Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training – A Case Study on Instructional Designers´ Perceptions

Wintersberg, Lisa; Pittich, Daniel Article — Published Version Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training – A Case Study on Instructional Designers´ Perceptions Vocations and Learning Provided in Cooperation with: Springer Nature Suggested Citation: Wintersberg, Lisa; Pittich, Daniel (2025) : Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training – A Case Study on Instructional Designers´ Perceptions, Vocations and Learning, ISSN 1874-7868, Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, Vol. 18, Iss. 1, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-025-09360-x This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/318873 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ORIGINAL PAPER Vocations and Learning (2025) 18:3 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12186-025-09360-x Abstract This article explores the perspective of instructional designers on the digital transformation of corporate technical education and training. It draws on “episodic narrative interviews” conducted with the learning and development department of a for-profit company in the manufacturing sector to investigate their perceptions of digital transformation. We examine the working structures of the studied company, elaborate on their perceived challenges and needs, and highlight our position on future implications for corporate technical education and training. The case study improves the quality of practice within professional education by pointing out necessary considerations about communication, the instructional design process, job descriptions, digital learning products, and the target group’s attitude towards digital teaching and learning. Our results support companies, learning and development departments, and everyone related to corporate technical education and training in developing concepts for professional education programs or contributing with further best practices. Keywords Case study design · Episodic narrative interviews · Digital transformation · Lifelong learning · Instructional design The last decade has seen increased research on the transformation of learning environments. Since 2020, researchers have added various discussions about the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Yet, most of the literature focuses on topics related Received: 7 March 2024 / Accepted: 9 November 2024 © The Author(s) 2025 Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training – A Case Study on Instructional Designers´ Perceptions LisaWintersberg1,2 · DanielPittich1 Lisa Wintersberg [email protected] 1 TUM School of Social Sciences and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany 2 TUM School of Social Sciences and Technology, Technical University of Munich, Marsstr. 20-22, 80335 München, Germany 1 3 L. Wintersberg, D. Pittich to academia understood strictly, such as teachers´ and students’ perceptions and skills, or benefits, challenges, and effects of instruction in compulsory and higher education (HE) (Alenezi, 2023; Dubey & Pandey, 2020; Evans-Amalu & Claravall, 2021; Rapanta et al., 2021; Sailer et al., 2021; Scully et al., 2021). Concurrently, the corporate environment has faced a similar digital transformation of learning and development (L&D) (Nissinen et al., 2023; Sousa & Rocha, 2019; Vey et al., 2017; Virolainen et al., 2021). Training has been conducted digitally to an increasing extent, which poses challenges for L&D among technical professionals, who primarily benefit from hands-on activities (Billett, 2010). Consequently, the topicality of digitalizing corporate learning environments has gained interest (Schoop, 2023; Sousa & Rocha, 2019). In line with this evolution, research mainly contributed to evidence of implementing digital learning (Kerres & Buchner, 2022; Schoop, 2023). Nonetheless, it is rare to find literature describing the transformation processes regarding instructional design (ID) practices and how they impacted instructional designers (IDs). Hence, this article expands on the growing research interest by adding the IDs´ perspectives through a case study from the corporate technical field. This article first reports on the digital transformation and ID in corporate L&D found in relevant literature focusing on technical professions. It will then introduce the methodology used. Afterward, in the results section, the study´s subjects´ opinions are outlined, delineating them from the final discussion and the researchers´ conclusions. Literature Review Digital Transformation and Instructional Design in Technical Education and Training Besides salary, L&D is a critical driver of a company´s competitiveness (Schoop, 2023). Therefore, companies broaden their training programs to serve an increasing number of learners. They either employ L&D staff or pay to outsource training. Even though learning through practice has been and still is the predominant form of reand upskilling for occupations across the globe (Billett, 2010), companies also purchase new technologies to continue investing in virtual training (Freifeld, 2022; Nissinen et al., 2023; Schoop, 2023). On that note, a massive amount of literature in different educational contexts, though mainly related to studies based in academia, focuses on the advantages of digital learning. Among other benefits, it highlights the flexibility and on-demand access to learning material or the facilitation of the material via learning management systems (LMS) (Gegenfurtner et al., 2020; Schoop, 2023; Sousa & Rocha, 2019). Despite the benefits, during the pandemic, the digital shift forced learners into online learning, who then perceived the new way of learning negatively. Negative perceptions were mainly linked to emergency-remote teaching (ERT), not necessarily the quality of digital learning products (Rapanta et al., 2021). In corporate environments, digitally realizing training is predominantly based on economic advantages. ERT also prioritized efficiency over motivational ID, causing ongoing hesitance toward digital learning due to past negative experiences despite a 1 3 3 Page 2 of 20 Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training –… now stabilized situation (Ferri et al., 2020; Polikarpus et al., 2023). However, learnings from ERT emphasize the importance of adapting digital learning and facilitating good learning experiences rather than abandoning learning in a digital environment (Clark et al., 2022; Rapanta et al., 2021). To do proper justice economically and pedagogically, it is essential to consider ID, which aims at a context-specific didactical approach (Rapanta et al., 2021). ID considers systematic guidelines centering on didactics in producing and facilitating training and instruction, like analyzing, planning, developing, implementing, and evaluating (Branch, 2009; Niegemann, 2020). Research demonstrates that wellplanned ID is crucial because it significantly enhances learner motivation and satisfaction, leading to a higher likelihood of future course enrollment, regardless of the ID method used; this is particularly important in diverse learning environments where tailored ID can address varied learner needs effectively (Giasiranis & Sofos, 2020). Following up on the digital transformation, a concerning trend in technical education is the widening gap between newcomers to the workplace and experienced professionals, leaving behind essential knowledge and skills that must be preserved (Fishman, 2016; Kohlbacher, 2007). Examining countries like Japan and Israel underscores the urgency. In Japan, recognizing challenges, they respond with corporate universities and knowledge preservation (Kohlbacher, 2007). Israel addresses the issue with government decisions by the prime minister aiming to have 48% of all high-school students in technological-vocational tracks. They recognized the influence of technological-vocational education in satisfying the economy (European Training Foundation, 2018). On that note, the shortage of skilled engineers and technicians (Schoop, 2023) accounts for upskilling in technical professions across the globe. On the one hand, adaptive learning has shown positive results, including reduced failure rates and increased user satisfaction in studies of adaptive engineering mechanics tutorials (Prusty & Russell, 2011; Prusty et al., 2011). These successes suggest that adaptive learning in engineering represents an innovative advance in educational research in the future (Clark et al., 2022). Organizations such as the National Academy of Engineering and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology reinforce significant benefits for technical professions (Clark et al., 2022; Graham, 2018). On the other hand, digital learning has proven effective in accelerating the upskilling process for professionals (Koh & Daniel, 2022). Shafieek et al. (2024) found the value of incorporating digital learning content in addition to conventional learning methods in automotive technology programs. Focusing on the technical content, in this study, digital learning effectively facilitated the learning process (Shafieek et al., 2024). Regardless of whether training is conducted online or in person, ID focuses on adaptivity and learner centration, meaning that learning environments must include contextand subject-related characteristics (Poon, 2013). Despite these benefits, digital transformation is reported to pose challenges for educators in technical education. Besides the new structures and ways of implementation accompanied by the resistance of the learners and a missing interaction, educators are confronted with new competence areas. Several studies highlight the lack of digital competence in the sense that educators are not yet well prepared for the creation of digital learning (Lyngdorf et al., 2024; Makarova et al., 2021; Mondragon1 3 Page 3 of 20 3 L. Wintersberg, D. Pittich Estrada et al., 2023). Gumaelius (2024) indeed highlights the extreme push for new competencies due to digital transformation but points out that digitizing technical education in the industry is much faster than in HE contexts. Corporate Instructional Design Practice ID programs in HE prepare IDs that can be understood as educators for their jobs, with syllabi traditionally focusing on teaching systematic ID models. This approach is criticized as it lacks adequate preparation for ID tasks (Brown & Green, 2018; Stefaniak & Hwang, 2021; Tracey et al., 2022). This is reinforced by IDs in the corporate context who perform tasks regardless of whether their degree is related to ID (Giacumo & Breman, 2021; Villachica et al., 2010). Working processes are shaped by individual factors and the characteristics of their environment (Villachica et al., 2010). ID tasks typically evolve around analysis, like conducting needs analyses, design, such as writing course assessment and evaluation plans, development in creating instructional materials, implementation in terms of teaching or its monitoring, and evaluation by testing the usability. Even though the literature on ID outside school and HE contexts is scarce, prior research reveals that IDs in corporate environments are involved in other tasks, and some skip various common activities mentioned in ID theory, leading to a misfit of the actual practices and the expectations of employers (Stefaniak et al., 2020; Villachica et al., 2010). Additionally, seasoned IDs with years of experience working in companies utilize the strategies they have already successfully applied rather than, in their view, abstract approaches to ID theory (Yanchar et al., 2010). Ultimately, they develop ad-hoc procedures to create training and instruction, which leads to poor ID of learning products. Despite following concrete ID processes and meeting the expectations of employers (Stefaniak et al., 2020; Villachica et al., 2010), rapidly digitizing content with limited resources brought and still brings along challenges for IDs. Rapanta and colleagues (2021) highlight with their study on post-pandemic challenges for HE that the negative experience with ERT in recent years led to learners’ attitudes characterized by resistance to the use of digital learning products. While, again, literature with corporate insights is limited, the economic pressure from the employer side to realize L&D purely digitally increases stress on IDs even more. It is yet to be investigated how exactly the digital transformation of learning influences ID and the work of IDs. Purpose and Goal of the Study While the literature related to the digital transformation of learning, even focusing on technical professions, is massive, studies on corporate technical education and training are rare. Here, case studies presented evidence highlighting that digital learning was successfully employed in corporate contexts. Nonetheless, these cases never go beyond the presentation to the description of how learning was transformed. Thus, we could not find studies within the digital transformation of learning environments and the resulting ERT that represented the IDs’ perspective on the changes in their work. Given the difficulties associated with corporate L&D practices focusing on 1 3 3 Page 4 of 20 Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training –… technical content and the heterogeneity of working structures, this study will contribute to the field with a case study. Some scholars believe case studies are vital for research and practice (Oswald & Reigeluth, n.d.). Sharing expertise and best practices, as done in a case study, can lead to increased profit, cost reduction, and time savings (Patel et al., 2012). Therefore, real examples can support practitioners who seek to transform L&D by building on the lessons learned (Giacumo & Breman, 2021; Stefaniak et al., 2020). While case studies are rare in this field, it is essential to have researchers and practitioners collaborate to develop research by presenting insights into practice (Oswald & Reigeluth, n.d.). Given the fact that IDs in the corporate contexts are supposedly determining their own ID process, the insights will bring along specific tasks, experiences, and future considerations that can be put into practice immediately. On top of that, the results of this case study can be a starting point for developing and adapting programs for IDs to better match the requirements of corporate workplaces, starting with digitalizing technical education. As researchers have highlighted some challenges for IDs, we strive to illustrate the perceptions of IDs contributing to corporate technical education and training (CTET) in a for-profit company and elaborate on future implications for ID development. This will include a description of the case study´s working structures, answering the lack of specific cases, narratives of challenges and needs, adding to the research findings, and finally, interpretations of practical applications for future implications. To achieve this research aim, we frame the following research questions: 1) Which stakeholders are involved in corporate L&D projects to train technical professionals, and what are the stakeholders´ responsibilities? 2) How do corporate IDs perceive their work in L&D projects during the digital transformation of CTET? 3) What future implications of CTET can be derived from the faced challenges and addressed needs of corporate IDs? Methods Sample Description This case study focuses on the stakeholders of a German for-profit company’s L&D projects in the manufacturing sector. The company is kept anonymous in this article. The heterogeneous sample consists of twenty-two company employees. Their work experience with digital learning ranges from three to 30 years because of different tasks and backgrounds. Research Design and Data Collection The case study follows a qualitative research design. Coming from a constructivist research paradigm, this approach supports the heterogeneous distribution of the participants, whose individual perspectives are the center of this research (Cobern, 1 3 Page 5 of 20 3 L. Wintersberg, D. Pittich 1993). It additionally respects a specific period of digital transformation. Therefore, a semi-structured method of collecting individual perspectives through storytelling for a specific period was required (Mueller, 2019). To address these requirements, episodic narrative interviews were held. This research method encounters a semi-structured interview guide with questions for participants’ narrative storytelling around one phenomenon, focusing on a specific period (Mueller, 2019). Table 1 demonstrates the adaptions of Mueller´s (2019) approach to fit our case study. In our approach, the digital transformation of L&D was centered on. The participants were asked to describe a specific L&D project, including challenges and lessons learned. To align with the idea of interviewing, several predefined questions were only addressed if not mentioned in the storytelling or if further narration was necessary (Küsters, 2022). Consent for data collection was obtained in written form from the company and verbal form from each participant. The interviews were facilitated online with the software Zoom due to the participants´ geographical distribution, and a single researcher held them. They took place from July to September 2023, and each interview lasted between 25 and 55 min. All interviews were audio recorded. For automatic verbatim transcription, the software AmberScript was utilized. The original audio and transcripts were only seen by the interviewer, who deleted all confidential information. Researcher Positioning The interviewer was a prior employee who had experienced the digital transformation in the company. This background knowledge supported the access to the participants and understanding of the context. Despite the limitations associated with convenience sampling, participants familiar with the interviewer reported feeling Step Summary Mueller (2019) Summary of own approach 1. Select a phenomenon of interest Identification of specific phenomenon Phenomenon: Digital transformation of CTET 2. Describe interview process Outline of interview structure and process Outline of interview structure and process 3. Definition of phenomenon Participants´ definitions/descriptions of the phenomenon Interviewer´s outline of the phenomenon and participants´ description of digital transformation in their company including timeline 4. Request: story about an episode Participants´ stories about a specific, bounded episode 5. Request: story about the phenomenon Participants´ stories about the phenomenon within the episode Participants´ perceptions of one project within the episode 6. Additions or amendments Opportunity for additions or amendments to any parts of the narrative shared Participants´ conclusion of their work and further topics Table 1 Comparison of episodic narrative interview approaches 1 3 3 Page 6 of 20 Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training –… comfortable answering the questions. Knowing each participant’s background and pain points allowed the interviewer to enhance sensitivity. Data Analysis The analysis had a thematic nature and a combination of deductive and inductive coding procedures. The analysis was performed with the software MAXQDA following a semantic approach, thus coding the participant´s opinions (Braun & Clarke, 2012). The coding scheme was based on the working structures of IDs and the challenges of working in CTET described in the literature review, thus aiming to answer the first two research questions. We predefined three meta-themes and created codes according to the challenges and needs mentioned in the literature review, dividing the meta-themes into distinct aspects. The meta-themes were A: Description of the Case Study and its Working Structures, B: Perceptions of the Working Structures in the Context of CTET, and C: Perceptions of the Digital Transformation of CTET. An insight into the deductive and inductive coding in meta-themes B and C can be found in Table 2. After familiarizing with the transcripts, one researcher coded deductively, highlighting each complete statement mentioning one or more of the predefined codes. Afterwards, we used an inductive coding procedure. Here, we coded each sentence, looking for additional information not considered in the deductive procedure. Each new challenge or need was coded and grouped in one of the meta-themes, respectively. The thematic nature of the findings excludes statements of quantities and relations. Trustworthiness of Coding and Analysis Several analysis activities were performed to resolve concerns of subjectivity. As the coding was done mainly by one researcher, we applied intra-coder training after completing the codebook for three interviews to ensure that the coder coded the three interviews with a satisfying agreement twice. After the researcher had coded all interviews, the second coder read all transcripts and proceeded with the coding. We checked for inter-coder reliability for meta-themes B and C with 20% of the total interviews and received consent of 25%. As the agreement was not satisfying, we reconsidered the coding guidelines and checked for inter-coder reliability with another 20%. We received strong consent (K = 0.81; CI 95%)(McHugh, 2012). Illustrative anonymized quotes were selected for this article. Some quotes are revised to ensure reading flow and grammatical correctness without affecting the quotes’ meaning. In the following, we will use pseudonyms for the participants. As the interview and script language were German, two researchers performed reverse translation with ChatGPT to ensure the accuracy and trustworthiness of the reported results. 1 3 Page 7 of 20 3 L. Wintersberg, D. Pittich Findings Ultimately, our results include a description of the working structures, divided into stakeholders and their workflow, and the participants´ perceptions of these structures and the digital transformation of CTET. Meta-Theme 1: Description of the Case Study and its Working Structures L&D was described as mainly taking place in one department of the company. Of 22 participants, 19 were L&D department employees, and three were from other departments. The department has worked together for three years, starting in April 2020, and has joined employees with different roles and responsibilities. In their workflow, Table 2 Coding scheme Meta-theme Theme Coding Description Example Perceptions of working structures in the context of the CTET Perceived challenges Understanding of own role (i) Statements on the responsibilities of they own roles “My role and task in this was to receive the content as a PowerPoint presentation and convert it into a learning product, making it SCORM-compliant and capable of integration into an LMS, using a Learning Authoring Software.” Expectations of other´s role (d) Statements on the expectations of other´s roles “The quality of the content is unrelated to the media production. It only involves executing the recipe, adhering to the instructional designer’s guidance, and presenting the content as created by the SME.” Addressed needs Improve internal communication (i) Suggestions or positive experience on how to improve communicational challenges “Exchange was key, as there were many discussions and collaborative sessions where we talked extensively about it.” Keeping working structures agile (i) Suggestions or good experience of the role distribution “Addressing the personal strengths and weaknesses of someone makes sense.” Perception of Digital Transformation of CTET Perceived challenges Digital learning for technical professions (d) Challenging parts or aspects of digital learning products “When you create a digital product, you lack additional information.” Addressed needs Analyzing target group needs (d) Suggestions for changes or behavior towards the target group “I use and will use the tools that are certainly available to the target audience.” Overcoming external restrictions (i) Suggestions and implications for changing the mindset towards profitability “Trying out things, even if one fails, is important. But then, new paths and possibilities may open, and I do not lose touch with society.” Notes. d = deductive coding, i = inductive coding 1 3 3 Page 8 of 20 Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training –… with numerous best practices, and can predict trends. They keenly understand their target audience, other companies, and the industry. Participants with little experience offer a fresh, unbiased perspective, providing relevant feedback. With years of company experience, technical trainers maintain close contact with the target audience, understanding what resonates and is needed. Media producers generate creative ideas and make individual decisions, working closely with technical trainers. Management can make decisions by recognizing the influence of upper management on the company. To sustain employee satisfaction and balance the workload of the management team, a clear distinction is made between managerial tasks and those involved in developing a learning product. Management focuses on global strategic decisions, leaving operational decisions to the other focus groups. Practical Implications and Future Research Looking toward the future, it seems necessary to emphasize ID as a job description and a process. Based on the incomprehensibility of ID in this case study, we conclude that there is a need for a common understanding, which could be achieved by introducing job shadowing or rotation. Research reveals that initiatives like job rotation or shadowing are invaluable for understanding a team’s diverse roles and responsibilities. It allows individuals to observe and appreciate the various professional functions by understanding how different roles contribute to collective goals. This exposure enhances collaboration and communication within the team and helps individuals recognize their occupational roles’ worth and responsibility (Bakker & Akkerman, 2019; Irby et al., 2016; Striković & Wittmann, 2022). Whether the positive effect can be transferred to IDs has yet to be studied. Considering the hesitance to use theory or the fact that IDs are performing jobs regardless of formal training, in our opinion, it seems beneficial to apply methods that have been created especially for such purposes and include all necessary considerations in every activity. With increased exchange and standardized instruments, ID can still be successful. Regarding skill development, we suggest including communication skills for cross-boundary collaboration (Striković & Wittmann, 2022) and digital competence (Lyngdorf et al., 2024; Makarova et al., 2021) in formal educational programs and adding them to the lifelong education of IDs or all positions included. Referring to the digital transformation of CTET, we want to highlight the concerning trend of knowledge preservation found in the literature and aligned with this, our participants´ fear of falling behind in technical education due to the resistance of the target group and limited support from employers. Operating as a unit within a large corporation or institution often imposes constraints, as actions and decisions largely depend on directives from higher organizational levels. Therefore, we encourage the department’s initial pursuit to push the digital transformation of CTET forward with pioneering work. Bates (2000) describes pioneering as the lone ranger phenomenon and highlights the essence of these lone rangers. He states that it always takes those who initiate innovation to reveal its potential (Bates, 2004). This relates to our study in two ways: on the one hand, we support the pioneering work of the company that has experimented with digital technologies, while on the other, we aim to encourage others to adopt case studies as research tools. The case study aimed to go beyond 1 3 Page 15 of 20 3 L. Wintersberg, D. Pittich past analysis as a tool for future enhancements, and we offered a starting point for the area of CTET. With this approach, we seek to foster the discussion on the relevance of studies in this area and inspire more researchers and practitioners to align with our strategy. Furthermore, we identified the researcher’s positioning in this study as beneficial. Instead of seeing the convenience sample as a threat, we present it as a strength of this research. The familiarity with the topic, context, and individuals helped to clearly understand the individual opinions. Even though it is stated that researchers and practitioners should collaborate, we consider the feasibility and suggest familiarizing ourselves with the context in a similar depth first before researching a subsequent case study. Limitations Nevertheless, this study presents the perceptions of a small sample (N = 22), which questions representativity. Reinforced by the participants´ desire for further corporate insights, we state that there will be a need to transfer pioneering work to large-scale research (Rapanta et al., 2021). Nevertheless, larger sample sizes will help underline our findings’ validity and can be transferred to other subject areas. Limitations occur as we only deal with interviews and subjective statements. We assume exploring the interactions through online platforms and the impact on work performed or applying a quantitative design could be beneficial, which is why this should be considered for future research. Still, participants commented on the behavior of other roles in the working structures. Here, not only were the statements of the individuals collected, but the understanding of others’ roles also led to a description of observed behavior. This allowed for a first insight into what objectivity should be aimed at by investigating this research field further. Lastly, the experience of our participants and their target group with digital learning emerged simultaneously as ERT, equating the training experience with the experience of action taken out of an emergency. This must be looked at more closely from the learning and training side. Thus, the study provides scope for a deeper analysis of digital experiences, job descriptions, and their potential impact during the transformation to gain a more comprehensive understanding. Conclusion To conclude our study, we aimed to critically appraise ID practices in CTET by illustrating challenges faced in the digital transformation of L&D with a case study focusing on a manufacturing company. Our research took an additional stride toward bridging the gap between academia and the workplace. Scarce literature findings about the challenges of ID in line with digital transformation were enriched by insights gained from a practical corporate environment. We additionally elaborated on the future implications for practice and highlighted the obstacles, solutions, and our interpretations for learner and economic attitudes toward digital learning, as well as ID readiness and experience. We conclude that the future of CTET requires innovative approaches and a change in mindset to continue contributing to the devel1 3 3 Page 16 of 20 Digital Transformation of Corporate Technical Education and Training –… opment of conceptualizations, implementations, and evaluations. Addressing the unique needs through targeted training, e.g., in lifelong learning programs for IDs or provision of templates and blueprints, can optimize work structures, diversify learning products, and deepen ID role understanding. This fosters personal development and enhances the overall quality of L&D, especially in the technical field. Acknowledgements We thank the L&D department for their participation in data collection. Special appreciation goes to the research team, including the second coder and reverse translator, for their contributions. We are also grateful to the Bayerische Forschungsallianz for the Scholarship Program, which supported our research efforts in 2023. Authors Contribution Both authors conceptualized and designed the study. The first authors held the interviews and completed the first manuscript. The second author significantly revised the paper and added theoretical contributions. Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. Open Access funding was enabled and organized by the Project DEAL. Data Availability Due to the nature of the research, interview audio files are unavailable. Interview scripts for this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available because they contain information that could compromise the privacy of research participants and the company. Declarations Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate All procedures performed involving human participants were in accordance with the principles that ensure research integrity, transparency, and accountability within the Technical University of Munich. Additionally, participants were asked to consent to participate in interviews and to their recordings. Consent for Publication This study includes a table derived from another author who consented to use the table in this study in written form. Conflict of Interest The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit h t t p : / / c r e a t i v e c o m m o n s . o r g / l i c e n s e s / b y / 4 . 0 / . References Alenezi, M. (2023). Digital learning and digital institution in higher education. 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Behind the curtain: Exploring how instructional design teams function to complete design and development. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 32(5), 2853–2871. TUM School of Social Sciences and Technology Technical University of Munich, Germany. 1 3 Page 19 of 20 3 L. Wintersberg, D. Pittich Vey, K., Fandel-Meyer, T., Zipp, J. S., & Schneider, C. (2017). Learning & Development in Times of Digital Transformation: Facilitating a culture of Change and Innovation. International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning, 10(1). Villachica, S. W., Marker, A., & Taylor, K. (2010). But what do they really expect? Employer perceptions of the skills of entry-level instructional designers. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 22(4), 33–51. Virolainen, M. H., Heikkinen, H. L., Laitinen-Väänänen, S., & Rautopuro, J. (2021). The transformation of learning: From learning organizations to a landscape of ecosystems. The SAGE Handbook of Learning and Work. Yanchar, S. C., South, J. B., Williams, D. D., Allen, S., & Wilson, B. G. (2010). Struggling with theory? A qualitative investigation of conceptual tool use in instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 58, 39–60. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Lisa Wintersberg She is a researcher at the TUM Professorship of Technical Education for Vocational Teaching. In addition to her studies in corporate teaching and learning, she also gains professional experience in corporate education and training. Her academic and practice activities link her work’s content and methodological focus. Daniel Pittich He has the TUM Professorship of Technical Education for Vocational Teaching and focuses on competence modeling, evidence-based teaching strategies in technical education, and the impact of digitalization and Industry 4.0. His research extends to the educational use of learning factories in production technology and innovative approaches to competence-oriented curricular implementation processes and teacher education in vocational and technical contexts. 1 3 3 Page 20 of 20