A critical comparison of systems management and project management

Ke zne , H.; Ghyoo , V. A icle A c i ical compa ison o sys ems managemen and p ojec managemen Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ke zne , H.; Ghyoo , V. (1984) : A c i ical compa ison o sys ems managemen and p ojec managemen , Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 80-84, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 15i2.1107 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217854 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ A c i ical compa ison o sys ems managemen and p ojec managemen H. Ke zne Baldwin-Wallace College, Ohio V. Ghyoo Depa men o Business Economics, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, P e o ia Bo h sys ems managemen and p ojec managemen a e discussed in dep h, a e which he simila i ies and di e ences be ween he wo concep s a e lis ed. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15: 80-84 Beide s elselbes uu en p ojekbes uu wo d In diep e besp eek, waa na die oo eenkoms e en e skille ussen die wee beg ippe gelys wo d. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1984, 15: 80- 84 H.Ke me Business Adminis a ion, Baldwin-Wallace College, Ohio V. Ghyoo * Depanmen o Busines~ Economics, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, P.O. Box 392, P e o ia 0001, Republic o Sou h A ica *To whom co espondence should be add essed. Accep ed Janua y 1984 In oduc ion Du ing he pas se e al yea s, he e ha e been nume ous pape s published on bo h p ojec managemen and sys ems manage- men , wi h he wo ds used in e changeably. The sys ems ap- p oach, iewed by many as a way o hinking, is much mo e han a concep . I is a me hod o echnique o analysis and a manage ial s yle which is ope a ionalized. The s eng h o he sys ems app oach lies in i s iew o planning and imple- men ing ac i i ies while eac ing o bo h i s ex e nal and in e - nal en i onmen s. The sys ems app oach uses eedback as a majo echnique o adjus ing p e ious goals and objec i es wi hin an e e -changing en i onmen . The sys ems manage- men s yle uses an objec i e da a base o analysis o compli- men in ui ional and subjec i e judgmen . I is impo an o ecognize he in eg a ed na u e o speci ic sys ems and o allow he manage o ecognize he na u e o p oblems and ope a- ions wi hin he en i onmen . The sys ems concep is he ecogni ion ha any o ganiza- ion in a sys em is made up o segmen s, each o which has i s own goals. Managemen ecognizes ha o achie e he o e all goals o he o ganiza ion, he en i e sys em mus be conside ed. Manage s mus seek o unde s and, quan i y and measu e he in e ela ionships and in eg a e hem in a man- ne which allows he o ganiza ion o pu sue i s o al goals and objec i es. Some imes, a pa icula unc ional uni will ha e o choose a cou se o ac ion which is no in i s own bes in- e es , because i is ecognized ha in some cases wha is no good o a segmen is e icien o bene icial o he whole. The sys ems concep necessi a es he use o objec i e analysis o decision p oblems because he concep has a subs an ial im- pac on bo h he planning and he execu i e unc ion o managemen . The o e all e ec i eness o he o ganiza ion is he main objec i e. The sys ems app oach also allows -encou ages - he dissec ion o a unc ion o p oblem o o ganism in o sub- sys ems -essen ially elemen s. By so doing, a en ion is ocus- ed on aspec s o he si ua ion (o en i y) ha migh ha e e- mained obscu ed. Such illumina ion causes be e solu ions and/o e alua ions. Sys ems managemen deals p ima ily wi h execu ing deci- sions wi hin he cons ain s o he sys em's speci ica ions and o ede ining decisions o applica ion o sys ems analysis. Sys ems managemen is speci ically conce ned wi h di ec ing, mo i a ing and con olling. I includes coo dina ion and in- eg a ion necessa y o pull oge he a ious subsys ems o en- su e o e all goal achie emen . The sys ems iew concei es o any sys em as a complex o S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2) in e ac ing and in e dependen pa s. One impo an concep is ha a chain o e ec s is p oduced by some ac ion on some elemen o he sys em. These chains o e ec s should be aken in o accoun in sys ems design, planning and decision making. P ojec managemen is an in eg a o ole. I blends he ac- ions o many di e se g oups in o a sys ema ic whole. This is why i is he o ganiza ional s uc u e o he sys ems manage- men app oach; i c ea es syne gism. In his sense, he p ojec manage is uly a 'gene al sys ems manage ' bu wi h a limi ed objec i e. In ac , he limi ed objec i e is he main cha ac e is ic dis inguishing p ojec managemen om sys ems managemen . P ojec objec i es a e ela i ely sho - e m in na u e, while sys em objec i es co e he li e ime o he sys em, e en hough hey may e en ually unde go con inual change. The elemen s o p ojec managemen equi e ha cons ain s be ecognized and inco po a e a mul i-s ep p ocess ouching on he ollowing elemen s: (a) Clea de ini ion o goal o objec i e; (b) ecogni ion o en i onmen al ac o s ha ac as cons ain s o ha objec i e; (c) analysis o equi emen s o a i e a he objec i e; (d) es ablishmen o al e na i e esou ces a ailable o sa is y he equi emen s; (e) de ini ion o decision cons ain s used in e alua ing he al e na i es; ( ) s udy o ade-o s o al e na i e choices agains he deci- sion cons ain s; (g) ac ion; (h) eedback o esul s agains he o iginal objec i e; (i) adjus men o he sys em i he desi ed objec i es a e no being sa is ied. The sys ems app oach has been de ined as 'a logical and disciplined p ocess o p oblem sol ing'. This p ocess can be applied a a ious le els o managemen hie a chy. A he highes le el, sys ems managemen comes in o play, while a he lowes le el, p ojec managemen is used. Sys ems managemen add esses he p oblems o an o ganiza- ion looking a he ' o al pic u e' e sus examina ion o he indi idual componen . Sys em managemen a emp s o op- imize he o ganiza ion's esou ces. This would include such ac ics as he assignmen o he bes pe sonnel o he highes p io i y asks, and he lowe quali y pe sonnel o lowe p io i y asks. This hough p ocess is cen ed on he long- e m goals and objec i es o a con inuing en i y. Some people conside he sys ems app oach o managemen as li le mo e han he applica ion o common sense, me ely equi ing ha he o al p oblem be iden i ied and a acked in a sys ema ic manne . The solu ion may lie in implemen ing a p ojec managemen s uc u e. The p ojec manage can use he sys ems app oach o sol e p oblems wi hin he con ines o he p ojec de ini ion. Toge he hese app oaches o p oblem-sol ing p o ide a manage wi h he capaci y o minimize h ea s and maximize oppo uni ies o he o ganiza ion. P ojec managemen deals wi h o ganizing and con olling all ac i i ies in ol ed in achie ing a speci ic objec i e. Accom- plishmen o his objec i e is he p ojec manage 's only con- ce n. The p ojec manage is 'supe -imposed' upon he unc- ional o ganiza ion. He/she does no a emp o in e ace he co po a e goals wi h he p ojec unless hey coincide. He/she no mally con ols no esou ces and has limi ed, i no non- exis ing, au ho i y. A b ie compa ison o he wo e eals g ea simila i ies wi h he majo di e ences being he ime du a ion o he ask, he 81 le el wi hin he hie a chy, he p ocess and he use o he p o- cess. The 'mea ' o he compa ison is he p ocess. Sys ems managemen in ol es s udying he en i onmen , o mula ing objec i es o sa is y he needs o sol e he p oblems o he o ganiza ion, and hen pe o ming he asks ha will ac- complish he objec i es. P ojec managemen · is a ool used o pe o m he gi en ask. I in ol es he o ganizing and con- olling o all ac i i ies in ol ed in he achie emen o a ce - ain objec i e o ask. All companies should u ilize sys ems managemen , ye no all companies should use p ojec managemen . When he ask o be accomplished is complex and he en i onmen is dynamic, hen p ojec managemen should be used. Indus ies such as de ence, cons uc ion and high- echnology enginee ing a e such examples. Companies ha pe o m simple asks, whe he in a s a ic o dynamic en i onmen , may no need o use p ojec managemen . Bo h sys ems managemen and p ojec managemen ac in a limi ed and es ic ed way. 'Real' sys ems managemen and p ojec managemen a e mo e in ol ed, mo e complex, and mo e comp ehensi e han ela i ely simple illus a ions. They equi e bo h a heo e ical and a p ac ical unde s anding. They equi e con inuing men al and physical e o o s ay ab eas o changes in he ield. They a e ela ed concep s and p ac- ices which o e a p omise o inc eased o ganiza ional e ec- i eness and imp o ed indi idual and g oup p oduc i i y. Compa ison Mos business i ms oday a e s ill s uc u ed along he same unc ional lines ha da e back o he um o he cen u y. Un- o una ely, his classic o ganiza ional s uc u e is no longe adequa e in oday's en i onmen . The wo ld is expe iencing change in almos e e y a ea. Technology is expanding a a apid a e. The ma ke place is mo e compe i i e han e e . Go e n- men is e e ywhe e wi h i s expanding egula ion. All o his c ea es an en i onmen which makes i e y di icul o e i- cien ly and e ec i ely con ol he esou ces in a ypical business i m. Wha is needed is an o ganiza ional s uc u e designed o cope wi h he en i onmen o oday and he u u e. Fo una e- ly, he ing edien s exis s o mee his challenge. The combina- ion o he concep s o sys ems managemen and p ojec managemen will enable a business i m o cope. Sys ems managemen is gene ally conside ed an olde con- cep han p ojec managemen . The ollowing a e some highligh s in he his o y o sys ems managemen : 1951 -Ludwig on Be alan y, a biologis , desc ibed 'open sys ems.' He iden i ied how specialis s in each sub- sys em could be in eg a ed so as o ge a be e unde s anding o he in e - ela ionships. 1 1956 -Kenne h Boulding iden i ied he communica ion p oblems ha can occu du ing sys ems in eg a ion.2 1960's -Johnson, Kas , and Rosenzweig w o e The Theo y and Managemen o Sys ems which compa ed a business o ganiza ion o a human body as ollows:3 • Skele al sys em, • Muscle sys em -ope a ing line elemen s, • Ci cula o y sys em -necessa y s a unc ions, • Ne ous sys em - he communica ion sys em, • B ain -senio managemen . 1960's -F anklin Moo e s a ed ha he low o esou ces is he basic o ce which iden i ied he dynamic na u e o he sys em.4 82 When sys ems heo y is applied o business, he esul is a managemen echnique which can cu ac OM he many unc- ional lines - such as inance, manu ac u ing, enginee ing, and ma ke ing -and s ill ca y ou he unc ions o managemen . The ollowing a e some o he many de ini ions o he sys ems app oach: (a) A whole ha canno be aken apa wi hou loss o i s essen ial cha ac e is ics. (b) An amalgama ion o all he pa s o science in o an in- eg a ed whole. (c) No a science -bu , is science aken as a whole and ap- plied o he s udy o wholes. (d) Denies he alue o he sepa a ion o science and he humani ies ( iews hese as wo sides o he same coin). (e) Uses open sys ems planning. ( ) Is lexible. (g) Encou ages 'wha i . (h) S a s wi h 'wha is' and asks 'wha would I like hings o be'. (i) Fo ces he examina ion o : (i) Cons ain s; (ii) d i ing o ces; (ib) isk and unce ain y. P ojec managemen is ela i ely modem. While i exis ed wen y yea s ago, i s applica ion was e y na ow because o he lack o compu e echnology o con ol unc ions. Basical- ly, i was la gely con ined o he Uni ed S a es Depa men o De ence and con ac o s and cons uc ion companies. Since hose days, he concep has been slowly sp eading in o almos all indus ies. The ollowing a e a ew highligh s in he his o y o p ojec managemen : 1963 -The o ganiza ion cha o TRW showed, in addi- ion o he usual unc ional o ganiza ion, a p o- g amme o ganiz.a ion consis ing o wo p og amme o ices. The wo p og amme manage s epo ed di ec ly o he p esiden o he company.5 1967 -W.C. Goggin, Boa d Chai man and Chie Execu i e O ice o Dow Co ning, ecognized signs o di icul- y in his o ganiz.a ion and began a se ies o changes which led o a mul i-dimensional p ojec manage- men o ganiza ional s uc u e.6 1967 -C.J. Middle on conduc ed a su ey o co po a ions o es ablish he ad an ages and disad an ages o p o- jec managemen and how o se up an o ganiza ion using p ojec managemen . 7 The ollowing a e some o he many de ini ions o p ojec managemen : (a) The di ec ing and con olling o a ela i ely sho e m p o- jec o sys ems o ien ed o ganiza ion wi h unc ional pe - sonnel assigned as equi ed o he comple ion o speci ic goals. {b) Based on ' wo-handed' con ol in which he ask espon- sibili y is he p ojec manage 's bu he adminis a i e esponsibili y belongs o he unc ional manage . (c) A collec ion o ools and echniques by which ac i i ies can be in eg a ed h oughou an o ganiz.a ion - ega dless o he o ganiz.a ional siz.e o p ojec complexi y. (d) A empo a y managemen sys em which can espond apidly o an e e changing si ua ion. (e) The planning, scheduling, di ec ing, and con olling o company esou ces o a ela i ely sho e m p ojec which has been es ablished o he comple ion o speci ic goals and objec i es. S.-A . Tyd~k . Bed yl l. 1984, 15(21 P ojec managemen is no wi hou i s aul s. One o he causes o p oblems in a business i m ha uses p ojec manage- men is he di e ence in he success c i e ia used by unc ional manage s and by p ojec manage s. A p oduc ion manage , o example, is conce ned wi h p oducing he p oduc a minimum cos and maximum e iciency ( iming is less impo - an han he ac ual cos ). An enginee ing manage is conce ned wi h scheduling his comple e se o ac i i ies while keeping his people wo king e icien ly. Mos unc ional manage s ha e a consis en app oach o any ask. This is known as hei 'managemen s yle'. To a p ojec manage , he success o a p ojec is he c i e ion agains which he will be measu ed. His managemen s yle is dic a ed by he p ojec li e cycle and is di e en om ha o he unc ional manage . Fo example, in he planning s ages he mus exhibi a suppo i e o coope a i e s yle. La e , in he p oduc ion s age, he mus be mo e di ec i e i he is o mee speci ic ime-cos cons ain s. Du ing p ojec phase-ou , he should e e o a suppo i e s yle. A p ojec manage mus be a gene alis . He can be com- pa ed o an independen en ep eneu . He has o: (a) Plan wha o do and when o do i . (b) Rec ui his own eam. (c) P epa e a quo a ion on he job. (d) Design he p oduc . (e) Make i . ( ) Deli e i . (g) Dissol e his o ganiz.a ion. Du ing p ojec s, con lic s de elop a he p ojec / unc ional in- e ace because he bounda y be ween he oles o he p ojec manage and he unc ional manage is no always clea ly de ined. The ollowing de ine he ela ionship. 8 (a) P ojec Manage : (i) Wha is o be done? (ii) When will he ask be done? (iii) Why will he ask be done? (i ) How much money is a ailable o do he ask? ( ) How well has he o al p ojec been done? (b) Func ional Manage : (i) Who will do he ask? (ii) Whe e will he ask be done? (iii) How will he ask be done? (i ) How well has he unc ional inpu been in eg a ed in o he p ojec ? Slmlla les and di e ences By now he eade is p obably ho oughly con used conce n- ing he simila i ies and di e ences be ween p ojec and sys ems managemen . Ten yea s ago, p ojec managemen was con- side ed as a majo 'subse ' o sys ems managemen , whe eas oday he si ua ion appea s o be e e sed. Ye , ega dless o which way one looks a hese wo app oaches, he e a e de ini e simila i ies: • Bo h conside he impac o he ex e nal and in e nal o ganiz.a ion. • Bo h equi e o ganiza ional lexibili y. • Bo h equi e pe o mance measu emen echniques. • Bo h ecognize li e cycle in luences. • Bo h equi e he use o managemen p inciples and unc ions. • Bo h ecognize he need o sys ems modelling. • Bo h a e esponsi e o apidly changing en i onmen s. • Bo h equi e he need o a ' eam app oach' o p oblem- sol ing, planning and execu ion. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1984, 15(2) • Bo h y o ha monize con lic ing objec i es. • Bo h y o achie e o e all (sys em/p ojec ) e ec i eness. • Bo h may sac i ice o he goals o ob ain eal goals. • Bo h u ilize in o ma ion sys ems. • Bo h in eg a e se e al unc ional componen s. • Bo h se goals, alloca e esou ces and con ol pe onnance. • Bo h ha e con ol and eedback mechanisms. • Bo h ha e inpu , p ocessing, and ou pu . • Bo h p omo e good wo king ela ionships be ween pe sonnel. • Bo h equi e au ho i y, esponsibili y and accoun abili y. • Bo h ha e in eg a ed planning and con ol sys ems. • Bo h s ess lexibili y. • Bo h sol e p oblems by looking a he o al pic u e a he han 'indi idual' componen s. • Bo h in eg a e and uni y scien i ic in o ma ion ~ se e al ields o knowledge. • Bo h encou age ac i e coope a ion om employees. • Bo h keep people in o med and sa is ied by aligning mo i es wi h objec i es (pe sonal and co po a e). • Bo h help people o de elop. • Bo h help people o sol e pe sonal and p o essional p oblems. The abo e lis o simila i ies is imp essi e i we look a he mac o le els o p ojec and sys ems managemen . On he mic o le el, howe e , he e a e majo di e ences. Fo example, on he mac o le el, bo h p ojec s and sys ems end o ha e well- de ined goals and objec i es. On he mic o-le el, sys ems goals a e aligned o he o al company whe eas p ojec goals and objec i es a e unique o he p ojec , hus c ea ing con lic . The ollowing lis iden i ies o he majo di e ences a he mic o le el o obse a ion: -P ojec managemen is no mally o a ini e ime du a ion whe eas sys ems a e mo e ongoing. P ojec s die whe eas sys ems con inue. -Sys ems ha e di ec con ol o e all esou ces whe eas p o- jec s mus sha e esou ces, o en h ough con lic , p io i i- za ion and nego ia ion. -Sys ems manage s ha e di ec con ol o e employee pe - o mance measu emen and sala y/me i inc eases whe eas p ojec manage s ha e an indi ec inpu a bes . -Sys ems manage s ha e di ec con ol o e sys em s a whe eas p ojec s a e s a ed by line pe sonnel. Sys ems a e designed o pe o m epe i i e asks whe eas p ojec s accomplish unique o on H> -a-kind asks no easily handled by he adi ional s uc u e. Sys ems gene ally unc ion e ically whe eas p ojec s unc- ion ho izon ally (i.e., mul idi ec ionally). -P ojec manage s ha e limi ed powe and au ho i y as com- pa ed o sys em manage s. The shi ing o pe sonnel in a p ojec en i onmen may dis up he o ganiza ion mo e han in a sys em. Sys ems in e ace well wi h s a egic planning unc ions whe eas p ojec s in e ace wi h ope a ional unc ions. Sys ems seek long- e m alen and esou ces whe eas p o- jec s seek sho - e m alen . -P ojec managemen is no conduci e o he de elopmen o clea job desc ip ions whe eas sys ems managemen job desc ip ions a e p ecise. Sys ems allow o be e aining o new employees han do p ojec s. P ojec s c ea e mo e con lic a he unc ional in e ace posi ions han do sys ems. Sys ems a e conse a i e in na u e whe eas p ojec s en- 83 cou age isk- aking. -Sys ems p omo e he scala p inciple whe e he chain o au ho i y is om he supe io o he subo dina e h ough he o ganiza ion. Al hough p ojec s do ha e a e ical chain o command, he p ime emphasis is on ho izon al and diagonal wo k low. Sys ems managemen ad oca es ha line unc ions ha e di ec esponsibili y o accomplishing he objec i es whe eas in p ojec managemen line unc ions a e in a su~ po posi ion. -Sys ems managemen ad oca es ha impo an business is conduc ed h ough a py amidal s uc u e o supe io s and subo dina es whe eas p ojec managemen uses a pee - o-pee , manage - o-expe , and associa e- o-associa e ela- ionship o conduc much o he salien business. P ojec objec i es a e mul ila e al because managemen o he p ojec is a join en u e o many ela i ely indepen- den o ganiza ions. Sys ems objec i es a e unila e al and a e sough by he pa en uni wo king wi hin he en i onmen . -Sys ems managemen ad oca es ha he supe io - subo dina e ela ionship is main ained h ough he unc- ional au ho i y and ad iso y s a se ices. P ojec manage s ha e la ge esponsibili ies bu i ually no au ho i y. The sys ems manage 's au ho i y comes om his ela i e posi ion in he hie a chy whe eas he p ojec manage 's au ho i y (and his powe ) comes om his echnical and manage ial expe ise, c edibili y wi h employees and abili- y as a sound decision-make . P ojec o ganiza ional o ms a e less igid and h i e on lexibili y in adap ing o an e e -changing en i onmen whe eas sys ems may be in lexible. The li e cycle phases o a sys em o e lap whe eas li e cy- cle phases o a p ojec a e no mally well-de ined and do no o e lap. Sys ems employ he i e managemen unc ions o plan- ning, o ganizing, s a ing, con olling and di ec ing whe eas p ojec managemen does no include he s a ing unc ion. Con lic s and hei esolu ion ha e a highe equency and in ensi y in p ojec managemen . -Sys ems managemen may ha e mo e complex in o ma- ion sys ems bu p ojec managemen in o ma ion sys ems ha e a g ea e equency o use. -The eedback o in o ma ion/ s a us epo ing is mo e c i ical in p ojec s han sys ems. Sys ems manage s ha e mo e con ol o e inpu , p ocess- ing and ou pu ac i i ies han do p ojec manage s. P ojec s may cu ac oss mo e o he o ganiza ion han do sys ems. Sys ems manage s gene ally ha e mo e ime and mo e o an in e es when i comes o helping employees sol e pe - sonal and p o essional p oblems. Execu i es ge mo e ac i ely in ol ed in p ojec s han in sys ems. Summa y While hese di e ences may be mo e heo e ical han ac ual, hey do exis and can a ec ei he manage 's mode o ope a- ion and philosophy. The compa ison highligh s wo singula cha ac e is ics: (a) P ojec s a e managed h ough ex ensi e pa icipa ion o o ganiza ions and people no unde he di ec con ol o he p ojec manage . 84 (b) Sys ems manage s may ope a e as adi ional line manage s wi h o mally de ined posi ion, powe and au ho i y. Whe he sys ems managemen is an ou g ow h o p ojec managemen o ice- e sa, he e will con inue o be a con- o e sy whose solu ion es s in he eyes o he beholde . On he mac o le el, p ojec managemen ope a es in much he same way as sys ems managemen does, and p obably as a pu e sys em a he han as adi ional managemen . As he complexi y o asks inc ease and en i onmen s become mo e dynamic, he g ow h o p ojec managemen can expec o inc ease a a as e a e han sys ems managemen . Tasks which canno be eadily handled by he adi ional s uc- u e o sys ems managemen will be placed unde he auspices o p ojec managemen . F om an au ho i y poin o iew, sys ems can be e ec i e only a hose poin s whe e o mal au ho i y exis . Now, p ojec managemen can be de ined as he sys ems app oach o managemen o hose ac i i ies ha do no all unde he no mal o ou ine unc ions o an o ga- niza ion. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y l. 1984, 15(2) No es and Re e ences I. See Benalan y, L. Von. 1972. Gene al sys ems heo y; ounda ions, de elopmen , applica ions. New Yo k: G. B azille , o sou ce in o ma ion. 2. Boulding, K.E. Ap il, 1956. Gene al Sys ems Theo y: The Skele on o Science, Manage. Sci., ol. 2, no. 3, p.197. 3. Johnson, R.A., Kas F.E. & Rosenzweig, J.A. 1967. The heo y and managemen o sys ems. 2nd edi ion. New Yo k: McG aw-Hill. 4. Moo e, F.G., (ed.), 1964. A managemen sou cebook, New Yo k: Ha pe & Row, p.104. 5. TRW Sys ems G oup ied o make almos an ins an aneous con- e sion om a adi ional o a ma ix o ganiza ional o m. Manag- ing he con e sion was accomplished h ough T-g oups and special s udy sessions. The TRW Sys ems G oup S udies can be ound in cases 9-476-117, 9-413-066 and 9-413-069 dis ibu ed by he In e - collegia e Case Clea ing House. 6. Goggin, W.C., Janua y-Feb ua y 1974. How he mul idimensional s uc u e wo ks a Dow Co ning, Ha . Bus. Re . p.54. 7. Middle on, C.J. Ma ch-Ap il 1967. How o se up a p ojec o ganiza ion. Ha . Bus. Re . ol. 45, p.73. 8. Cleland, D.I., & King, W.R., 1968, 1975. Sys ems analysis and p ojec managemen . New Yo k: McG aw-Hill.