Natural Born Supporters? The Role of Personality Traits for Stakeholders' Moral Emotions and Behavioural Intentions Towards Activist Corporate Brands in Online Firestorms

Rogotzki, Emily-Louise; Rudeloff, Christian Article — Published Version Natural Born Supporters? The Role of Personality Traits for Stakeholders' Moral Emotions and Behavioural Intentions Towards Activist Corporate Brands in Online Firestorms Corporate Reputation Review Suggested Citation: Rogotzki, Emily-Louise; Rudeloff, Christian (2025) : Natural Born Supporters? The Role of Personality Traits for Stakeholders' Moral Emotions and Behavioural Intentions Towards Activist Corporate Brands in Online Firestorms, Corporate Reputation Review, ISSN 1479-1889, Palgrave Macmillan UK, London, Vol. 28, Iss. 4, pp. 252-267, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-025-00225-6 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/333354 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Vol:.(1234567890) Corporate Reputation Review (2025) 28:252–267 https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-025-00225-6 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Natural Born Supporters? The Role ofPersonality Traits forStakeholders' Moral Emotions andBehavioural Intentions Towards Activist Corporate Brands inOnline Firestorms Emily‑LouiseRogotzki1· ChristianRudeloff1 Published online: 10 April 2025 © The Author(s) 2025 Abstract Corporate brands are increasingly expected to take a stand on controversial issues. In a polarised and digitalised world, this can lead to online firestorms which may in turn have negative impacts on brands. In order to navigate such crises, a better understanding of the determinants of stakeholder reactions in brand activism firestorms is important. Against this backdrop, this paper examines how the Big Five personality traits influence moral emotions and behavioural intentions, specifically responses towards the corporate brand and issue advocacy. A scenario-based survey using the example of a fictitious online firestorm on Instagram was conducted (n = 178). Hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analyses and bootstrapping. The findings indicate that individuals who are open, extraverted, and agreeable tend to exhibit other-praising emotions and positive responses, thereby supporting the activist corporate brand in the context of firestorms. In contrast, individuals who are neurotic tend to display other-condemning emotions and negative responses. Overall, this study makes a contribution to the existing literature on the relationship between personality traits and stakeholder behaviour. The findings illustrate the role of the Big Five personality traits in shaping responses during brand activism crises. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this has yet to be considered in the context of existing research. Keywords Brand activism· Corporate social advocacy· Firestorm· Big five· Personality traits· Moral emotions· Consumer responses· Issue advocacy Introduction Stakeholders increasingly expect brands to position themselves as advocates for social causes (Maks-Solomon and Drewry 2020). Linked to this development is the phenomenon of brand activism, which has become increasingly important in recent years (Cammarota etal. 2023). A well-known example of such an activist campaign is the Nike ‘Dream Crazy’ campaign from 2018 in support of the Black Lives Matter movement (Vredenburg etal. 2020). The campaign depicts athlete Colin Kaepernick in a stance of protest, displaying the hashtag ‘#BlackLivesMatter’. The campaign provoked a strong reaction from stakeholders, both positive and negative. Despite criticism from some quarters, it attracted considerable media attention and was endorsed boldly by supporters. This exemplifies the formation of novel relationships between brands and stakeholders, whereby stakeholders evaluate and judge companies based on their stance on controversial issues (Bhagwat etal. 2020). Consequently, the extant literature indicates that brand activism has the potential to enhance e.g. customer loyalty and retention, while simultaneously posing a risk of provoking protests and calls for boycotts (Bhagwat etal. 2020; Hoppner and Vadakkepatt 2019). Thus, brand activism is regarded as a potentially risky strategy (Cammarota etal. 2023). In particular, responses to brand activism campaigns on social media are difficult to predict and can develop rapidly. Waves of public outrage, known as firestorms, built up by a large number of polarising comments, are often driven by (moral) emotions, that emerge impulsively in response to the assessment of actions or occurrences as morally commendable or reprehensible (Delgado-Ballester etal. 2021; * Christian Rudeloff c.r[email protected] Emily-Louise Rogotzki [email protected] 1 Hochschule Macromedia, Stuttgart, Germany 253 Natural Born Supporters? The Role ofPersonality Traits forStakeholders' Moral Emotions and… Wannow etal. 2023). Such pressure can be detrimental to corporate brands (Cammarota etal. 2023). An example of negative online reaction to brand activism is PepsiCo's 'Live for Now Moments Anthem' campaign in 2017. The campaign attempted to appeal to millennials by featuring Kendall Jenner in an ad in which she joins a protest and appears to resolve tensions between demonstrators and police by offering them a Pepsi. The campaign was heavily criticised on social media for trivialising the Black Lives Matter movement and triggered a global firestorm (Hogan 2017). According to YouGov BrandIndex, Pepsi's Buzz score—a measure of consumer perception—experienced a significant decline following the release of the advertisement. Specifically, the Buzz score fell by 9.5 points, dropping from 0.3 to −9.2 within a week of the ad's release (Yougov 2017). Against this backdrop, brands need to prepare themselves to effectively navigate social media crisis. It therefore makes sense to better understand the determinants of stakeholders’ emotions and behavioural intentions in brand activism firestorms. However, the state of research on this topic is fragmented. On the one hand, there is now a substantial body of research examining responses to brand activism (Cammarota etal. 2023). In this context, a considerable number of intervening factors have been investigated to date, including consumerbrand relationships (e.g. Jain etal. 2021) and perceived message authenticity (Mirzaei etal. 2022; Rudeloff and Bruns 2024). Concurrently, a substantial corpus of research has been conducted on online firestorms, with an emphasis on different organisational or message characteristics (Hancock etal. 2023), but also personal factors of stakeholders such as narcissistic traits (e.g. Delgado-Ballester etal. 2023). Nonetheless, Gruber etal. (2020) have asserted that the comprehension of the determinants driving individuals to engage in online firestorms remains "rather limited" (p. 564). This is especially true for the impact of personality traits, which have not yet been empirically explored, both in the research stream on stakeholder responses to brand activism and in studies of online firestorms. This is surprising, given the crucial role of personality traits such as the Big Five dimensions (openness, neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness) on various aspects of stakeholder behaviour and, more specifically, social media activities such as content creation and interaction with other users (Liu and Campbell 2017). For example, Perera etal. (2023) posit that "different personality types exist among social media users, and these personality types influence how a person interacts with others, processes information, and makes decisions" (p. 116). Similarly, further studies point to the impacts of personality traits in a brand context, such as on stakeholder-brand relationships (Fazli-Salehi etal. 2022; Matzler etal. 2006; Mulyanegara etal. 2009), and online word-of-mouth (Anastasiei and Dospinescu 2018). Furthermore, in a CSR communication context, Moscato and Hopp (2019), suggest that future research on consumer response “should take into consideration individual differences” (p. 34). Against this backdrop, this study aims to address this research gap and contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the factors that influence stakeholder responses in the context of corporate brand activism firestorms. In particular, this study seeks to address the following research question: How do the Big Five personality traits influence stakeholders' moral emotions and behavioural intentions in the context of corporate brand activism firestorms? In doing so, this study also seeks to draw practical implications for corporate brands on how to navigate such crises effectively, for example by developing specific communication strategies that address the needs of particular personality types. The remainder of this article is structured as follows: First, the results of a literature review are presented. Specifically, brand activism firestorms and the roles of moral emotions and behavioural intentions, stakeholder responses towards brands and issue advocacy, will be discussed. In the next step, the Big Five model of personality dimensions will be introduced and hypotheses will be derived. Subsequently, the results of the empirical study are presented and discussed in accordance with the methodology previously outlined. Literature Review andTheoretical Foundation Brand Activism andFirestorms Cammarota etal. (2023, p. 1679) define brand activism as "the public stance of a company on contentious sociopolitical issues through statements and/or actions." In contrast to CSR, brand activism refers to socio-political issues that often have a polarising effect (Herzberg and Rudeloff 2022; Mukherjee and Althuizen 2020; Wannow etal. 2023). Examples of these issues include LGBTQIA + rights, migration, racism, climate change, police violence, gun control, abortion and responses to the Covid-19 pandemic. Brand activism campaigns typically build on the activities and positioning of the company as a whole, rather than highlighting individual product brands. Consequently, the literature views brand activism as an organisation-driven phenomenon, underscoring the importance of aligning brand activism with the core identity of the organisation (Pimentel etal. 2024). The extant literature on the consequences of brand activism is contradictory. On the one hand, brand activism has the potential to foster stronger stakeholder loyalty when a 254 E.-L.Rogotzki, C.Rudeloff brand is perceived as authentic and committed (Hambrick and Wowak 2021; Maks-Solomon and Drewry 2020). Furthermore, brands may leverage brand activism to differentiate themselves from their competitors (Schmidt etal. 2021; Cammarota etal. 2023; Maks-Solomon and Drewry 2020). Conversely, brand activism can facilitate increased brand visibility (Hoppner and Vadakkepatt 2019; Rudeloff and Amin 2023). At the same time, it is emphasised that brand activism is typically characterised by risk and uncertainty due to its polarising nature (Bhagwat etal. 2020; Hambrick and Wowak 2021; Wannow etal. 2023). When a company assumes a socio-political stance, consumers who do not align with this position may respond negatively and disengage from the brand (Hydock etal. 2020; Manfredi-Sánchez 2019). Mukherjee and Althuizen (2020) highlight the asymmetrical impact of brand activism, noting that stakeholders who do not align with a brand's stance tend to exhibit more pronounced counter-reactions than those who do (Mukherjee and Althuizen 2020). In particular, on social media, stakeholders proactively express their discontent when they find themselves at odds with a corporate brand's political stance. This can serve to exacerbate the adverse consequences associated with brand activism (Klostermann etal. 2021). A growing body of evidence indicates that the number and intensity of negative comments on social media in the context of brand activism exert a significant influence on the brand's perceived image (Klostermann etal. 2021). In this context, the term 'firestorm' is used to describe the sudden and widespread appearance of a multitude of negative comments and posts directed at a particular brand or individual (Hansen etal. 2018). The rapid pace and connectivity of social media play a pivotal role in the emergence of firestorms (Chan etal. 2018). In particular, negative emotions and opinions are disseminated at a rapid pace. Furthermore, Chan etal. (2018) posit that morally motivated outrage plays a pivotal role. The individuals engaged in these online controversies frequently perceive their actions as morally justifiable (Chan etal. 2018). Moral Emotions andStakeholder Responses Haidt (2001) introduced the concept of moral intuition, which posits that moral judgments are frequently spontaneous and driven by emotional responses. Such judgments frequently emerge impulsively and are only subsequently, if at all, justified by logical reasoning (Haidt 2001; Grappi etal. 2013). In this context, the term 'moral emotions' is also employed. These are particular feelings that emerge in response to the assessment of actions or occurrences as morally commendable or reprehensible, and are founded upon moral standards (Xie etal. 2019). These emotions frequently serve as powerful motivators for action, prompting individuals to respond to morally salient circumstances (Tangney etal. 2007; Haidt 2003; Van Doorn etal. 2014). Haidt (2003) identifies four primary categories of moral emotions: those that elicit feelings of condemnation towards others (other-condemning emotions), those that evoke a sense of admiration for others (other-praising emotions), self-centered emotions and emotions that prompt feelings of compassion for others. In the context of brand activism, the role of other-condemning emotions and other-praising emotions is particularly significant (Wannow etal. 2023). Other-condemning emotions manifest in response to moral transgressions perpetrated by another individual or group. These include emotions such as contempt, anger, and disgust (Grappi etal. 2013; Xie etal. 2015). Other-praising emotions, such as gratitude and elevation, are elicited by morally praiseworthy behaviour and facilitate prosocial action (Haidt 2003; Greenbaum etal. 2019). From the perspective of Reed (2002) and Fukuyama (2018), these emotional responses can be understood as reflections of how individuals' identities are affirmed or threatened by the actions of others. Moral transgressions or praiseworthy behavior often challenge or reinforce one's social and moral identity, influencing emotional reactions that are tied to one's sense of self and belonging. Such emotions can also be strongly directed at corporate brands, as previously outlined by Grappi etal. (2013). Othercondemning emotions, such as anger, contempt and disgust, are evoked when a brand demonstrates a disregard for ethical principles (Greenbaum etal. 2019; Xie etal. 2015). Concurrently, moral emotions are markedly associated with behavioural intentions and can impact consumer responses to brand activism (Wannow etal. 2023). The connection between moral emotions and action can be explained by the concept of moral motivation, which suggests that emotions act as catalysts for behavior that aligns with one's moral values or social identity. The strength of this motivation often depends on the perceived connection between the emotional response and the individual's identity or self-concept. As seen in research by Haidt (2003), emotions such as anger can lead to corrective actions, such as protest or punishment, when they signal a violation of moral norms. Consequently, other-condemning emotions can prompt consumers to engage in a range of retaliatory behaviours, including negative word-of-mouth, boycotts and protest actions (Grappi etal. 2013; Wannow etal. 2023; Xie etal. 2015; 2019). Similarly, Batson etal. (2007) show that emotions like empathy and guilt can compel individuals to help others or make reparations. Thus, other-praising emotions, including awe, gratitude, and elevation, which have been demonstrated to stimulate prosocial behavior (Haidt 2003; Greenbaum 255 Natural Born Supporters? The Role ofPersonality Traits forStakeholders' Moral Emotions and… etal. 2019), are elicited by a brand's actions perceived as morally positive. Such emotions prompt consumers to express themselves in a positive manner and to identify more strongly with the company (Grappi etal. 2013; Wannow etal. 2023; Xie etal. 2015; 2019). Wannow etal. (2023) additionally demonstrate the significant influence of moral emotions on issue advocacy. Issue advocacy can be defined as consumers' commitment to socio political causes (Wannow etal. 2023; Xie etal. 2019). Consumer responses pertain to behavioural intentions towards the corporate brand, whereas issue advocacy concerns behavioural intentions in relation to the issue that the brand's activism is concerned with. Recent studies have highlighted the significance of intuitive and emotionally influenced moral evaluations, particularly in the context of companies’ socio-political commitments (Wannow etal. 2023; Xie etal. 2015; 2019). Nevertheless, there remains a research gap with regard to the determinants of these moral evaluations and behavioural intentions in the context of corporate brand activism firestorms. The Role ofPersonality Traits The Big Five model is a widely accepted conceptualisation of human personality, based on five principal dimensions. The five dimensions are openness, neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Rammstedt etal. 2023). Each of these dimensions is bipolar, encompassing both high and low levels of a personality trait. Extensive research has demonstrated the robustness of this model across diverse cultures and contexts worldwide (Pie Carlo etal. 2014). The Big Five personality traits and their consequences have been the subject of extensive research in a multitude of contexts over the past decades (Prinzie etal. 2009; Zhao and Seibert 2006; Seth and Soch 2024). Among others, research has demonstrated connections between personality traits, the development of moral emotions (Hughes etal. 2020; Lapsley and Hill 2009) and behavioural intentions (Li and Ruzicka 2022), as well as specifically social media use (Liu and Campbell 2017). Consequently, Perera etal. (2023) posit that an individual's personality traits are "closely related to how they interact with others, processes information, and makes decisions" (p. 125). Furthermore, studies have indicated the relevance of individual personality traits in a brand context (Fazli-Salehi etal. 2022; Matzler etal. 2006; Mulyanegara etal. 2009), online word-of-mouth (Anastasiei and Dospinescu 2018) and consumer responses to CSR communications (Moscato and Hopp 2019). In light of this, in the following, hypotheses are developed regarding the specific influence of the Big Five model dimensions on the expression of moral emotions and behavioural intentions in the context of brand activism firestorms. Openness The openness dimension of the Big Five model describes an individual's willingness to engage in a variety of experiences and to be cognitively flexible (Roberts etal. 2023; Rammstedt etal. 2023). Individuals with high levels of openness are distinguished by their intellectual curiosity and pursuit of novel ideas and experiences. The extant literature indicates that openness is positively associated with various dimensions of political participation. Such activities include discussing political issues, actively engaging with political content, participating in various forms of online political activities and expressing political opinions on the internet (Russo and Amnå 2016; Ha etal. 2013). Furthermore, openness exerts an influence on the formation of political opinions and ideologies among stakeholders, with these being predominantly associated with liberal viewpoints (Gerber etal. 2010; Hibbing etal. 2010). Similar, in the context of the system justification theory e.g. Jost etal. (2008) have shown that openness was negatively associated with conservatism and positively associated with liberalism. Furthermore, those with a high degree of openness are more likely to engage in unconventional political activities and to accept new ideas that challenge the existing social order (Roets etal. 2013; Roberts etal. 2023; Rammstedt etal. 2023). Conversely, in accordance with the theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen 1991), it has been demonstrated that individuals with high levels of openness tend to act in opposition to their subjective norms. Subjective norms describe the social pressure that an individual experiences with regard to performing or refraining from a specific action (Bošnjak etal. 2020). This tendency can be attributed to an enhanced perception of behavioural control and is supported by strong inner motivations and confidence in one's own abilities (Li and Ruzicka 2022). This can result in the situation whereby individuals with a high degree of openness may feel other-praising emotions towards a corporate brand that has become embroiled in controversy as a result of its activism. This suggests that such individuals may experience positive moral emotions, such as awe, gratitude and elevation for a corporate brand, even in the face of social pressure. Thus, the following hypothesis can be formulated: H1 Openness is a predictor of other-praising emotions when a corporate brand is exposed to a firestorm due to brand activism. 256 E.-L.Rogotzki, C.Rudeloff Neuroticism The trait of neuroticism is defined as a tendency towards emotional instability, which is often associated with negative emotionality. Individuals exhibiting a high level of this trait are frequently prone to negative emotional states, including anxiety and depression (Roberts etal. 2023; Russo and Amnå 2016; Rammstedt etal. 2018). In accordance with social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner 1979; McGowan etal. 2016), the perception of anonymity in online environments has the potential to reinforce the identification of individuals with their respective ingroups, thereby promoting compliance with the norms and values associated with these groups. Negative experiences, in particular, have been shown to promote group cohesion and to motivate individuals to defend the ideologies of their in-group (Nauroth etal. 2015). For individuals with high neuroticism, this could indicate a heightened reactivity in such contexts, particularly insituations perceived as stressful or threatening, such as a firestorm. Additionally, the impact of subjective norm on intention is more pronounced in individuals with high levels of neuroticism, indicating a greater likelihood of their intentions being influenced by social pressures (Rhodes etal. 2002). This may manifest as negative, other-condemning emotions towards a brand (Li and Ruzicka 2022; Roberts etal. 2023). Conversely, research indicates that elevated neuroticism, despite its correlation with adverse emotional states, can also facilitate enhanced involvement in political activities (Mondak etal. 2010). The study of Mondak etal. (2010) implies that a positive relationship between high levels of neuroticism might have a positive effect on political engagement as it was found that the inverted scale of high emotional stability (low neuroticism) has a significant negative impact on political engagement. Such engagement may serve to influence and counteract the insecurities or fears that individuals with high neuroticism feel, including those pertaining to brand activist issues (Russo and Amnå 2016). Similarly, Perera etal. (2023) have identified a correlation between neuroticism and the use of hate speech on the social media platform X (formerly known as Twitter). It can be argued that users with high neuroticism factors seek greater attention from society in order to feel safe and to overcome their emotional imbalance. Therefore, they tend to engage in negative consumer responses towards brands on social media. Similarly, previous studies suggest that higher levels of neuroticism predict a greater likelihood of negative reactions to perceived brand failures (Attiq etal. 2022; Swaminathan and Kubat Dokumaci 2021; Seth and Soch 2024; Yadav 2024). Also, research has shown that neuroticism is positively correlated with scepticism towards brands' CSR communications, especially as consumers with high neuroticism scores expect brands' CSR motives to be selfish rather than ethically genuine (Moscato and Hopp 2019). Thus, the following hypotheses can be posited: H2 Neuroticism is a predictor for other-condemning emotions when a corporate brand is exposed to a firestorm due to brand activism. H3 Neuroticism is a predictor for negative stakeholder responses when a corporate brand is exposed to a firestorm due to brand activism. Extraversion In accordance with the Big Five model of personality, individuals exhibiting high levels of extraversion tend to display a proclivity for traits such as sociability, activity, and assertiveness (Roberts etal. 2023; Rammstedt etal. 2023). Thus, they are characterised by their active engagement and pronounced presence in social interactions. As sociability and activity are facets of extraversion, studies have identified a strong correlation between extraversion and the frequency of posting new content on social media (Bowden-Green etal. 2020). Furthermore, additional research has identified a correlation between extraversion and the use of positive language in online comments and the utilisation of the 'liking' function (Bowden-Green etal. 2020; Hall etal. 2014; Lee etal. 2014). More specifically, extroverted individuals also demonstrate a proclivity for both high levels of political participation and extensive social media usage in the context of online political engagement (Russo and Amnå 2016). In accordance with social identity theory, individuals utilise group affiliations to enhance their self-esteem and mitigate insecurities (Raskovic 2020). Extroverts, who have a strong need for social recognition, demonstrate a robust identification with their groups. This motivates them to engage actively in group activities and reinforce their social identity (Nicholls and Rice 2017; Sun etal. 2017). On social media, this is evidenced by their high level of participation in discussions and their dedication to defending and disseminating their opinions (Bowden-Green etal. 2020). The theory of planned behaviour lends further support to this argumentation, indicating that extroverts are more likely to act contrary to subjective norms. They experience a higher degree of perceived behavioural control, which is encouraged by their strong inner motivation and confidence in their abilities (De Bruijn etal. 2009; Li and Ruzicka 2022). This can result in a scenario in which, when corporate brands are engulfed in a firestorm as a consequence of their activism, individuals with a high level of extraversion will demonstrate positive responses, such as posting 257 Natural Born Supporters? The Role ofPersonality Traits forStakeholders' Moral Emotions and… of supportive comments, even in the face of (or precisely because of) social pressure exerted on the brand. Thus, the following hypothesis can be derived: H4 Extraversion is a predictor of positive stakeholder responses when a corporate brand is exposed to a firestorm due to brand activism. Agreeableness The trait of agreeableness is characterised by a tendency to avoid conflict and a need to be liked by others. Individuals with high agreeableness scores typically display prosocial, cooperative behaviour and friendliness (Roberts etal. 2023; Russo and Amnå 2016; Rammstedt etal. 2018). In the context of online political engagement, research findings indicate a correlation between high agreeableness and reduced participation in non-electoral political activities. This encompasses diminished online political engagement and a decline in internet-based activism (Ha etal. 2013; Russo and Amnå 2016; Roberts etal. 2023). This reluctance is likely attributable to a desire to maintain harmonious relations and avoid conflictual disputes. In relation to social identity theory, individuals with high agreeableness place a significant emphasis on maintaining harmonious relationships and social cohesion within their social group. This is particularly pertinent in the context of crisis events, such as a boycott, where the pressure to act in accordance with group norms can intensify (Chan etal. 2018; Li and Ruzicka 2022; Tajfel and Turner 1986). Consequently, those who score high in agreeableness tend to demonstrate their cooperative and accommodating dispositions through alignment with their in-groups. Thus, agreeableness and group identification show a positive correlation (Sagiv etal. 2012). These individuals eschew conflicts that could compromise group harmony, which may diminish their inclination to engage in controversial issue advocacy. Consequently, it can be postulated that individuals with high scores in agreeableness will demonstrate reduced involvement in issue advocacy in the context of brand activism, particularly under firestorm conditions. Such individuals are likely to exercise greater caution with regard to actions that may be associated with conflict and could disrupt group harmony. Similarly, recent studies have indicated that individuals with high agreeableness traits tend to prefer compromising strategies over damaging ones in the event of a corporate brand's failure (Sameeni etal. 2024; Seth and Soch 2024). Thus, the following hypothesis can be derived: H5 Agreeableness is a negative predictor of issue advocacy when a corporate brand is exposed to a firestorm due to brand activism. Conscientiousness Conscientiousness encompasses skills such as self-control, rule following and purposeful action. Individuals who exhibit high levels of conscientiousness are typically characterised by their deliberate actions, effective organisational skills and commitment to fulfilling their responsibilities (Roberts etal. 2023; Rammstedt etal. 2023). Research has demonstrated a correlation between conscientiousness and political activities such as political discussions and voting (Gallego and Oberski 2012, Hibbing etal. 2010). This is often conceptualised as the fulfilment of civic duty (Gallego and Oberski 2012). Klofstad (2009) demonstrates that engaging in political discussions positively influences civic participation. This implies that individuals with high levels of conscientiousness are more likely to engage in political processes and perceive these as part of their civic duty as citizens. In accordance with social identity theory, brand activism has the potential to facilitate the development of a positive social identity among conscientious stakeholders. By engaging with brands that are committed to social or environmental justice, these stakeholders may feel a sense of belonging to an ethically superior community, which can enhance their self-esteem and self-perception (Chan etal. 2018; Li and Ruzicka 2022; Tajfel and Turner 1986). Furthermore, in the context of the theory of planned behaviour, it is emphasised that stakeholders with a high level of conscientiousness feel a strong sense of control over their lives and assume that they can achieve their goals through their own efforts (Rammstedt etal. 2023; Li and Ruzicka 2022). Rhodes etal. (2002) support the notion that conscientiousness moderates the relationship between intention and behaviour. Individuals with high levels of conscientiousness, characterised by orderliness, dutifulness, and self-discipline, are more likely to follow through with their intentions, suggesting a strong predictive capability of this trait in behavioural outcomes. This conviction may enable them to regard occurrences such as firestorms as potentially surmountable and to remain active, rather than being disheartened by external factors such as perceived social pressure. According to Packer (2010), conscientiousness predicts a greater willingness to influence one’s group through the expression of dissenting opinions. Therefore, the following hypothesis can be stated: H6 Conscientiousness is a predictor of issue advocacy when a corporate brand is exposed to a firestorm due to brand activism. 258 E.-L.Rogotzki, C.Rudeloff Methods To answer the research question and test hypotheses, a structured online survey was created involving a treatment in the form of a video example simulating a firestorm scenario for a corporate brand. Scenario The selected scenario was a firestorm situation. In order to simulate this, a socio-political topic that is conducive to corporate brand activism was selected. In order to identify suitable polarising topics, secondary statistics were employed to ascertain a controversial subject that is discussed across the general population. In this context, the topic of migration was selected, as it is an issue of significant salience and controversy in Germany, the country in which the study was conducted (Herold etal. 2023). A fictitious corporate brand was created and this brand published the following statement in the scenario on the social media platform Instagram which provoked polarised reactions from social media users: “Our corporate culture thrives on diversity and inclusion! Talented people with a migration background are very welcome here and enrich our team with their unique perspectives and skills. We firmly believe that our diversity makes us stronger and inspires our creativity. #DiversityDrivesUs #WelcomeAll”. The firestorm situation was represented by a large number of negative comments received on the fictitious brand's post. In order to simulate the impression of a dynamically developing firestorm as realistically as possible, a video was created with an animation in which the comments were rapidly faded in one after the other. In addition, a descriptive text explained that the company is subject to strong media criticism. Screenshots of the treatment are presented in Appendix A. Measurements To measure personality dimensions, the Big Five model, more precisely the BFI-2-XS according to Rammstedt etal. (2018), which is based on the original version of the BFI2-XS by John etal. (2017), was employed. For each personality dimension three items were used. The measurement of the construct other-praising emotions was based on a shortened version of the Xie etal. scale (2019), which includes the emotions amazed, thankful and touched. A shortened version of the scale of Xie etal. (2015) was used to measure other-condemning emotions, which includes the emotions contempt, anger and distaste. Positive responses were measured on the basis of a shortened version of the scale of Xie etal. (2015), which contains four dimensions: positive word-of-mouth, brand identification, actively, resistance to negative information, and the intention to invest in this company. A total of nine items were employed. The measurement of negative responses followed a shortened version of the scale described by Xie etal. (2015), which includes the dimensions of negative word-of-mouth, complaining and boycotting. A total of seven items were employed. Issue advocacy was measured using the scale as employed by Wannow etal. (2023). All items were measured with a five-point Likert scale ('strongly disagree' to 'strongly agree'). Implementation oftheOnline Survey A pilot test of the research instrument was conducted, in which test subjects (n = 12) were interviewed to test the technical functionality and the comprehensibility of the questionnaire as well as the treatment. The pilot test indicated that the majority of the questions in the questionnaire were understood and answered correctly. However, there were comprehension problems with the scenario treatment, particularly in the description of the firestorm situation. For this reason, the explanatory text of the scenario was expanded and clarified. Furthermore, the wording was optimised, the order of the questions adjusted and the layout of the questionnaire modified. In order to check the intended perception of the scenario as a corporate brand activism firestorm, a control question about the perception of the treatment was included. The data collection phase of the study ran from 24 May to 27 June 2024. Data was collected through convenience sampling. The survey link was distributed by the authors via mail and social media platforms. Sample An a priori power analysis using G*Power was conducted to determine the required sample size. The analysis was based on an expected medium effect size (f2 = 0.15), an alpha level of 0.05, and a desired statistical power of 0.95. The power analysis indicated that a minimum sample size of 176 participants would be needed to detect a statistically significant effect with sufficient power. A total of 203 people were surveyed, resulting in n = 186 completed questionnaires. To ensure data quality, cases were excluded due to incorrectly answered control questions. Furthermore, implausible or inconsistent information was removed. This resulted in an adjusted sample of (n = 178). 259 Natural Born Supporters? The Role ofPersonality Traits forStakeholders' Moral Emotions and… The sample comprises 72 men (40.4%) and 106 women (59.6%). The participants are between 18 and 83years old. (M= 29.32; SD = 10.58). With regard to educational qualifications, the majority of participants had a university degree (N = 74, 41.6%), followed by people with a general higher education entrance qualification (Abitur) (N = 48, 27%). For an overview of the descriptive characteristics of all items and constructs, see Table1. Table 1 Descriptives Source: Authors own work Variables Mean SD Alpha Other-praising emotions 2.92 1.01 0.89 Amazed 3.17 1.11 Thankful 2.87 1.18 Touched 2.71 1.12 Other-condemning emotions 2.30 1.27 0.95 Contempt 2.29 1.37 Anger 2.21 1.33 Distaste 2.39 1.32 Positive consumer responses 2.94 0.97 0.87 I intend to speak well of the company to my friends, family and other people 2.91 1.12 I find it easy to forgive this company for mistakes 2.95 1.03 I identify with the company 2.66 1.21 My characteristics, goals, values and ethical behaviour are in line with those of the company 3.23 1.18 Negative consumer responses 2.14 1.20 0.94 I intend to tell friends, relatives and other people negative things about this company 2.37 1.36 I'm going to complain about the company 2.02 1.28 I would encourage local suppliers or other companies not to do business with this company 2.03 1.28 Issue advocacy 3.03 0.98 0.83 I would put pressure on this company 2.15 1.31 I would express my opinion to friends, family or colleagues 3.64 1.16 I would take part in political discussions 2.67 1.24 I would also take part in collective actions, such as petitions 2.82 1.32 I like or follow an opinion leader on this topic (e.g. an influencer or politician) 2.67 1.33 I vote for a party that is committed to this issue 3.34 1.29 Openness 3.41 1.01 0.77 I am interested in abstract considerations 3.32 1.29 I am passionate about art, music and literature 3.55 1.28 I am original, develop new ideas 3.35 1.11 Neuroticism 2.07 1.02 0.82 I am balanced, not easily upset 2.92 1.23 I am often depressed, downhearted 2.67 1.15 I often worry 3.32 1.19 Extraversion 3.09 0.94 0.74 I am rather quiet 2.82 1.24 I tend to take the lead 3.13 1.11 I am full of energy and zest for action 3.32 1.11 Agreeableness 3.45 0.97 0.76 I am sometimes rude and harsh 3.40 1.31 I am empathetic, warm-hearted 3.70 1.06 I trust others easily 3.26 1.17 Conscientiousness 3.59 1.19 0.59 I am rather messy 3.16 1.37 I am reliable, you can count on me 4.02 1.02 266 E.-L.Rogotzki, C.Rudeloff Herold, M., Joachim, J., Otteni, C. and Vorländer, H. (2023). 2023: Polarisation in Germany and Europe. A study on social division tendencies in ten European countries. Mercator Forum Migration and Democracy Herzberg, M., and C. Rudeloff. 2022. Should your brand take a stand? Comparing the impact of brand activism and CSR on brand equity. Journal of Brand Strategy 11 (3): 248–262. Hibbing, M.V., M. Ritchie, and M.R. Anderson. 2010. Personality and political discussion. Political Behavior 33 (4): 601–624. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s111090109147-4. Hogan, M. (2017, 5 April). Kendall Jenner ad uproar "shows how far Pepsi has fallen," marketing exec says. CNBC. Retrieved 10, 06, 2024, from https:// www. cnbc. com/ 2017/ 04/ 05/ kenda lljenneraduproarshowshowfarpepsihasfallenmarke ter. html Hoppner, J.J., and G.G. Vadakkepatt. 2019. Examining moral authority in the marketplace: A conceptualisation and framework. Journal of Business Research 95: 417–427. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jbusr es. 2018. 07. 045. Hughes, D.J., I.K. Kratsiotis, K. Niven, and D. Holman. 2020. Personality traits and emotion regulation: A targeted review and recommendations. Emotion 20 (1): 63–67. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1037/ emo00 00644. Hydock, C., N. Paharia, and S. Blair. 2020. Should your brand pick a side? How market share determines the impact of corporate political advocacy. Journal of Marketing Research 57 (6): 1135–1151. Jain, K., Sharma, I. and Behl, A. (2021). Voice of the stars-exploring the outcomes of online celebrity activism. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 1–22. John, O.P., L.P. Naumann, and C.J. Soto. 2017. Paradigm shift to the integrative big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In Handbook of personality: Theory and research, 3rd ed., ed. O.P. John, R.W. Robins, and L.A. Pervin, 114–158. New York: The Guilford Press. Jong, J., H. Whitehouse, C. Kavanagh, and J. Lane. 2015. Shared negative experiences lead to identity fusion via personal reflection. PLoS ONE 10 (12): e0145611. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1371/ jour n al. pone. 01456 11. Jost, J.T., B.A. Nosek, and S.D. Gosling. 2008. Ideology: Its resurgence in social, personality, and political psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science 3 (2): 126–136. Klofstad, C.A. 2009. Civic talk and civic participation: The moderating effect of individual predispositions. American Politics Research 37: 856–878. Klostermann, J., C. Hydock, and R. Decker. 2021. The effect of corporate political advocacy on brand perception: An event study analysis. The Journal of Product and Brand Management 31 (5): 780–797. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1108/ jpbm0320213404. Lapsley, D.K., and P.L. Hill. 2009. The development of the moral personality. Personality, identity and character. Explorations in Moral Psychology. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1017/ CBO97 80511 627125. 009. Lee, E., J. Ahn, and Y.J. Kim. 2014. Personality traits and self-presentation at Facebook. Personality and Individual Differences 69: 162–167. Li, Y., and M. Ruzicka. 2022. The big five personality traits and theory of planned behaviour in physical education students. Quality in Sport 8 (3): 11–22. https:// doi. org/ 10. 12775/ qs. 2022. 08. 03. 001. Liu, D., and W.K. Campbell. 2017. The big five personality traits, big two metatraits and social media: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Personality 70: 229–240. Maks-Solomon, C., and J.M. Drewry. 2020. Why do corporations engage in LGBT rights activism? LGBT Employee groups as internal pressure groups. Business and Politics 23 (1): 124–152. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1017/ bap. 2020.5. Matzler, K., S. Bidmon, and S. Grabner-Kräuter. 2006. Individual determinants of brand affect: The role of the personality traits of extraversion and openness to experience. Journal of Product and Brand Management 15 (7): 427–434. Moscato, D., and T. Hopp. 2019. Natural born cynics? The role of personality characteristics in consumer skepticism of corporate social responsibility behaviors. Corporate Reputation Review 22: 26–37. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1057/ s412990180058-3. McGowan, M., E. Shiu, and L.M. Hassan. 2016. The influence of social identity on value perceptions and intention. Journal of Consumer Behaviour 16 (3): 242–253. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1002/ cb. 1627. Mirzaei, A., D.C. Wilkie, and H. Siuki. 2022. Woke brand activism authenticity or the lack of it. Journal of Business Research 139: 1–12. Mondak, J.J., M.V. Hibbing, D. Canache, M.A. Seligson, and M.R. Anderson. 2010. Personality and civic engagement: An integrative framework for the study of trait effects on political behaviour. The American Political Science Review 104 (1): 85–110. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1017/ s0003 05540 99903 59. Mukherjee, S., and N. Althuizen. 2020. Brand activism: Does courting controversy help or hurt a brand? International Journal of Research in Marketing 37 (4): 772–788. https:// doi. or g/ 10. 1016/j. ijresmar. 2020. 02. 008. Mulyanegara, R.C., Y. Tsarenko, and A. Anderson. 2009. The big five and brand personality: Investigating the impact of consumer personality on preferences towards particular brand personality. Journal of Brand Management 16 (4): 234–247. Nauroth, P., M. Gollwitzer, J. Bender, and T. Rothmund. 2015. Social identity threat motivates science-discrediting online comments. PLoS ONE 10 (2): e0117476. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1371/ journ al. pone. 01174 76. Nicholls, S.B., and R.E. Rice. 2017. A dual-identity model of responses to deviance in online groups: Integrating social identity theory and expectancy violations theory. Communication Theory 27 (3): 243–268. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1111/ comt. 12113. Packer, D.J. 2010. The interactive influence of conscientiousness and openness to experience on dissent. Social Influence 5 (3): 202– 219. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 15534 51100 36764 41. Perera, S., Ahangama, S., Perera, I. and Hathnapitiya, S. (2023). Predicting Twitter Hate User Behaviour Using Big Five Personality Traits and Ensemble Machine Learning. In: Coman, A., Vasilache, S. (eds) Social Computing and Social Media. HCII 2023. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 14025. Springer, Cham. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ 978-303135915-6_ 10 Pie Carlo, G., Knight, G. P., Roesch, S. C., Opal, D. and Davis, A. (2014). Personality across cultures: A critical analysis of Big Five research and current directions, In F. T. L. Leong, L. Comas-Díaz, G. C. Nagayama Hall, V. C. McLoyd, and J. E. Trimble (Eds.), APA handbook of multicultural psychology, Vol. 1. Theory and research (pp. 285–298). American Psychological Association. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1037/ 14189015 Pimentel, P.C., M. Bassi-Suter, and S.R. Didonet. 2024. Brand activism as a marketing strategy: An integrative framework and research agenda. Journal of Brand Management 31 (2): 212–234. Prinzie, P., G.J.J. Stams, M. Deković, A.H. Reijntjes, and J. Belsky. 2009. The relations between parents’ Big Five personality factors and parenting: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97 (2): 351. Rammstedt, B., L. Roemer, J. Mutschler, and C. Lechner. 2023. The big five personality dimensions in large-scale surveys: An overview of 25 German data sets for personality research. Personality Science. https:// doi. org/ 10. 5964/ ps. 10769. Rammstedt, B., D. Danner, C.J. Soto, and O.P. John. 2018. Validation of the short and extra-short forms of the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2) and their German adaptations. European Journal of Psychological Assessment. ht tps:// doi. org/ 10. 1027/ 10155759/ a0004 81. 267 Natural Born Supporters? The Role ofPersonality Traits forStakeholders' Moral Emotions and… Raskovic, M. 2020. (Social) identity theory in an era of identity politics: Theory and practice. AIB Insights. https:// doi. org/ 10. 46697/ 001c. 13616. Reed, A. 2002. Social identity as a useful perspective for self-concept–based consumer research. Psychology & Marketing 19 (3): 235–266. Rhodes, R.E., K.S. Courneya, and L.A. Hayduk. 2002. Does personality moderate the theory of planned behavior in the exercise domain? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 24 (2): 120–132. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1123/ jsep. 24.2. 120. Roberts, M.J.D., R. Connolly, J. Conley, and J. Miller. 2023. Digital citizenship and the big five personality traits. Informatics 10 (3): 58. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ infor matic s1003 0058. Roets, A., I. Cornelis, and A. Van Hiel. 2013. Openness as a predictor of political orientation and conventional and unconventional political activism in western and eastern Europe. Journal of Personality Assessment 96 (1): 53–63. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 00223 891. 2013. 809354. Rudeloff, C., and H. Amin. 2023. Does it pay to polarise? The impact of brand activism on brand perceptions and purchase intentions in entrepreneurial marketing. Journal of Digital and Social Media Marketing 11 (1): 69–78. Rudeloff, C., and J. Bruns. 2024. Effectiveness of femvertising communications on social media: How brand promises and motive attributions impact brand equity and endorsement outcomes. Corporate Communications: An International Journal. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1108/ CCIJ0320240041. Russo, S., and E. Amnå. 2016. The personality divide: Do personality traits differentially predict online political engagement? Social Science Computer Review 34 (3): 259–277. Sagiv, L., S. Roccas, and O. Hazan. 2012. Identification with groups: The role of personality and context. Journal of Personality 80 (2): 345–374. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1111/j. 14676494. 2011. 00733.x. Sameeni, M.S., F. Qadeer, W. Ahmad, and R. Filieri. 2024. An empirical examination of brand hate influence on negative consumer behaviors through NeWOM intensity. Does consumer personality matter? Journal of Business Research 173: 114469. Schmidt, H.J., N. Ind, F. Guzmán, and E. Kennedy. 2021. Sociopolitical activist brands. Journal of Product and Brand Management 31 (1): 40–55. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1108/ jpbm0320202805. Seth, U., and H. Soch. 2024. Coping mechanism beyond brand forgiveness: Do individual personality traits matter among online shoppers? Journal of Product and Brand Management 33 (6): 633–653. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1108/ JPBM0320234386. Sun, J., K. Stevenson, R. Kabbani, B. Richardson, and L.D. Smillie. 2017. The pleasure of making a difference: Perceived social contribution explains the relation between extraverted behavior and positive affect. Emotion 17 (5): 794–810. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1037/ emo00 00273. Swaminathan, V., and U. Kubat Dokumaci. 2021. Do all, or only some personality types engage in spreading negative WOM? An experimental study of negative WOM, big 5 personality traits and brand personality. Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science 31 (3): 260–272. Taber, K.S. 2017. The use of Cronbach’s Alpha when developing and reporting research instruments in science education. Research in Science Education 48 (6): 1273–1296. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s111650169602-2. Tajfel, H., and J. Turner. 1979. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In The social psychology of intergroup relations, ed. W.G. Austin and S. Worchel, 33–48. Brooks/Cole. Tajfel, H., and J.C. Turner. 1986. The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In In Psychology of intergroup relations, ed. S. Worchel and W.G. Austin, 7–24. Chicago. Tangney, J.P., J. Stuewig, and D.J. Mashek. 2007. Moral emotions and moral behaviour. Annual Review of Psychology 58 (1): 345– 372. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annur ev. psych. 56. 091103. 070145. Van Doorn, J., M. Zeelenberg, and S.M. Breugelmans. 2014. Anger and prosocial behaviour. Emotion Review 6 (3): 261–268. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 17540 73914 523794. Vredenburg, J., S. Kapitan, A. Spry, and J.A. Kemper. 2020. Brands taking a stand: Authentic brand activism or woke washing? Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 39 (4): 444–460. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1177/ 07439 15620 947359. Wannow, S., M. Haupt, and M. Ohlwein. 2023. Is brand activism an emotional affair? The role of moral emotions in consumer responses to brand activism. Journal of Brand Management 31 (2): 168–192. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1057/ s4126202300326-9. Xie, C., R.P. Bagozzi, and K. Grønhaug. 2015. The role of moral emotions and individual differences in consumer responses to corporate green and non-green actions. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 43 (3): 333–356. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1007/ s117470140394-5. Xie, C., R.P. Bagozzi, and K. Grønhaug. 2019. The impact of corporate social responsibility on consumer brand advocacy: The role of moral emotions, attitudes, and individual differences. Journal of Business Research. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. jbusr es. 2018. 07. 043. Yadav, A. 2024. When personalities collide: Examining the impact of consumer and brand personalities’ interplay on brand hate development. Journal of Product and Brand Management 33 (4): 460–476. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1108/ JPBM0120234307. YouGov. (2017, April 11). Pepsi recovering slowly after pulling Kendall Jenner ad. YouGov. https:// toda y. yougov. com/ consu mer/ artic les/ 17985pepsirecov eringslowlypulli ngkenda lljennerad Zhao, H., and S.E. Seibert. 2006. The big five personality dimensions and entrepreneurial status: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Applied Psychology 91 (2): 259–271. Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Emily‑Louise Rogotzki is an independent consultant advising companies on brand management and marketing strategies. She holds a Master’s degree in Brand Management from the Macromedia University of Applied Sciences. Her research interests lie in brand management and social media marketing. Christian Rudeloff is a professor of media and brand management at Macromedia University of Applied Sciences. He received his PhD from the University of Hamburg. Prior to his academic career, he worked as a senior communications consultant and corporate communications manager. Mr Rudeloff’s current research interests are brand management, strategic communication, and entrepreneurship.