ion in economic ac i i ies, bu has no impac s on hei housewo k pa icipa ion. 11 4.2 Co ec ing o he po en ial endogenous bias The endogenei y conce ns may come om h ee aspec s in his esea ch: e e se causali y, measu emen e o o clan cul u e, and omi ed a iables. Since whe he a household has a genealogy book is ha d o be in luenced by child labo engagemen , e e se causali y issue is no he main conce n in ou speci ica ion. As o measu emen e o o clan cul u e, i is possible o a household emphasizing clan cul u e do no keep a genealogy book, bu seldomly would a non-clan household keep a genealogy book. Measu emen e o in his di ec ion unde es ima es he impac o clan cul u e. The e o e, he majo endogenei y conce ns may come om omi ed a iables. To assess he impo ance o po en ial omi ed a iable bias, we pe o m a es p oposed by Os e (2019). This me hod analyzes he di e ences in coe icien s o in e es and he R-squa ed o he main eg essions be ween excluding con ols and including con ols. I including con ols inc eases he R-squa ed o he model while no a ec ing he coe icien o in e es , i is less likely ha including unobse ables would bias he esul s. Os e (2019) assesses his po en ial bias by compu e he ela i e impo ance o unobse ables o obse ables (𝛿) ha would be consis en wi h a 11 The esul s a e a ailable om he au ho s upon eques . 15 coe icien o in e es equal o ze o (𝛽=0). Tha is, how impo an should he unobse ables o be ela i e o he obse ables o elimina e he es ima ed e ec . Fo ou baseline speci ica ion, he 𝛿 ha ma ches 𝛽=0 amoun s o 2.208 o whole sample, 3.629 o gi ls and 1.871 o boys. I means ha he impo ance o unobse ables would ha e o be 2.208, 3.629 and 1.871 imes highe han ha o he obse ables o he coe icien s o be ze o. Acco ding o Os e (2019), he omi ed a iable bias would be less o a conce n i he es ima ed 𝛿 exceeds one. The alues o 𝛿 a e a mo e han one in ou es s, indica ing ha omi ed a iables bias is limi ed. To u he con ol o he possible endogenous issue and assess he impo ance o he po en ial endogenous bias, we adop an ins umen a iable (IV) app oach and ca y ou a Hausman es . Re e ing o Chen e al. (2021), we ins umen clan cul u e wi h a ci y’s sho es dis ance o he academic cen e whe e Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) de eloped and sp ead his philosophy. Zhu Xi was a e en ad oca e o clans and p o ided de ailed ins i u ional designs o Chinese clan o ganiza ions, which became he s anda d social p ac ices in he subsequen eigh cen u ies (Cheng e al., 2021). Zhu had se up 3 academies du ing his whole li e, all o which we e loca ed in Nanping (in Fujian p o ince) and he majo i y o Zhu’s classical ex s we e comple ed he e, such as Jiali ( he Family Ri uals) (Chan, 1987). In Jiali, Zhu no only elabo a ed on he impo ance o es ablishing clan common p ope ies, such as ances al halls, ances al g a eya ds, and i ual land, bu also laid ou de ailed ins uc ions on he design o ances al halls and he ules o amily i uals like adul ce emonies, ma iages, une als, and ances al o e ings e c. (Cheng e al. 2021). Meanwhile, o he h ee academies Zhu buil , he mos impo an one is “Kao ing Academy”, because mos o his amous pupils a ended him he e om all o e China and mos o he eco ded con e sa ions ook place he e, o ming he “Kao ing School” wi h g ea in luence in his o y (Chan, 1987). In a wo d, Nanping was he academic cen e o sp eading Zhu Xi’s main ideas abou clan cul u e. Thus, we expec ha egions close o Nanping we e mo e exposed o Zhu Xi’s in luences his o ically and, hanks o 16 cul u al pe sis ence, a e mo e likely o p ese e s ong clan cul u e he i age oday. Besides, he loca ion choice o he academic cen e whe e Zhu Xi (1130–1200 CE) de eloped and sp ead his philosophy is la gely andom. Zhu Xi chose o es ablish academies in Nanping because his a he used o be a local go e nmen o icial he e and his mo he was bu ied he e. Nanping was nei he an economic cen e no backwa d egions. The e o e, consis en wi h Chen e al. (2021) and Cheng e al. (2021), we a gue ha he IV does no a ec he child labo decision h ough o he channels han clan cul u e. So, i is easonable o use a ci y’s sho es dis ance o Nanping as an IV o he s eng h o clan cul u e. The ins umen al a iable (IV) esul s a e shown in he Table 5. These esul s ein o ce ou baseline conclusion: he nega i e e ec s o clan cul u e on he incidence o child labo a e signi ican o he ull sample and he boy sample. [Table 5 abou he e] Fu he mo e, we employ a Hausman speci ica ion es o examine whe he i is necessa y o adop an IV app oach (Hausman, 1978). The esul om a obus Hausman es using boo s ap wi h 1500 eplica ions shows P ob > chi2=0.23, which means ha we canno ejec he null hypo hesis ha all explana o y a iables a e exogenous. Since OLS is mo e e icien han IV app oach i all explana o y a iables a e exogenous, and bo h es o Os e (2019) and Hausman es indica e ha he e is no signi ican endogenous bias, i is a ional o us o choose OLS me hod as he main empi ical s a egy in his pape 12 . 12 I should be added ha , in he OLS eg essions we con ol o he coun y ixed e ec . When i comes o he IV app oach, since ou ins umen a iable - a ci y’s dis ance o Nanping - is a pa o he coun y ixed e ec , we canno con ol o he coun y ixed e ec anymo e due o pe ec collinea i y. Thus, o execu e he Hausman speci ica ion es , he eg ession equa ion o OLS we use he e is he same as he eg ession equa ion o IV app oach (wi hou con olling o coun y ixed e ec ). Acco ding o Mundlak (1987), we can always ind a linea p ojec ion o ans e a ixed e ec model o a andom e ec model, so i is a ional o ans e he OLS eg ession equa ion con olling o coun y ixed e ec o an equa ion wi hou con olling o coun y ixed e ec . 17 4.3 Wo king hou s In his pa , we go one s ep u he o examine he e ec s o clan cul u e on wo king hou s o child en. Since a subs an ial p opo ion o child en a e obse ed wi h ze o wo king hou , we use a obi model. Resul s in Table 6 show ha clan cul u e signi ican ly helps educe child en’s wo king hou s, and again his esul is d i en by boys o he han gi ls. [Table 6 abou he e] Because a majo i y o child en a e no wo king, i is impo an and in e es o in es iga e how he clan cul u e e ec s on he ex ensi e ma gin ( he pa icipa ion o in he labo ma ke ) and on he in ensi e ma gin (wo king hou s condi ional on wo king) by McDonald and Mo i 's (1980) decomposi ion. Table 7 epo s he decomposi ion esul s. Panel A and B show esul s o he whole sample, while Panel C o gi ls and D o boys. Clan cul u e has educed bo h he ex ensi e and he in ensi e ma gin, bu he e ec s a e again signi ican o boys only. Panel D illus a es ha clan cul u e educes labo pa icipa ion o boy by 2.6% a ex ensi e ma gin and educes wo king ime by 0.24 hou s a in ensi e ma gin. [Table 7 abou he e] 5 Robus ness checks In his subsec ion, we conduc a se ies o obus ness checks o ou baseline esul s: pe mu a ion es ; sample es ic ion; al e na i e measu e o he s eng h o clan cul u e; aking no h-sou h di e ence in o accoun ; and conside a ion o di e en e hnic g oups. 5.1 Pe mu a ion es We adop a pe mu a ion es o Rosenbaum (2007) o check whe he he es ima ed esul s a e eally signi ican o jus due o andom chance. The pe mu a ion 18 es makes no assump ions on he unde lying dis ibu ion o he da a. In he pe mu a ion es , he null hypo hesis is ha he clan cul u e has no e ec on he odds o child labo . Unde he null hypo hesis, he es ima ed coe icien om he ac ual da a can be conside ed a andom sample om he pe mu a ion dis ibu ion. We can p oduce he pe mu a ion dis ibu ion o he es ima ed coe icien s and use i o s a is ical in e ence. We andomly assign whe he o no he amily household has a genealogy book as he placebo ea men s a us o each child (Rosenbaum, 2007; Lu and Ande son, 2015). Speci ically, he a io o households ha ing genealogy books in placebo ea men s a us is consis en wi h ha in he ac ual da a. We es ima e he placebo ea men e ec on he incidence o child labo . The dis ibu ion o placebo ea men e ec s om 4000 andom assignmen s a e displayed in Fig.2. The dashed line shows he es ima ed ea men e ec om he baseline analysis. The p alue o he pe mu a ion placebo es is he p opo ion o placebo es ima es ha a e equal o o la ge in absolu e alue han he co esponding es ima e om he baseline analysis. We ind ha he p alue is 0.033, which ejec s he null hypo hesis o no e ec , hus p o iding u he suppo o ou iden i ica ion s a egy and main indings. [Figu e 2 abou he e] 5.2 Sample es ic ion Clans emphasize pa ilineal descen and ha e a s ong boy p e e ence. Thus, when we di ide he whole sample in o he subsamples o boys and gi ls, he classi ica ion may by endogenous. As amilies wi h sons may be mo e deeply in luenced by clan cul u e, i.e., h ough e ili y decisions, i is possible ha he di e en ial gende e ec s shown in he baseline esul s may no only cap u e he impac o clan cul u e on he incidence o child labo , bu also include di e en s eng hs o clan cul u e be ween hese wo subsamples. As a obus ness check, we es ic ou analysis o he child en om households wi h bo h sons and daugh e s. On he one hand, such amilies a e mo e likely o ha e he same gende p e e ence, bu on he o he hand, in a-household esou ce alloca ion be ween boys and gi ls is mo e ele an o amilies wi h bo h sons 19 and daugh e s. The esul s a e in Table 8: clan cul u e s ill signi ican ly educes he incidence o child labo o boys, bu no o gi ls, and he di e en ial gende e ec s a e indeed s onge o such amilies. 13 [Table 8 abou he e] 5.3 Al e na i e measu es o he s eng h o clan cul u e We hen check i ou esul s a e sensi i e o al e na i e measu es o clan cul u e s eng h. Whe e clan cul u e is p e alen , ex ended amily membe s end o li e in he same illage. In e e ence o Peng (2004), we measu e he s eng h o clan cul u e by he su name concen a ion in he illage. Pa icula ly, as shown in Columns (1)-(3) in Table 9, we adop whe he o no he e is a su name sha ed by o e 10% o illage households as an al e na i e measu e o he s eng h o clan cul u e. 14 We exclude he u ban sample in his pa , as we do no ha e any in o ma ion abou su name p e alence a communi y le el wi hin u ban a eas. Using he al e na i e measu e o clan cul u e s eng h does no al e ou main inding: clan cul u e has a nega i e and signi ican e ec on he incidence o child labo o boys. Fu he mo e, some li e a u e ocuses on he in e gene a ional cul u al ansmission o p e e ences and belie s wi hin amilies (Tabellini, 2008), whils o he s shed ligh on he ole o ex e nal cul u al en i onmen (Guiso e al., 2004). Thus, an in e es ing ques ion o conside is whe he i is in e gene a ionally ansmi ed clan cul u e wi hin amilies, o he a ea in which an indi idual li es ha helps comba child labo . Employing ou wo measu es o clan cul u e, we a emp o sepa a ely iden i y he po en ial e ec s o ex e nal o igins and amily o igins. On he one hand, concen a ion o he same su name e lec s he s eng h o clan cul u e in he illage, ega dless o household no ms. On he o he hand, he genealogy book measu es he impo ance o 13 We also conside he impac s o in e p o incial mig an s o ou esul s. Only 1.4% o ou sample a e in e p o incial mig an s. When we es ic ou sample o local child en, ou main esul s do no change much. The esul s a e a ailable om he au ho s upon eques . 14 This indica o comes om a ques ion o CFPS2010 in illage/communi y module, which ask “In you illage, was he e any su name sha ed by o e 10% o all he households?”. The e is no addi ional in o ma ion a ailable o use o he cu o . 20 clan cul u e o a pa icula household, a e con olling he illage le el indica o o clan cul u e. Speci ically, we add clan cul u e measu es o bo h illage le el and household le el o he eg essions and epo he esul s in Columns (4)-(6) o Table 9. In e es ingly, bo h indica o s a e signi ican ly nega i e in he eg ession o boys. Tha is, clan cul u e does help educe child labo pa icipa ion o boys i espec i e o whe he i is ansmi ed wi hin he amily o p e alen in he illage. [Table 9 abou he e] 5.4 Conside di e ence in clan cul u e among e hnic g oups The e a e 56 e hnic g oups in China, including he Han Chinese accoun ing o abou 91.51% o he o al popula ion and es a e 55 o he e hnic mino i ies. 15 Since di e en e hnic g oups may hold di e en belie s, we addi ionally check o obus ness ac oss di e en e hnic g oups by con olling he in e ac ion o he s eng h o clan cul u e and whe he he illage/ esiden ial communi y is a mino i y-concen a ed a ea. The esul s a e epo ed in Table 10. The es ima ed esul s a e qui e close o hose ob ained om baseline esul s. The coe icien s o he dummy a iable on whe he a household belongs o Han Chinese, i a illage/communi y is a mino i y-concen a ed a ea, and he in e ac ion e m o clan cul u e and mino i y-concen a ed a ea a e all insigni ican , which implies ha clan cul u e plays an impo an ole in educing child labo amongs bo h he Han Chinese and mino i ies. [Table 10 abou he e] 5.5 Take no h-sou h di e ence in o accoun Figu e 1 shows clan cul u e concen a es in sou he n egions o China. The une en dis ibu ion may imply di e en impac s o clan cul u e on child labo 15 Da a sou ce: 2010 Na ional Census o China. 21 pa icipa ion be ween no he n and sou he n p o inces. As shown in Table 11, columns (1)-(3) show he es ima es o child en li ing in no he n p o inces whils he es ima es o child en li ing in sou he n p o inces a e epo ed in Columns (4)- (6). We ind ha clan cul u e signi ican ly educes he incidence o child labo o child en in sou he n p o inces, especially o boys, bu has no signi ican e ec on he engagemen o child labo o child en in no he n p o inces. 16 [Table 11 abou he e] 6 Mechanisms and In e p e a ions 6.1 A supplemen o o mal ins i u ions Since cul u e ac s as a supplemen o o mal ins i u ions, especially when he o mal ins i u ion is no well de eloped (Alesina and Giuliano, 2015), he impac o clan cul u e on child en’s labo o ce pa icipa ion may a y be ween u ban and u al a eas due o he di e en de elopmen o o mal ins i u ion and economic le el. We in es iga e u al-u ban he e ogenei y o es whe he clan cul u e ac s as a supplemen o o mal ins i u ions and plays a much impo an ole in u al China. As shown in Table 12, Panel A p esen s he e ec s o clan cul u e by u al/u ban hukou s a us, while Panel B e e s o he e ec s o clan cul u e by u al/u ban esidence. Columns (1)-(3) show he es ima es o u ban child en whils he es ima es o u al child en wi h a e epo ed in Columns (4)-(6). The esul s show ha clan cul u e helps educe he incidence o child labo o u al child en, especially o u al boys, bu has no signi ican e ec on he likelihood o child labo amongs bo h u ban gi ls and u ban boys. [Table 12 abou he e] 16 No he n China includes Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shanxi, Inne Mongolia, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Shandong, Henan, Shaanxi, Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang. Sou he n China includes Shanghai, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, Chongqing, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and Tibe . 28 Cox, D., Fa champs, M., 2007. Chap e 58 Ex ended Family and Kinship Ne wo ks: Economic Insigh s and E olu iona y Di ec ions. Else ie B.V. de Jan y, A., Finan, F., Sadoule , E., Vakis, R., 2006. Can condi ional cash ans e s se e as sa e y ne s in keeping child en a school and om wo king when exposed o shocks? 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These his og ams display he dis ibu ion o placebo ea men e ec s om 4000 andom assignmen s. The dashed line shows he es ima ed ea men e ec om he baseline analysis. The p alue o each pe mu a ion placebo es is he p opo ion o placebo es ima es ha a e equal o o la ge in absolu e alue han he co esponding es ima e om he baseline analysis. 34 Table 1. S eng h o Consanguini y Ties Va iables （1） （2） （3） （4） （5） Households wi hou genealogies Households wi h genealogies Di e ence Obs Mean Obs Mean Pa icipa e in ances o wo ship/ omb-sweeping ac i i ies las yea (dummy) 11378 0.676 3322 0.766 -0.090*** How o en did he amily do he ollowing con ac s wi h ela i es and iends las mon h ： En e ainmen / dine oge he 11369 0.575 3319 0.723 -0.148*** Gi e ood o gi s 11374 0.381 3322 0.568 -0.187*** Help each o he 11371 0.384 3319 0.497 -0.114*** Pay a isi 11368 0.742 3320 0.888 -0.146*** Cha 11367 1.147 3321 1.287 -0.141*** No es: 1. F equencies o con ac s a e di ided in o 5 ca ego ies: 0, no con ac a all; 1, once a mon h; 2, 2-3 imes a mon h; 3, 2-3 imes a week; 4, almos e e y day. 2. Au ho s’ calcula ion based on he amily ques ionnai e o CFPS2010. 3. T- es o di e ence be ween households wi h a genealogy book and wi hou is epo ed in Column (5). 4. Resul s a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a.5. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. 35 Table 2. Summa y S a is ics (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Va iables Obs Mean S d. De . Min Max Child labo (dummy) 3435 0.078 0.268 0 1 Genealogy (dummy) 3398 0.289 0.453 0 1 Age 3435 12.473 1.711 10 15 Han na ionali y (dummy) 3435 0.835 0.371 0 1 Boy (dummy) 3435 0.537 0.499 0 1 Ru al Hukou (dummy) 3405 0.772 0.419 0 1 In e p o incial mig an (dummy) 3426 0.014 0.116 0 1 Educa ion o a he (yea ) 3356 7.015 4.288 0 19 Educa ion o a he (ca ego y) Illi e acy 3382 0.171 0.376 0 1 P ima y School 3382 0.271 0.445 0 1 Junio High School 3382 0.374 0.484 0 1 Senio High School 3382 0.124 0.33 0 1 College and abo e 3382 0.06 0.238 0 1 Educa ion o mo he (yea ) 3357 5.625 4.563 0 22 Educa ion o mo he (ca ego y) Illi e acy 3386 0.3 0.458 0 1 P ima y School 3386 0.273 0.446 0 1 Junio High School 3386 0.298 0.458 0 1 Senio High School 3386 0.083 0.276 0 1 College and abo e 3386 0.045 0.208 0 1 Age o a he 3404 40.257 4.995 28 75 Age o mo he 3389 38.375 4.619 24 72 Household head is male (dummy) 3,426 0.758 0.428 0 1 Numbe o child en 3431 1.824 0.926 1 7 Numbe o adul s 3431 2.858 1.193 1 11 Household ne asse s (millions o CNY) 3238 0.168 0.470 -0.586 29.961 Non-ag icul u al ac i i ies by he amily (dummy) 3428 0.1 0.299 0 1 Numbe o ela i es isi ed las sp ing es i al 3410 5.781 6.458 0 100 A e age household ne asse s in he illage/communi y (millions o CNY) 3428 0.170 0.224 -0.024 5.313 A e age educa ion yea o adul s in he illage/communi y 3435 5.838 2.49 0.667 14.231 Popula ion in he illage/communi y 3378 4186.825 4663.566 170 51139 No es: 1. Au ho s’ calcula ion based on he amily ques ionnai e o CFPS 2010. 2. Resul s a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 36 Table 3. Summa y S a is ics: by Ha e a Genealogy Book o No Va iables Genealogy=0 Genealogy=1 Di e ence (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Obs Mean Obs Mean Child labo (dummy) 2501 0.091 897 0.046 -0.046*** Wo k hou s pe day 2501 0.618 897 0.302 -0.316*** Age 2501 12.494 897 12.433 -0.061 Han na ionali y (dummy) 2501 0.818 897 0.878 0.060*** Boy (dummy) 2501 0.532 897 0.553 0.021 Ru al Hukou (dummy) 2477 0.755 893 0.816 0.061*** Educa ion o a he (yea ) 2439 6.839 881 7.409 0.570*** Educa ion o mo he (yea ) 2451 5.539 872 5.870 0.331 Age o a he 2479 40.262 889 40.197 -0.065 Age o mo he 2470 38.427 883 38.249 -0.178 Household head is male (dummy) 2501 0.728 895 0.831 0.103*** Numbe o child en 2500 1.778 894 1.933 0.155*** Numbe o adul s 2500 2.852 894 2.864 0.012 Household ne asse s (millions o CNY) 2355 0.161 857 0.186 0.025 Non-ag icul u al ac i i ies by he amily (dummy) 2501 0.101 897 0.098 -0.002 Numbe s o ela i es isi ed las sp ing es i al 2488 5.317 892 6.921 1.605*** A e age household ne asse s in he illage/communi y (millions o CNY) 2497 0.172 894 0.156 -0.016** A e age educa ion yea o adul s in he illage/communi y 2501 5.855 897 5.793 -0.062 Log Popula ion in he illage/communi y 2451 7.904 891 7.875 -0.029 No es: 1. Au ho s’ calcula ion based on he amily ques ionnai e o CFPS2010. 2. T- es o di e ence be ween child en om amily wi h a genealogy book and wi hou is epo ed in Column (5). 3. Resul s a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 37 Table 4. Impac s o Clan Cul u e on Incidence o Child Labo (1) (2) (3) (4) All Pa ia chal and Pa ilineal VARIABLES All Gi l Boy Genealogy*Boy -0.039* (0.021) Genealogy (dummy) -0.027** -0.006 -0.016 -0.039** (0.012) (0.018) (0.020) (0.015) Age -0.089 -0.088 -0.134 -0.074 (0.059) (0.059) (0.093) (0.076) Age squa ed 0.003 0.003 0.005 0.003 (0.002) (0.002) (0.004) (0.003) Han na ionali y (dummy) -0.035* -0.035* -0.066** -0.001 (0.021) (0.021) (0.033) (0.027) Boy (dummy) -0.011 0.000 (0.011) (0.013) Ru al Hukou (dummy) -0.006 -0.005 0.002 0.005 (0.019) (0.019) (0.025) (0.026) Age o a he -0.006 -0.006 0.053** -0.028 (0.018) (0.018) (0.021) (0.021) Age o a he squa ed 0.000 0.000 -0.001** 0.000 (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Age o mo he 0.030** 0.029** 0.001 0.043*** (0.014) (0.014) (0.028) (0.015) Age o mo he squa ed -0.000** -0.000* 0.000 -0.000*** (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000) Household head is male (dummy) 0.012 0.012 0.020 0.013 (0.014) (0.013) (0.018) (0.020) Numbe o child en 0.003 0.002 0.004 -0.004 (0.010) (0.010) (0.014) (0.013) Numbe o adul s -0.009 -0.009 -0.012 -0.004 (0.006) (0.006) (0.009) (0.007) Household ne asse s 0.003 0.004 -0.001 0.000 (0.007) (0.007) (0.024) (0.007) Non-ag icul u al ac i i ies by he amily (dummy) -0.021 -0.022 0.000 -0.033* (0.015) (0.015) (0.027) (0.018) Numbe o ela i es isi ed las sp ing es i al -0.001 -0.001 0.002 -0.006*** (0.001) (0.001) (0.002) (0.002) A e age household ne asse s in he illage/communi y -0.034 -0.033 -0.111 0.014 (0.045) (0.045) (0.098) (0.049) A e age educa ion yea o adul s in he illage/communi y -0.014*** -0.014*** -0.002 -0.020*** (0.005) (0.005) (0.009) (0.006) Log popula ion in he illage/communi y 0.025** 0.025** 0.019 0.019 (0.010) (0.010) (0.016) (0.013) Cons an -0.021 -0.022 -0.438 0.157 (0.376) (0.376) (0.638) (0.464) Obse a ions 3,023 3,023 1,509 1,514 R-squa ed 0.251 0.252 0.323 0.321 Coun y FE Y Y Y Y Educa ion o Mo he (ca ego y) Y Y Y Y Educa ion o Fa he (ca ego y) Y Y Y Y No es: 1. The dependen a iable is child en’s labo o ce pa icipa ion. 2. Es ima es a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 3. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses a e clus e ed a household le el. 4. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. 44 Table 11. No h-Sou h Di e ence (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) VARIABLES No h No h&Gi l No h&Boy Sou h Sou h&Gi l Sou h&Boy Genealogy (dummy) 0.007 0.029 -0.028 -0.045** -0.031 -0.045** (0.016) (0.024) (0.019) (0.018) (0.027) (0.022) Obse a ions 1,589 805 784 1,434 704 730 R-squa ed 0.172 0.280 0.235 0.299 0.367 0.378 Indi idual cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Household cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Village/Communi y cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Coun y FE. Y Y Y Y Y Y No es: 1. The dependen a iable is child en’s labo o ce pa icipa ion. 2. Es ima es a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 3. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses a e clus e ed a household le el. 4. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. 45 Table 12. Mechanism: A Supplemen o Fo mal Ins i u ions (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) VARIABLES U ban U ban&Gi l U ban&Boy Ru al Ru al&Gi l Ru al&Boy Panel A: by Hukou S a us Genealogy (dummy) -0.024 0.007 -0.019 -0.025* -0.014 -0.039** (0.030) (0.040) (0.033) (0.014) (0.021) (0.019) Obse a ions 612 307 305 2,411 1,202 1,209 R-squa ed 0.457 0.716 0.627 0.271 0.363 0.314 Panel B: by Residence Genealogy (dummy) -0.040 -0.049 -0.035 -0.027** -0.009 -0.044** (0.028) (0.033) (0.025) (0.012) (0.023) (0.020) Obse a ions 715 343 337 3,023 1,136 1,146 R-squa ed 0.398 0.656 0.516 0.251 0.353 0.315 No es: 1. The dependen a iable is child en’s labo o ce pa icipa ion. 2. Es ima es a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 3. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses a e clus e ed a household le el. 4. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. 46 Table 13. Mechanism: Impac s o Clan Cul u e by Household Socioeconomic S a us (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Ne asse <1/3 1/3<=Ne asse <2/3 Ne asse s>=2/3 VARIABLES All Gi l Boy All Gi l Boy All Gi l Boy Genealogy (dummy) -0.084*** -0.053 -0.101*** 0.004 -0.008 0.014 -0.003 -0.004 -0.024 (0.021) (0.038) (0.030) (0.026) (0.042) (0.038) (0.024) (0.042) (0.030) Obse a ions 1,004 510 494 1,007 496 511 1,007 502 505 R-squa ed 0.354 0.515 0.426 0.358 0.485 0.448 0.468 0.624 0.619 Indi idual cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Household cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Village/Communi y cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Coun y FE. Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y No es: 1. The dependen a iable is child en’s labo o ce pa icipa ion. 2. Es ima es a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 3. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses a e clus e ed a household le el. 4. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. 47 Table 14. Mechanism: Risk-sha ing (1) (2) (3) VARIABLES All Gi l Boy Genealogy (dummy) 0.025 0.034 0.015 (0.024) (0.039) (0.030) Disas e losses a p o ince le el 0.004*** 0.004*** 0.005*** (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) Genealogy* Disas e losses a p o ince le el -0.003*** -0.003 -0.003** (0.001) (0.002) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) Obse a ions 3,023 1,509 1,514 R-squa ed 0.111 0.113 0.144 Indi idual cha . Y Y Y Household cha . Y Y Y Village/Communi y cha . Y Y Y P o incial cha . Y Y Y Region FE Y Y Y No es: 1. The dependen a iable is child en’s labo o ce pa icipa ion. 2. Es ima es a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 3. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses a e clus e ed a household le el. 4. P o incial cha ac e is ics includes log o GDP and log o popula ion in 2009. 5. Six egions: No heas , No hwes , No h China, Sou hwes , Cen al Sou h, and Eas China. 6. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. 48 Table 15. Mechanism: Easing C edi Cons ain s (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Fa he Mo he VARIABLES All Gi l Boy All Gi l Boy Panel A: Ge ing aids om ela i es Genealogy 0.023 -0.033 0.080* -0.020 -0.070 0.001 (0.035) (0.050) (0.048) (0.033) (0.046) (0.045) Obse a ions 2,245 1,106 1,139 2,530 1,264 1,266 R-squa ed 0.207 0.305 0.266 0.204 0.305 0.265 Panel B: Financial suppo Genealogy 0.024 -0.042 0.079* -0.054* -0.089** -0.038 (0.035) (0.049) (0.048) (0.030) (0.040) (0.042) Obse a ions 2,221 1,097 1,124 2,497 1,251 1,246 R-squa ed 0.209 0.314 0.273 0.219 0.317 0.258 Panel C: Aids on o he a ai s Genealogy -0.034 -0.014 -0.044 0.021 -0.001 0.036 (0.026) (0.038) (0.033) (0.026) (0.039) (0.034) Obse a ions 2,245 1,106 1,139 2,530 1,264 1,266 R-squa ed 0.158 0.211 0.242 0.162 0.231 0.234 No es: 1. The dependen a iable is whe he a he s/mo he s ecei e aids o he ollowing a ai s: bo owing money; child en’s schooling; seeing a doc o ; job sea ching; child en’s job sea ching. 2. Es ima es a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 3. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses a e clus e ed a household le el. 4.*** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. 49 Table 16. Mechanism: Social No ms (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Log educa ional expendi u e (OLS) S udy ime (Tobi ) VARIABLES All Gi l Boy All Gi l Boy Genealogy (dummy) 0.222** 0.003 0.318** 0.286** 0.188 0.314* (0.103) (0.159) (0.130) (0.143) (0.217) (0.169) Obse a ions 3,007 1,500 1,507 3,023 1,509 1,514 R-squa ed 0.367 0.437 0.404 Indi idual cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Household cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Village/Communi y cha . Y Y Y Y Y Y Coun y FE. Y Y Y Y Y Y Log pseudolikelihood -182000000 -83800000 -94900000 Pseudo R-squa e 0.0797 0.0952 0.0952 No es: 1. The dependen a iable in Columns (1)-(3) is log household educa ional spending, and in Columns (4)-(6) is hou s spending on s udy. Es ima es a e weigh ed using sample weigh s p o ided in he da a. 2. Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses a e clus e ed a household le el. 3. *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.10. TheUNU‐MERITWORKINGPape Se ies  2022-01 S uc u al ans o ma ionsandcumula i ecausa ion owa dsane olu iona y mic o‐ ounda iono  heKaldo iang ow hmodelbyAnd éLo en z,TommasoCia li, Ma iaSa onaandMa coValen e 2022-02 Es ima iono ap oduc ion unc ionwi hdomes icand o eigncapi als ockby ThomasZieseme  2022-03 Au oma ionand ela ed echnologies:Amappingo  henewknowledgebaseby En icoSan a elli,JacopoS accioliandMa coVi a elli 2022-04 Theold‐agepensionhousehold eplacemen  a einBelgiumbyAlessioJ.G.B own andAnne‐Lo eF aikin 2022-05 Globalisa ioninc eased us inno he nandwes e nEu opebe ween2002and 2018byLoesjeVe hoe enandJoRi zen 2022-06 Globalisa ionand inancialisa ionin heNe he lands,1995–2020byJoanMuysken andHuubMeije s 2022-07 Impo pene a ionandmanu ac u ingemploymen :E idence omA icaby SolomonOwusu,GideonNdubuisiandEmmanuelB.Mensah 2022-08 Ad anceddigi al echnologiesandindus ial esiliencedu ing heCOVID‐19 pandemic:A i m‐le elpe spec i ebyElisaCalzaAlejand oLa opaandLigiaZaga o 2022-09 The eckoningo sexual iolenceandco up ion:Agende eds udyo sex o ionin mig a ion oSou hA icabyAshleighBicke Caa en,Loes anHeug enandO un Me kle 2022-10 Thep oduc i e oleo socialpolicybyOma Rod íguezTo es 2022-11 Somenew iewsonp oduc spaceand ela eddi e si ica ionbyÖnde Nomale  andBa Ve spagen 2022-12 Themul idimensionalimpac so  heCondi ionalCashT ans e p og amJun osin Pe ubyRica doMo elandLizGi ón 2022-13 Semi‐endogenousg ow hinanon‐Wal asianDSEM o B azil:Es ima ionand simula iono changesin o eignincome,humancapi al,R&D,and e mso  ade byThomasH.W.Zieseme  2022-14 Rou ine‐biased echnologicalchangeandemployeeou comesa e masslayo s: E idence omB azilbyAn onioMa ins‐Ne o,Xa ie Ci e aandAlexCoad 2022-15 Thecanonicalco ela ioncomplexi yme hodbyÖnde Nomale &Ba Ve spagen 2022-16 Canonicalco ela ioncomplexi yo Eu opean egionsbyÖnde Nomale &Ba  Ve spagen 2022-17 Quan ile e u nand ola ili yconnec ednessamongNon‐FungibleTokens(NFTs) and(un)con en ionalasse sbyCh is ianU om,GideonNdubuisiandKhaled Guesmi 2022-18 HowdoFi msInno a einLa inAme ica?Iden i ica iono Inno a ionS a egiesand Thei MainAdop ionDe e minan sbyFe nandoVa gas 2022-19 Remi ancedependence,suppo  o  axa ionandquali yo publicse icesinA ica byMa yKon eandGideonNdubuisi 2022-20 Ha monizedLa inAme icaninno a ionSu eysDa abase(LAIS):Fi m‐le el mic oda a o  hes udyo inno a ionbyFe nandoVa gas,Cha lo eGuilla d, MónicaSalaza andGus a oA.C espi 2022-21 Au oma ionexposu eandimplica ionsinad ancedandde elopingcoun iesac oss gende ,age,andskillsbyHube Nii‐Aponsah 2022-22 Sex o ioninaccess oWASHse icesinselec ed egionso BangladeshbyO un Me kle,Um bekAllakulo andDebo aGonzalez 2022-23 Complexi y esea chineconomics:pas ,p esen and u u ebyÖnde Nomale & Ba Ve spagen 2022-24 Technologyadop ion,inno a ionpolicyandca ching‐upbyJuanR.Pe illaand ThomasH.W.Zieseme  2022-25 Exogenousshocksandp oac i e esiliencein heEU:Thecaseo  heReco e yand ResilienceFacili ybyAn honyBa zokas,Rena oGiaconandCo adoMacchia elli 2022-26 Achance o op imism:Enginee ing heb eakaway om hedownwa dspi alin us andsocialcohesiono keeping he ish omdisappea ingbyJoRi zenand Eleono aNillesen 2022-27 Dynamicdependencebe weencleanin es men sandeconomicpolicyunce ain y byCh is ianU om,HelaMzoughi,GideonNdubuisiandKhaledGuesmi 2022-28 Pee ne wo ksandmalleabili yo educa ionalaspi a ionsbyMichelleGonzalez Amado ,RobinCowanandEleono aNillesen 2022-29 Linking heBOPCg ow hmodelwi h o eigndeb dynamics o hegoodsandlabou  ma ke s:ABOP‐IXSM‐OkunmodelbyThomasH.W.Zieseme  2022-30 Coun ies’ esea chp io i iesin ela ion o heSus ainableDe elopmen Goalsby HugoCon a ia,TommasoCia liandEdNoyons 2022-31 Mul i askingbyAnzelikaZaice a‐Razzolini 2022-32 In o malins i u ionmee schildde elopmen :Clancul u eandchildlabo inChina byCanTangandZhongZhao