Scurvy on John Davis' voyage (1591-1593)

Scurvy on John Davis’ voyage (1591-1593) by Harri Hemilä John Davis was one of Queen Elizabeth I’s chief navigators. During one of his sea voyages, many crew members developed symptoms consistent with scurvy. This document extracts the relevant textual sections and discusses their interpretation. Biographies: “John Davis was one of the chief navigators of Queen Elizabeth I of England. He led several voyages to discover the Northwest Passage and served as pilot and captain on both Dutch and English voyages to the East Indies. He discovered the Falkland Islands in August 1592.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Davis_(explorer) https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Davis The earliest recorded occurrence of scurvy on long sea voyages appears to have been during Vasco da Gama’s first voyage to India.1 Scurvy also afflicted the crew on Magellan’s circumnavigation of the globe.2 Thereafter, large numbers of sailors suffered from the disease throughout the Age of Sail. 3, 4 The earliest occurrence of scurvy on long sea voyages seems to be on Vasco da Gama’s first voyage to India. Scurvy occurred also on Magellan’s voyage round the world. Thereafter a large number of sailors suffered from scurvy during the age of sail. Yellow is used to indicate more important sections such as the symptoms of scurvy. This text is available at: https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.17884409 2025-12-10 This annotated version was prepared by: Harri Hemilä, University of Helsinki, Finland https://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/hemila https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4710-307X https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=hemila+h https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=2mkomzUAAAAJ https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17085738 Reports on scurvy uploaded to Zenodo by Harri Hemilä. 1https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17781205 2https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1806596 https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74723 p.64-65 3https://archive.org/details/treatiseonscurvy1772lind/page/n5/mode/2up 4https://www.cambridge.org/fi/universitypress/subjects/history/history-medicine/history-scurvy-and-vitamin-c 1 In his authoritative book “The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C”, Kenneth Carpenter (1986) summarizes the symptoms reported on the voyage by John Davies as follows: With the defeat of Spain, British sailors started on new adventures. The first, led again by Thomas Candish, was disastrous. They missed the best season for passing through the Straits, the ships were separated, and Candish died on the way back across the Atlantic. John Davis’s ship, the Dainty, got through the Straits only to be driven back, and the crew rested on the Argentine coast; the narrator went on: “In this place we found a herbe called scurvygrass, which we fried with eggs, using train oil instead of butter. This herbe did so purge the blood, that it took away all kinds of swellings, of which many died, and restored us all to perfect health of body, so that we were in as good a case as when we came first out of England.” 5 “Scurvy grass” can mean the spoonwort Cochlearia curiosa, or officinalis, or cresses such as Cardamine glacialis and hirsuta. Train oil was obtained by boiling the carcasses of seals and skimming it off. While in the same harbor, they killed and dried 20,000 penguins. A storm blew up, and they finally embarked only (!) 14,000. They planned to make their stock of food last them for a six-month voyage home; it worked out to include a ration of 1¼ penguins per head per day. Unfortunately, as the sailors went through the Tropics, the inadequately dried and salted birds began to corrupt and harbor loathsome-looking worms. After crossing the Equator, the men began to fall sick of a monstrous disease: for in their ankles it began to swell, from thence in two days it would be in their breasts, so that they could not draw their breath, and then fell into their cods, and their cods and yardes did swell most grievously and most dreadfully to behold, so that they could neither stand, lie, nor go. Whereupon … divers grew raging mad, and some died in most loathsome and furious pain. … To be short, all our men died except sixteen of which there were but five able to move.6 Davis and the survivors just managed to bring the ship to the Irish coast and run her ashore. Obviously this disease was not scurvy. It has been suggested that it was caused by a parasitic infestation or, more probably, that it was a form of beriberi.7 Carpenter does not give any arguments, why the described symptoms would not be scurvy, instead he refers to Creighton’s earlier text,7 see the next page. 5 Carpenter ref. 48: A. H. Markham (1980b), 122 https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181682/page/n235/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.46971/page/n235/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/voyagesandworks00wriggoog/page/122/mode/2up 6 Carpenter ref. 50: A. H. Markham (1980b), 126-7 https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181682/page/n239/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.46971/page/n239/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/voyagesandworks00wriggoog/page/126/mode/2up 7 Carpenter ref. 51: Creighton (1891), 593. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17882745 https://archive.org/details/historyofepidemi01unse/page/592/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/historyofepidemi01crei/page/592/mode/2up 2 Charles Creighton’s (1891) description and discussion of symptoms on John Davies voyage:8 The narrative (by John Lane), then follows the fortunes of one of the ships, the ‘Desire.’ Landing at Port Desire, in Patagonia, they found scurvy-grass growing, which they ate with oil: “This herb did so purge the blood that it took away all kind of swellings, of which many [had] died, and restored us to perfect health of body, so that we were in as good case as when we came first out of England.” There also they took on board 14,000 penguins, which they had dried on the rocks, mostly without salt; and sailed northwards on December 22. With only 27 men surviving out of 76, they left the coast of Brazil at Cape Frio (near Rio de Janeiro), and then began their more singular experience of disease. “After we came near unto the sun, our dried penguins began to corrupt, and there bred in them a most loathsome and ugly worm of an inch long. This worm did mightily increase, and devour our victuals;” it devoured everything except iron,— clothes, boots, shirts, even the ship's timbers! “In this woeful case, after we had passed the equinoctial toward the North, our men began to fall sick of such a monstrous disease as I think the like was never heard of: for in their ankles it began to swell, from thence in two days it would be in their breasts, so that they could not draw their breath, and then fell into their cods, and their cods9 and yardes10 did swell most grievously and most dreadfully to behold, so that they could neither stand, lie, nor goe. Whereupon our men grew mad with grief. Our captain [John Davis] with extreme anguish of his soul was in such woeful case that he desired only a speedy end, and though he were scarce able to speak for sorrow, yet he persuaded them to patience For all this, divers grew raging mad, and some died in most loathsome and furious pain. It were incredible to write our misery as it was; there was no man in perfect health but the captain, and one boy… To be short, all our men died except sixteen [i.e., eleven died of the survivors after Cape Frio] of which there were but five able to move.” Those five worked the ship into Berehaven (Bantry Bay) on June 11, 1593, and there ran her ashore. The remarkable epidemic on board the ‘Desire,’ among men living upon dried penguin infested with worms, was probably not scurvy, or at least not all scurvy: the dropsy and dyspnœa suggest one of the two forms of beri-beri, of a peculiarly severe type. The co-existence of worms in the dried food may lead one to think of a parasitic malady such as that caused by Anchylostoma duodenale, which has also an anasarcous or oedematous character. But the diagnosis of beri-beri appears to be far more likely. 8 A history of epidemics in Britain by Creighton, Charles (1891), p.592-593. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17882745 https://archive.org/details/historyofepidemi01unse/page/592/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/historyofepidemi01crei/page/592/mode/2up https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001559476 9 Cods. Testicles. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cod 10 Yardes. Penis. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C8%9Derde#Middle_English 3 Creighton’s proposal that the described symptoms were “probably not scurvy” is not reasonable. First, on p.593-594, Creighton writes: “in the next that we come to, the sickness on board the ‘Daintie,’ Richard Hawkins master, on a voyage in 1593 through the Straits of Magellan, the disease is typical scurvy; and the observations on sea-scurvy by Hawkins himself are among the best that we have for the period, and, indeed, until long after the Elizabethan period.” Thereafter follows Creighton’s extract from Hawking’s journey: “My company within a few days began to fall sick of a disease which seamen are wont to call the scurvie; and seemeth to be a kind of dropsie, … causeth a general swelling of all parts of the body, especially of the legs, and gums…” Creighton is illogical in arguing that the symptoms on Davis’ voyage were not scurvy, since there was dropsy,11 when he argues simultaneously that the symptoms of scurvy described by Hawkins are among the best when Hawkins describes dropsy as a major symptom of scurvy. Second, swelling of testicles [cods] was described also by Van der Mye in the siege of Breada (1624, p.348 in James Lind’s summary):12 “Watery swellings of the testicles were frequent.” Thus, “their cods … did swell” is consistent with certain other scurvy reports. Third, scurvy can cause heart failure,13 which can partly explain swelling and dyspnea. However, in some contexts vitamin C can also reduce bronchoconstriction directly,14 and thereby might also cause dyspnea. Fourth, pain is a typical symptom of scurvy.15 Fifth, beri-beri is caused by thiamine deficiency. Meat is a good source of thiamine and even though the Penguin meat was spoiled during the voyage, there is no basis to assume that the intake of thiamine was nil by the members of the voyage. In contrast, without intake of plant sources, the intake of vitamin C is nil in the long sea voyages. Evidently, eating the spoiled meat can lead to other diseases together with scurvy. Thus, the comment “not all scurvy” by Creighton is sound. 11 Dropsy. The historical diagnosis of dropsy – which is now obsolete – indicated simply an abnormal accumulation of fluid. The word derives from the Greek hydrops (water). Alternative or supplementary terms included hydrothorax (fluid in the chest cavity), ascites (which still indicates excess free fluid in the abdominal cavity), anasarca (still used to describe generalized edema throughout the body). https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521332866.101 An ancient medical term used to indicate different conditions including chronic heart failure. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2017.07.104 12 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17225428 https://archive.org/details/b30511902/page/348/mode/2up Lind 1772) 13 Scurvy can cause heart failure, which can cause swellings and dyspnea, e.g. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38504249 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35282368 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38464798 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27682441 14 Vitamin C can reduce bronchoconstriction in some contexts, e.g. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24279478 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25788952 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23794586 15 Pain in the legs is a common symptom of scurvy. e.g. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17455962 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10685194 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15797491 4 Therefore, the conclusion in this report is that the symptoms described on John Davis’ voyage are symptoms of scurvy. These below are the sections of the voyage by John Davis that describe the symptoms. The voyages and works of John Davis, the navigator, p. 121-122, 126-128 https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.46971/page/n239/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181682/page/n239/mode/2up https://archive.org/details/voyagesandworks00wriggoog/page/126/mode/2up https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=aeu.ark:/13960/t0rr29d3h&seq=249 At their returne they sent the boate to the Isle of Penp.121 guins; whereby wee understood that the Penguins dryed to our hearts content, and that the multitude of them was infinite. This Penguin hath the shape of a bird, but hath no wings, only two stumps in the place of wings, by which he swimmeth under water with as great swiftnes as any fish. They live upon smelts, whereof there is great abundance upon this coast: in eating they be neither fish nor flesh: they lay great egs, and the bird is of a reasonable bignes, very neere twise so big as a ducke. All the time that wee p.122 were in this place, we fared passing well with egs, Penguins, yong Seales, yong Gulles, besides other birds, such as I know not: of all which we had great abundance. In this place we found an herbe called Scurvygrasse,16 which wee fried with egs, using traine oyle17 in stead of butter. This herbe did so purge ye blood, that it tooke away all kind of swellings, of which many died, and restored us to perfect health of body, so that we were in as good case as when we came first out of England. We stayed in this harbour until the 22 of December, in which time we had dried 20,000 Penguins; and the Captaine, the Master, and myselfe, had made some salt, by laying salt water upon the rocks in holes, which in 6 daies would be kerned. Thus God did feed us even, as it were, with Manna from heaven. The 22 of December we departed with our ship for the Isle, where with great difficulty, by the skilful industry of our Master we got 14,000 of our birds, and had almost lost our captaine in labouring to bring the birds aboord: and had not our Master bene very expert in the set of those 16 Note in the text: Cochlearia Officinalis, a cruciferous plant. It is supposed to be an excellent antiscorbutic, and is much used in cases of scurvy by the natives of Greenland and other northern regions. It grows in great quantities in the Arctic zone, usually about 200 feet above the level of the sea, flowering from June to August. 17 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whale_oil https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/train_oil 5 wicked tides, which run after many fashions, we had also lost our ship in the same place: but God of his goodnes hath in all our extremities bene our protector. So the 22, at night, we departed with 14,000 dried Penguins, not being able to fetch the rest, and shaped our coarse for Brasil. … But after we came neere unto the sun, our dried Penp.126 guins began to corrupt, and there bred in them a most lothand ugly worme of an inch long. This worme did so mightily increase and devoure our victuals, that there was in reason no hope how we should avoide famine, but be devoured of these wicked creatures: there was nothing that they did not devoure, only yron excepted: our clothes, boots, shooes, hats, shirts, stockings: and, for the ship, they did so eat the timbers as that we greatly feared they would undoe us by gnawing through the ships side. Great was the care and diligence of our captaine, master, and company to consume these vermine, but the more we laboured to kill them the more they increased; so that at the last we could not sleepe for them, for they would eate our flesh and bite like Mosquitos. In this wofull case, after we had passed the Equinoctiall toward the North, our men began to fall sick of such a monstrous disease, as I thinke the like was never heard of: for in their ankles it began to swell; from thence in two daies it would be in their breasts, so that they could not draw their breath, and then fell into their cods; and their cods and yardes did swell most grievously and most dreadfully to behold, so that they could neither stand, lie, nor goe. Whereupon our men grew mad with griefe. Our captaine with extreme anguish p.127 of his soule was in such wofull case that he desired only a speedie end, and though he were scarce able to speake for sorrow, yet he perswaded them to patience, and to give God thankes, and, like dutifull children, to accept of his chastisement. For all this, divers grew raging mad, and some died in most lothsome and furious paine. It were incredible to write our misery as it was: there was no man in perfect health but the captaine and one boy. The master being a man of good spirit with extreme labour bore out his griefe, so that it grew not upon him. To be short, all our men died except 16, of which there were but 5 able to moove. The captaine was in good health, the master indifferent, captaine Cotton and myselfe swolne and short winded, yet better then the rest that were sicke, and one boy in health: 6 upon us 5 only the labour of the ship did stand.18 The captaine and master, as occasion served, would take in and heave out the top sailes, the master onely attended on the sprit-saile, and all of us at the capsten without sheats and tacks. In fine, our miserie and weaknesse was so great, that we could not take in nor heave out a saile: so our top-saile and sprit-sailes were torne all in pieces by the weather. The master and captaine taking their turnes at the helme, were mightily distressed and monstrously grieved with the most wofull lamentation of our sick men. Thus, as lost wanderers upon the sea, the 11 of June, 1593, it pleased God that we arrived at Bear-haven in Ireland, and there ran the ship on shore: where the Irish men helped us to take in our sailes, and to more our ship for flooting; which slender p.128 paines of theirs cost the captaine some ten pounds before he could have the ship in safetie. Thus, without victuals, sailes, men, or any furniture, God onely guided us into Ireland, where the captaine left the master and three or four of the company to keepe the ship: and within 5 dayes after he and certaine others had passage in an English fisher-boat to Padstow in Cornewall. In this maner our small remnant by Gods onely mercie were preserved, and restored to our countrey, to whom be all honour and glory, world without end. 18 Note in the text: Sixty out of seventy-six men perished during this disastrous voyage. It is a remarkable and noteworthy fact, that the four men who suffered least were officers who lived together in the cabin, and we may safely infer that the boy here alluded to as remaining in good health, was the cabin-boy or attendant of the officers, and therefore lived aft, and presumably on better fare and in a better atmosphere than the seamen. 7