Traditional Uses and Ethnobotanical Survey of the Fermented Fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum in Southern Côte d'Ivoire

 Corresponding author: Yapo Hypolithe Kouadio Copyright © 2025 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article. This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0. Traditional Uses and Ethnobotanical Survey of the Fermented Fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum in Southern Côte d’Ivoire Amon Reine Angelina Yapi 1, Gnangui Sophie Nadège 1, Gbè Aya Jacqueline Konan 2 and Yapo Hypolithe Kouadio 3, * 1 Biocatalysis and Bioprocesses Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Technology, Université Nangui ABROGOUA, BP 801, Abidjan, 02, Côte d’Ivoire. 2 Laboratory of Food Biochemistry and Technology of Tropical Products, Department of Food Science and Technology, Université Nangui ABROGOUA, BP 801, Abidjan, 02, Côte d’Ivoire. 3 Laboratory of Biochemistry-Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Department of Biosciences, Université Alassane OUATTARA, BP V 18 Bouaké 01, Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 Publication history: Received on 12 September 2025; revised on 19 October 2025; accepted on 22 October 2025 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2025.28.2.3586 Abstract Background: Coelocaryon oxycarpum is used to varying degrees by populations in southern Côte d’Ivoire, where its importance in households is steadily increasing. Objectives: This study aimed to document the ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional uses of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum in three regions of southern Côte d’Ivoire (La Mé, Lagunes, and Agnéby-Tiassa). Methods: A semi-structured survey was conducted with 405 participants using questionnaire forms. Results: The results reveal a strong local knowledge of the fruit, which is used for both food and medicinal purposes. Traditional fermentation, carried out in closed pots or bags for 3 to 7 days, enhances the flavor and shelf life of the product. Respondents attributed several therapeutic properties to the fermented pulp, notably against hypertension, hemorrhoids, and cough. Conclusions: These findings highlight the socio-cultural and medicinal value of Coelocaryon oxycarpum and call for biochemical characterization to scientifically validate the reported uses. Keywords: Spice; Coelocaryon oxycarpum; Food Fermentation; Wild Plant; Traditional Condiment; Côte d’Ivoire 1. Introduction The importance of wild plants for the diet of rural populations is widely recognized in tropical countries. Their role is unquestionable, as they are not only used in construction, carpentry, traditional medicine, and the production of local beverages, but also continue to contribute to poverty reduction and food security among forest populations in Central Africa. The edible parts include leaves, fruits, roots, stems, rhizomes, and bark. These plants constitute an essential nutritional source, improving the nutritional status of both rural and urban populations. They provide a valuable source of nutrients and thus contribute to enhancing the nutritional well-being of communities in both rural and urban settings [1]. Owing to their medicinal properties, they also serve as an alternative means of addressing chronic diseases and malnutrition [2]. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 289 The valorization of fermented foods produced from low-cost substrates with appreciable nutritional value represents a promising approach. Such foods can help improve the diets of vulnerable populations and reduce malnutrition. This is the case with Coelocaryon oxycarpum, an edible plant more widely used in traditional medicine for relieving common ailments such as inflammatory diseases, asthma, pain, fever, wounds, or abscesses [3]. Although numerous studies on the ethnobotany of edible plants exist [4], such research is still at an early stage in some regions of Africa. Consequently, the diversity of species and the range of their uses among sociocultural groups remain poorly documented [5]. This is particularly true for fermented Coelocaryon oxycarpum, for which scientific information on knowledge and use of the fruit is still scarce. This underlines the relevance of the present survey conducted in southern Côte d’Ivoire, specifically in the departments of Abidjan, Agboville, and Alépé. The aim of this study is to document the knowledge, uses, and virtues of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Material This survey was carried out using a questionnaire designed with Sphinx Plus² v5 software. 2.2. Study site The survey was conducted in southern Côte d’Ivoire, specifically in the regions of La Mé, Lagunes, and Agnéby-Tiassa. In the Agnéby-Tiassa region, the locality of Azaguié was visited. In the La Mé region, the localities of Montezo and GrandAlépé were also explored. Finally, in the Lagunes region, the survey was conducted in Anyama-Ahouabo and AnyamaAdjamé. The selection of these three regions was guided by a preliminary survey conducted among some fruit consumers residing in Abidjan. 2.3. Questionnaire survey Semi-structured interviews (individual and group) were conducted randomly between March and June 2023 in markets, households, and public places, with the aim of assessing ethnobotanical knowledge and traditional uses of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum. The questionnaire consisted of 31 questions divided into three sections: (i) sociodemographic information (age, gender, occupation, ethnic affiliation), (ii) knowledge of the fruit (Coelocaryon oxycarpum), including vernacular names and modes of acquisition, and (iii) traditional uses, fermentation techniques, and associated therapeutic properties. 2.4. Sample size Due to the spatial distribution and the size of the study area, a subdivision was necessary. The sample size was estimated using the formula from [6] With n: required sample size, t: 1.96 at a 95% confidence level, e: margin of error (set at 0.05), p: estimated proportion of the population familiar with the fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum (since p was unknown, p = 0.5 was used). Thus, a minimum of 385 participants was required; considering a 5% non-response rate, the final sample was set at 405 individuals (135 per region). Participants were randomly selected in markets, households, and public places, ensuring the inclusion of both adult men and women (>18 years). Oral consent was obtained before each interview [7]. n = t2× p 1−p e2 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 290 2.5. Data analysis The data were analyzed using XLSTAT 2024 software. Comparisons between qualitative variables were performed using the Chi-square test (χ²), with a significance level set at 5% (p < 0.05). In addition, multivariate analyses were conducted to further interpret the correlations between sociodemographic factors and uses. 3. Results 3.1. Sociodemographic profile of respondents (Table 1) below presents the sociodemographic characteristics of the individuals surveyed. The results show that the majority of participants were women in the three regions studied: 58.00% in Agnéby-Tiassa, 64.24% in La Mé, and 71.72% in the Lagunes region. Regarding occupation, agriculture emerged as the dominant activity in Agnéby-Tiassa (52.63%) and La Mé (33.11%), while in the Lagunes region, respondents were mainly traders (34.34%). Other socio-professional categories identified included civil servants, individuals engaged in small trades, and the unemployed. From an ethnic standpoint, the survey revealed a predominance of the Akan group across all study areas: 96.49% in Agnéby-Tiassa, 90.07% in La Mé, and 76.77% in the Lagunes region. The Krou (0.00–11.11%) and Mandé (3.51– 12.12%) groups were weakly represented in the different regions. With regard to age distribution, the majority of respondents were over 45 years old: 59.65% in Agnéby-Tiassa, 59.60% in La Mé, and 38.39% in the Lagunes region. Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics Characteristics (%) Region Agnéby Tiassa La Mé Lagunes Gender M 42.00 35.76 28.28 F 58.00 64.24 71.72 Occupation Civil servant 1.75 3.31 6.06 Trader 19.30 17.22 34.34 Farmer 52.63 33.11 20.21 Small trade 10.53 17.88 9.09 Unemployed 15.79 28.48 30.30 Ethnic group Akan 96.49 90.07 76.77 Krou 0.00 0.00 11.11 Mandé 3.51 9.93 12.12 Age group [18–25 years] 3.51 5.30 12.12 [26–35 years] 10.52 10.60 14.14 [36–45 years] 26.32 24.50 35.35 Above 45 59.65 59.60 38.39 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 291 3.2. Knowledge of fermented Coelocaryon oxycarpum and vernacular names of the fruit The level of knowledge of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum by region is illustrated in Figure 1. This knowledge varied significantly (χ² = 70.895; p < 0.05) across regions: 51.69% in La Mé, 34.08% in the Lagunes, and 14.23% in Agnéby-Tiassa. Two vernacular names were mainly attributed to the fruit. All respondents (100%) referred to it as “Amassoba” in the Lagunes region, compared to 61.59% in La Mé. In contrast, the majority of respondents in Agnéby-Tiassa (68.42%) called it “Atchoko” (Table 2). Figure 1 Knowledge of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum by locality Table 2 Vernacular name by region Vernacular Name Region Chi-square test La Mé Lagunes Agneby-Tiassa χ2 df P Amassoba 61.59b 100c 31.58a 70.895 2 <0.0001 Atchoko 38.41b 0a 68.42c 70.95 2 <0.0001 Values sharing the same letter within the same row do not differ significantly at the 5% level according to the Chi-square test. ꭕ²: Chi-square, P: Probability value, df: Degree of freedom. 3.3. Harvesting period and collection method of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit The harvesting period of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit varies by region, with a peak observed between June and July (Figure 2). Indeed, almost all respondents, regardless of their region of origin, indicated that this period corresponded to the time when the fruit is most available. Furthermore, the survey revealed that in the La Mé region, most respondents obtained the fruit through both gathering and purchase, with a rate of 47.83%. In the Lagunes and Agnéby-Tiassa regions, most respondents obtained it mainly through purchase, with respective rates of 40.66% and 44.74% (Table 3). Table 3 Collection methods of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit by region Collection Methods Region Chi-square test La mé Lagune Agnéby-Tiassa χ2 df P Purchase (%) 13.77b 40.66a 44.74a 26.711 2 <0,0001 Gathering and purchase (%) 47.83a 30.77b 15.79c 15.687 2 <0,0001 Gathering (%) 38.40a 28.57a 39.47a 2.679 2 0.262 World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 292 Values sharing the same letter within the same row do not differ significantly at the 5% level according to the Chi-square test. ꭕ²: Chi-square, P: Probability value, df: Degree of freedom. Figure 2 Harvesting period of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit 3.4. Field of use of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum by region The field of use of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum showed no significant differences among the three regions studied (Figure 3). In all regions, the fruit was mainly used for both food and medicinal purposes, with proportions ranging from 43.96% to 65.79%. In contrast, exclusive medicinal use remained marginal, varying between 14.28% and 18.42% depending on the region. Figure 3 Field of use of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum by region 3.5. Mode and forms of consumption The mode of consumption of the fermented fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum was analyzed by region (Figure 4). The survey results show that, regardless of the region, the fruit is mainly used as a condiment or seasoning in dishes. In the Lagunes and La Mé regions, the powdered form is the most commonly consumed, with respective rates of 53.85% and 53.62%. However, in the Agnéby-Tiassa region, consumption is mainly based on fresh pulp, with a rate of 55.26%. Dried World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 293 pulp, on the other hand, is the least common form of consumption, with proportions ranging from 2.18% to 10.53% across the three regions (Table 4). Figure 4 Mode of consumption by region Table 4 Preferred form of fruit consumption by region Form Region Chi-square test Lagunes La Mé Agneby-Tiassa χ2 df P Fresh pulp 36.26a 44.2a 55.26a 4.096 2 0.129 Powdered pulp 53.85a 53.62a 34.21a 4.961 2 0.084 Dried pulp 9.89a 2.18b 10.53a 7.413 2 <0.05 Values sharing the same letter within the same row do not differ significantly at the 5% level according to the Chi-square test. ꭕ²: Chi-square, P: Probability value, df: Degree of freedom. 3.6. Sensory preferences and fermentation practices of Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit by region Respondents indicated that the fermentation of Coelocaryon oxycarpum had a beneficial effect on certain organoleptic properties, particularly flavor and odor. However, regional differences were notable: the majority of respondents from La Mé and Lagunes appreciated the fermented fruit for both its flavor and odor, while those from the Agnéby-Tiassa region (68.42%) valued it mainly for its flavor only (Table 5). With regard to fermentation precautions and methods, a common practice was identified: most respondents reported allowing the fruit to soften completely before use, with rates varying by region (Agnéby-Tiassa: 81.58%; La Mé: 56.52%; Lagunes: 60.44%). Furthermore, regardless of the region, the most widespread technique consisted of fermenting the fruits in closed bags. The fermentation duration was also evaluated. It was most often 5 to 7 days, a practice reported by more than 64% of respondents, carried out in closed bags or airtight pots (Figure 5). Conversely, a minority (28.95% to 35.5%) reported a shorter duration, ranging from 3 to 4 days. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 294 Table 5 Reasons and Method of Fermentation Regions Chi-square test La Mé Lagune Agneby-Tiassa χ2 df p-value Reason for fermentation Flavor 35.51b 36.26b 68.42a 14.404 2 <0.001 Flavor and Odor 37.68a 38.46a 15.79b 7.092 2.000 <0.05 Odor 26.81a 25.28a 15.79a 1.968 2.000 0.374 Precaution None 18.12a 25.27ab 13.16a 3.014 2 0.222 Firm texture 25.36a 14.29b 5.26a 9.697 2 <0.01 Complete softening 56.52a 60.44b 81.58a 7.951 2 <0.05 Fermentation site Closed bag 60.14a 61.54a 73.68a 2.391 2 0.302 Closed pot 39.86a 38.46a 26.32a 2.391 2 0.302 Values sharing the same letter within the same row do not differ significantly at the 5% level according to the Chi-square test. ꭕ²: Chi-square, P: Probability value, df: Degree of freedom. Figure 5 Duration of whole fruit fermentation by region 3.7. Therapeutic properties by region The fruit of Coelocaryon oxycarpum is mainly used in the study areas for the treatment of hemorrhoids and hypertension. However, in the La Mé region, it is more frequently employed as a postpartum tonic, as well as for relieving hip pain and cough. In the Agnéby and La Mé regions, it is commonly used to treat abdominal wounds. In contrast, in the Lagunes region, Coelocaryon oxycarpum is especially renowned for its aphrodisiac properties (Figure 6). World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 295 Figure 6 Therapeutic properties by region 3.8. Traditional process of producing fermented Coelocaryon oxycarpum powder The analysis of the production diagram (Figure 7) highlights the process of transforming Coelocaryon oxycarpum fruit into fermented powder. This process follows a sequence of steps, starting from the harvesting of ripe fruits to the packaging of the final product. Across all the regions studied, the traditional process of producing fermented powder is similar, with one notable exception. In the La Mé and Lagunes regions, most respondents reported fermenting, grinding, and then pressing the liquid contained in the ground pulp before proceeding with sun-drying. In contrast, in the Agnéby-Tiassa region, most respondents directly sun-dried the ground pulp without prior pressing. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 2025, 28(02), 288-299 296 Figure 7 Processing Method of Fermented Coelocaryon oxycarpum Fruit 3.9. Shelf life of fermented Coelocaryon oxycarpum powder With regard to the shelf life of fermented Coelocaryon oxycarpum powder, the majority of respondents (70.33–81.58%) reported storing the powder for several years, while a minority (18.42–26.81%) kept it for only a few months (Figure 8).