Measuring office productivity

McDonald, T.; Con a h, D. W. A icle Measu ing o ice p oduc i i y Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: McDonald, T.; Con a h, D. W. (1989) : Measu ing o ice p oduc i i y, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 20, Iss. 2, pp. 47-51, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 20i2.939 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/218016 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(2) 47 Measu ing o ice p oduc i i y T. McDonald* Depa men o Compu e Science, Uni e si y o he O ange F ee S a e, P.O. Box 339, Bloem on ein, 9300 Republic o Sou h A ica D. W. Con a h Depa men o Managemen Sciences, Uni e si y o Wa e loo, Wa e loo, On a io, Canada !dany o ga~iza ions o~a>' a e cau~h in he g ip o a se e e p oduc i i y c isis. I he e is an u gen need o imp o e o ice p od':1c 1 1 y, h~ ~ 1s also a need o be able o measu e p oduc i i y in a sui able way. All he mea~u ~s o o al o ice p oduc 1 1 y ha ha e been ound in he li e a u e, ei he do no say how o measu e he quah a 1 e aspec~s o he ou pu o h?w he quan i a i e and quali a i e aspec s a e o be combined. In his pape . a measu e 1s p oposed ha conside s bo h he e ec i eness (quali y and imeliness) and e iciency aspec s o o ice ou pu . An o e all composi e p oduc i i y index is p o ided. We eel ha he p oposed measu e is an ad ance o e cu en me hods o measu ing o ice p oduc i i y. Baie o ~a~is~sies is andag asge ~ng in 'n e ns ige p oduk iwi ei sk isis. Saam me die ems ige behoe e om p oduk 1w e1 e e be e , gaan die behoe e om p oduk iwi ei op 'n geskik e wyse e mee . Die bes aande maa s awe an p oduk iwi ei in 'n kan oo omgewing neem nie die kwali a iewe aspek e an die a oe , o die wyse waa olgens die kwali a iewc en kwan i a iewe aspek e gekombinee moe wo d, in ag nie. In hie die a ikel wo d 'n maa s a oo ges el wa beide die kwali a iewe en kwan i a iewe aspek e an die a oe an 'n kan oo in ag neem. 'n Algehele saamges elde p oduk iwi ei sindeks wo d e ska . Die ge oel is da die oo ges elde maa s a 'n e be e ing is op huidige me odes om p oduk iwi ei in die kan oo omgewing e mee . • To whom co espondence should be add essed In oduc ion Many o ganiza ions oday a e caugh in he g ip o a se e e p oduc i i y c isis. One o he easons o his is he con inually ising cos s associa ed wi h he whi e colla wo k- o ce. Some economis s o ecas ha i o ice cos s a e allowed o con inue ising a he cu en a es, hey will double in he nex six yea s (CPRG, 1981). Nobody in business can abso b such an inc ease. Su eys conduc ed in he U.S. (Ab aham, 1981) show ha he cos o compensa ing o ice wo ke s accoun o mo e han hal o he cos s o o ices. O hese compensa ion cos s, mo e han 75% a e a ibu ed o he p incipals -execu i es, manage s, and p o essionals. I is ob ious whe e p oduc i i y imp o emen is mos needed. I hese ising cos s do no go hand in hand wi h p oduc i i y imp o emen , he consequences would be high in la ion, high unemploymen , and a gene ally lowe s anda d o li ing. This p esen s a eal challenge o managemen oday. O ice suppo echnology (e.g. elec onic mail, elecon e encing, decision suppo sys ems, managemen in o ma ion sys ems, e c.) is being in oduced o help mee his p oduc i i y challenge. The e is widesp ead ag eemen among leade s in he in o ma ion p ocessing indus y ha his echnology is essen ial o imp o ing he p oduc i i y o o ganiza ions, and ha hose o ganiza ions ha expec o ha e a a ou able compe i i e and economic posi ion in he coming yea s mus ake ad an age o i (Diebold, 1980). I he e is an u gen need o imp o e p oduc i i y, he e is also a need o be able o measu e p oduc i i y in a sui able way. A a minimum one needs o jus i y he in oduc ion o o ice suppo sys ems. Many a emp s a e epo ed in he li e a u e. Measu es o p oduc i i y ha e adi ionally ocused on manu ac u ing. These ha e been designed o measu e he quan i a i e aspec s o he ou pu , and a e only app op ia e o lowe -le el s anda dized o ice asks. Fo mo e complex and S"1bjec i e asks such as hose o he p incipals, quan i a i e measu es alone a e insu icien . We need measu es ha in ol e he quali a i e aspec s as well, conside ing he na u e o many o ice asks. Wha we equi e is he abili y o measu e o al o ice p oduc i i y. As ye , he e exis s no me hodology o measu e o ice p oduc i i y in such a comp ehensi e way. All he measu es o o al o ice p oduc i i y ha ha e been ound in he li e a u e, ei he do no say how o measu e he quali a i e aspec s o he ou pu o how he quan i a i e and quali a i e aspec s a e o be combined. This pape is an a emp o o e come his de iciency. Be o e ou p oposed me hod is gi en, exis ing p oduc i i y measu emen s will be e iewed and hei sho comings discussed. De ini ions o p oduc i i y T adi ionally, p oduc i i y is de ined as he a io o ou pu s o inpu s (S assman, 1981). Ou pu P oduc i i y =---- Inpu This way is use ul when he o ice en i onmen and job unc ions emain unal e ed be o e and a e he in oduc ion o o ice equipmen . 'I nei he he inpu s no he ou pu s a e in any way al e ed quali a i ely, hen a dec ease in he cos o inpu (e.g. labou sa ings) o an inc ease in he a e o ou pu (e.g. p oduc ion 48 imp o emen ) will yield a posi i e inc ease in p oduc i i y' (S assman, 1981). ~ecause a w~ll- conduc ed design and implemen a ion o an_ o~ 1ce suppo sys em will mos su ely change. an_ o gamza 10~, in a quan i a i e as well as a quah a J e way, ~1s app oach is no app op ia e o measu e o al o ice p oduc i i y. . . The abo e de ini ion conside s only he e 1c1ency aspec s o he p oduc i i y. A possible way o emedy his is o de ine p oduc i i y as (CPRG, 1981): P oduc i i y = E iciency x E ec i eness E ec i eness as used in he abo e o mula is conside ed o be 'doing he igh hing'. E iciency is conside ed o be 'how well we a e doing wha e e i is ha we do'. E iciency and e ec i eness a e measu ed on a scale o 1 - 10 by means o ques ions o he o m: ' how e ec i e/e icien do you hink you d;~~~men is now?' (CPRG, 1981). This su ely is much oo subjec i e o be o much alue o managemen . Tapsco (Tapsco , 1982) has indica ed ha o iew p oduc i i y as simply a ela ionship be ween he quan i y o he inpu and he quan i y o he ou pu wi hin a gi en p oduc ion uni is no su icien . He obse ed ha he p oduc s o o ice wo k can be imp o ed bo h in e ms o hei quan i y (e iciency) and quali y (e ec i eness). Tha is: P oduc i i y Ou pu (quan i y and quali y) Inpu (quan i y) This o mula has bo h e iciency and e ec i eness dimensions, which we eel is a mo e in he igh di ec ion. Howe e , Tapsco gi es no indica ion o how o measu e he quali y o he ou pu , no how he quan i y and quali y should be combined. He shey (1982) de ined o ice p oduc i i y as: 'yielding use ul, needed, and high-quali y p oduc s o se ices wi hin an accep able ime pe iod, while minimizing use o capi al and pe sonnel esou ces and conside ing he a ec o in e ela ed ac i i ies and pe sonnel upon each o he '. He conside ed his as a measu e o o al e ec i eness a he han e iciency. He ga e no indica ion o how o compu e he p oduc i i y om his de ini ion, no how o measu e he e ec i eness ac o s. Ke inge (1983) p oposed ha wo ypes o ou pu indica o s should be de eloped. The i s is he adi ional me hod o p oduc i i y, o be used when s udying quan i a i e ou pu . The second is an o e all e ec i eness c i e ia ha should be used when s udying hose o ice p oduc s and se ices whose alue is mo e subjec i e. Howe e , hese issues should no be sepa a ed. The quali a i e aspec s should be aken in o conside a ion when compu ing any so o index o o ice p oduc i i y. E e e , He schaue & Ruch (19~1) p oposed a S. -A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1989 ,20(2) quan i y p oduc i i y a io ( he adi ional p oduc i i y a io o labou ou pu o e labou inpu ) and a quali y p oduc i i y a io o he o m: Quali y-p oduc i i y = A pU + cE Whe e A = numbe o uni s accep able and ee o e o s; U = numbe o uni s p ocessed; E = numbe o uni s subjec o co ec ion p ocedu es; p = p ocessing cos pe uni ; and c = cos pe uni o co ec ion p ocessing. In his o m he dimensions a e he numbe o 'good' uni s p oduced pe dolla spen o p oduce and co ec . E en hough his o mula p o ides o quali y measu emen , i has applica ion only in a ma ke o p oduc ion en i onmen whe e 'accep able' uni s can easily be iden i ied. This is a ely he case o he ou pu o mos o ices. The e he ou pu s a e mos ly accep able e en hough hey could ha e been 'be e '. S assman (1981) sugges ed ha in o ma ion p oduc i i y has wo meanings. One add~esses h.e in e nal e iciency wi h which a s anda d o ice ask 1s ca ied ou . The o he is e ec i eness, which is de e mined by he pe o mance, quali y, esponsi eness, and igh scope o he ou pu . The e ec i eness p oduc i i y is compu ed as he a io o alue added o o e head labou cos s. Value added is measu ed by emo ing om o al sales e enue all hose expenses ha ep esen pu chases. E en hough he e ec i eness p oduc i i y measu e is aluable by i sel , i is used sepa a e om he e iciency measu e. Tho (1983) sugges ed ha he nominal g oup echnique be used o design p oduc i i y measu es. By weigh ing he di e en measu es ound in his way, an o e all, composi e p oduc i i y measu emen index can be cons uc ed. Some o he componen s o his index migh be ep esen a i e o quali y, imeliness, and o he ac o s ha canno be included in a aw e iciency measu e. The idea o a composi e index is in e es ing and will be adop ed by ou p oposed measu e as well. The only p oblem wi h he wo k o Tho is ha he is cons uc ing an o e all pe o mance index and no a p oduc i i y index. S abell (1982) p oposed a amewo k based on mic o- economic p oduc ion heo y o empi ical esea ch on he e ec s o o ice echnology. The o ice is seen as an in o ma ion-p ocessing ac i i y. In o ma ion p ocessing is con as ed o ealiza ion ac i i ies, and he i m is de ined as a se o in o ma ion-p ocessing and ealiza ion ac i i ies. The echnical e iciency (a measu e o he deg ee o which a i m is p oducing acco ding o bes p ac ice) o ealiza ion ac i i ies is p oposed as a measu e o o ice p oduc i i y. This e iew co e s, o he bes o ou knowledge, mos o he o ice p oduc i i y measu es ha a e epo ed in he li e a u e. They a e aluable in ha hey show di e en aspec s ha one migh conside when measu ing p oduc i i y. To summa ize: a comp ehensi e S.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989.20(2) measu emen echnique should measu e bo h e iciency and e ec i eness ac o s. The e ec i eness ac o s conce n (e.g. see He shey, 1982): quali y, imeliness, use ulness, need, and in e uni impac . All he ac o s should be combined in o one o mula o gi e an o e all p oduc i i y measu emen . As ye , no such o mula exis s. In wha ollows an a emp is made o de elop such a measu e o o al o ice p oduc i i y. P oposed measu e The ollowing o mula is sugges ed as a measu e o o al o ice p oduc i i y: P oduc i i y =----- To al cos s Whe e i goes om one o he o al numbe o di e en ou pu s; N; = quan i y o ou pu i; Q; = weigh o he quali y ac o o ou pu i; T; = weigh o he imeliness ac o o ou pu i; W; = weigh o change o dolla s he alue o ou pu i. I is clea om he abo e o mula ha bo h he e iciency and e ec i eness ac o s a e conside ed. Only quali y and imeliness as measu es o e ec i eness a e included, al hough he o mula can be ex ended o include o he quali a i e measu es as well. The eason why ac o s such as use ulness, need, and in e uni impac a e excluded is ha hey a e likely o be s ongly co ela ed wi h quali y and imeliness. Fo example, ou pu o low quali y ypically is useless; ou pu ha is no ecei ed in ime is no likely o be needed any mo e, and he in e uni impac is mos p obably ela ed o he quali y and imeliness o he ou pu . Fu he mo e, ou use o he weigh s in he p oduc i i y o mula implies ha he 'modi ie s' be independen o each o he . I hey a e no , hei in e dependence would ha e o be ac o ed ou , which in u n would esul in subs an ial p oblems o measu emen . The e ec i eness ac o s a e used o weigh he e iciency ac o . The pu pose o hese weigh s a e o inc ease/dec ease he p oduc i i y when he e is an imp o emen /de e io a ion in he quali y o imeliness o he ou pu , gi en ha all o he ac o s s ay he same. An o ice can be wo king e y e icien ly, ye be comple ely ine ec i e a he same ime (Tapsco , 1982). Many examples can be gi en o demons a e his poin , bu one will su ice. Conside a Managemen In o ma ion Sys em which gene a es needed managemen epo s. Un o una ely he o ma ing o hese makes ~em di icul o ead· he e a e a lo o da a and ye oo h le , . in o ma ion. We need a measu e ha will e lec his disc epancy. Be o e we p oceed wi h a discussion o how each o he abo e ac o s can be measu ed, we will explain wha is mean by each: -Ou pu s. These a e ' he goods and se ices p oduced o use ou side he uni unde s udy, which a e o deli e y o he use s o he ou pu and which a ~ in ended o achie e di ec ly he pu pose o he um 49 unde s udy' (Mundell. 1983). The ou pu s will be conside ed o be mul i-dimensional. consis ing bo h o e iciency and e ec i eness dimensions. The e iciency dimension is he quan i y o numbe o he ou pu . The e ec i eness dimension consis s o i s quali y and imeliness. -Quali y. This is he deg ee o which a p oduc o se ice con o ms o a se o p ede e mined s anda ds ela ed o he cha ac e is ics ha de e mine i s alue o he ecipien s and i s pe o mance o he unc ion o which i was in ended (E e e . e al .• 1981). -Timeliness. This is he deg ee o which a p oduc o se ice is p o ided when needed o ende a decision. comple e an ope a ion. o ul ill ex e nal obliga ions (He shey, 1982). -Inpu . This is he o al cos in cons an dolla s necessa y o p oduce he ou pu . Included in his a e all cos s incu ed o au oma ion pu poses. Measu emen To speak meaning ully abou he quan i ies o o ice ou pu s poses a non- i ial ask, o we a e in e es ed in mo e han jus p in ed pages o he numbe o in oices p ocessed. Following a p ocedu e sugges ed by Mundell (1983), o ice ou pu s can be iden i ied by means o a hie a chical delinea ion o he objec i es o an o ganiza ion. This is con inued h ough lowe and lowe o de s un il con enien sized ou pu s, which a e p oduced o use ou side he o ganiza ion, a e ob ained. Fo a comple e discussion o his me hod and some case s udies whe e i has been applied, he eade is e e ed o Mundell (1983). Once he ou pu s a e iden i ied, a coun ing sys em can be ins alled a he place whe e he ou pu s lea e he bounda ies o he o ganiza ion. As men ioned ea lie . he. a io o he numbe o accep able ou pu s o he o al numbe p oduced is no a sui able measu e o quali y in an o ice en i onmen . Fo ins ance, a badly w i en epo wi h whi e-ou showing in se e al places may be 'accep able·. On he o he hand. a nea and well-w i en epo wi h bold ace whe e needed, nice ables, and g aphs is also accep able. Su ely he second epo is o much highe quali y han he i s . Wha is needed is a measu e o quali y ha will e lec such a di e ence. Bai (1982) s a ed: ' ........... he ul ima e judge o quali y is he ecipien o he end-p oduc s ? he o ganiza ional uni '. He also sugges ed ha quali y can be measu ed by subjec i e judgemen s om he p oduc 's ecipien s. Following his easoning. each ecipien o he ou pu can be asked o a e he quali y o he ou pu by means o a sco e. The ecipien judges he quali y acco ding o a se o p ede e mined s and~ds ela ed o i s alue and he pe o mance o he unc ion o which i was in ended. A sco e o 100 is assumed o be a s anda d sco e. The quali y weigh can he e o e be compu ed by: Q Quali y sco e o ecipien 100 50 I se e al ecipien s ecei e he same ype o ou pu , he mean alue o hei sco e can be used in he o mula abo e. Timeliness is he deg ee o which ou pu is p o ided when needed. I ou pu is p o ided on ime, ha ou pu should ecei e a sco e o 100. Ou pu ecei ed la e would ea n a lowe sco e and ou pu ecei ed ea ly could ea n a highe sco e. This should be judged sepa a ely o e e y di e en ype o ou pu , because i is possible ha ou pu ecei ed ea ly could be a disad an age and ou pu ecei ed la e, migh no be much o a p oblem. I would depend on he i em. The adjus men in he sco e should he e o e be based on he impo ance o he imeliness o ha speci ic ou pu . The imeliness weigh can hen be compu ed by: Timeliness sco e o he ecipien T 100 The ac ual de e mina ion o he weigh s equi es ha he esponden s ( he ecipien s o he 'o ice p oduc ') ea hem as a io measu es. This sugges s ha he ques ions asked ough o e lec his ac . An example o such an app oach would be: -Compa ed o you expec a ions, you s anda ds o wha is app op ia e and accep able, is he quali y o he p oduc ecei ed be e , wo se o he same? I i is ei he be e o wo se, wha pe cen age change would you a ach o his di e ence in i s alue? As examples, is he alue o he p oduc enhanced by 20% because o i s supe io quali y?; o is i wo h 25% less o you because o i s poo quali y?; o is he p oduc 's quali y such ha i s alue is equi alen o ha which you expec and ind app op ia e? So a , we ha e indica ed how o ob ain he quan i y, quali y, and imeliness weigh s o each ype o ou pu . Nex he di e en ou pu s mus be agg ega ed. The ou pu s a e, howe e , mos o en no o one kind and, because we canno add dissimila hings he ou pu s mus be weigh ed in some ashion. Mundell (1983) sugges ed a ious possibili ies: labo hou s anda ds, p o i ma gin, ma ke alue, o o he weigh s a ached o he ou pu . In ou o mula ion, he ou pu s a e di ided by cos s and he e o e cos da a should be used as weigh s. When using dolla alues, special ca e mus be aken because p oduc i i y measu emen s o he same o ganiza ion, aken o e di e en imes, a e usually compa ed. In ha case, he dolla alues mus be educed o 'cons an dolla s'. The las piece o in o ma ion ha is needed o compu e he o e all p oduc i i y is he inpu . As de ined abo e, his mus be o al cos : capi al cos s (including all cos s incu ed o o ice suppo sys ems) and labou cos s. These cos s should be ob ainable om he adminis a ion o accoun ing depa men s. Examples Some hypo he ical examples will be used o illus a e he impac o he e iciency and e ec i eness ac o s on he p oduc i i y calcula ion. S.-A .Tydsk .Bed y sl.1989,20(2) -Conside an o ganiza ion ha makes no in es men in o ice suppo sys ems a all. Howe e , h ough inspi ed leade ship and be e planning some o ganiza ional changes a e made. This esul s in an imp o emen in he quali y o cus ome se ice. O ice p oduc i i y is calcula ed in he manne we ha e sugges ed and i shows an inc ease compa ed o he p oduc i i y calcula ion be o e he o ganiza ional changes. The eason o he inc ease is he highe alue o he quali y ac o weigh . -In he con ex o o ice suppo sys ems, conside one which inc eases o al cos s by 25% ( using a ealis ic and de ailed calcula ion). This is o be done o elimina e he missing o deadlines, which occu s 25% o he ime. And each ime he deadline is missed he alue o he p oduc d ops by 50%. In addi ion, he o e all quali y is expec ed o app ecia e by 10% i he sys em is used. Gi en ha 16 uni s a e p oduced pe week, and ha each is alued a 100 dolla s, and ha cu en cos s a e 1200 dolla s pe week, he be o e and a e p oduc i i y calcula ions a e as ollows: P oduc i i y (be o e) 12 X 1 X 1 X 100 + 4 X 1 X 0,5 X 100 1200 1400 1200 =l,167 16 X 1,1 X 1 X 100 P oduc i i y =-------- (a e ) 1200 x 1,25 1760 1500 =1,173 In o he wo ds, he p oduc i i y is jus abou he same wi h o wi hou he new suppo echnology. This la e example poin s ou ano he ad an age o he p oduc i i y measu e. I p o ides he g oss a e o e u n on o ice expenses, some hing which is o en calcula ed o manu ac u ed p oduc s bu which has been igno ed o o ice wo k. Conclusion The exis ing me hods o measu e o ice p oduc i i y we e e iewed. I appea s ha as ye , no me hodology exis s o measu e o ice p oduc i i y in a comp ehensi e way. Ei he he quali a i e aspec s o he ou pu a e no aken in o conside a ion o hey a e no combined wi h he quan i a i e ac o s. In his pape a measu e was p oposed ha conside s bo h he e ec i eness ( quali y and imeliness) and e iciency aspec s o o ice ou pu . The e ec i eness ac o s a e used o weigh he e iciency ac o . The quali y and imeliness weigh s a e ob ained om sco es p o ided by he ecipien s o he ou pu s. The quan i y o he ou pu s and he quali y and imeliness weigh s a e combined and gi en dolla alues, and hen di ided by s.A .J.Bus.Mgm .1989,20(2) o al cos s, o p o ide an o e all composi e p oduc i i y index. A ew examples we e gi en o demons a e he e ec he e ec i eness ac o s ha e on he measu emen o he p oduc i i y. E en hough he e is s ill much wo k o be done, especially he alida ion o i s use in his ield, we eel he p oposed measu e is an ad ance o e cu en me hods o measu ing o ice p oduc i i y. Re e ences Ab aham, S. M. 1981. The impac o o ice au oma ed sys ems on he p oduc i i y o manage s and p o essionals. AFIPS, O ice Au oma ion Con e ence Diges , 165-175. Bai , J.H. 1982. P oduc i i y assessmen o o ice in o ma ion sys em echnology. In: R. Landau (Ed.), Eme ging O ice Sys ems, Abex Publishing Co po a ion, 159-186. CPRG. 1981. P oduc i i y in he o ice: Pa one - Unde s anding a di icul concep . The Co po a e P oduc i i y Resea ch G oup Inc., To on o, Canada. Diebold. 1980. Measu emen and e alua ion echniques. The Diebold G oup Inc., Pa k A enue Sou h, New Yo k. E e e , E.A .• He scbaue , J.C. & Ruch, W.A. 1981. P oduc i i y and Quali y: Measu emen as a basis o imp o emen . New Je sey: P en ice-Hall. 51 He shey, G.L. 1982. Le quali y coun in p oduc i i y measu emen . Wo d ~ing and In o ma ion Sys ems, p.25. Ke inge , W.J. 1983. Models o o ice p oduc i i y: Wha eally can be expec ed. AFIPS, O ice Au oma ion Con e ence Diges , 31-37. Mundell, M.E. 1983. Imp o ing p oduc i i y and e ec i enas. New Je sey: P en ice-Hall. S abell, C.B. 1982. O ice P oduc i i y: A mic o- economic amewo k o empi ical esea ch. O ice: Technol. People, ol. 1. 91-106. S assman. P.A. 1981. O e iew o S a egic Aspec s o In o ma ion Managemen . AFIPS, O ice Au oma ion Con e ence Diges , 17-28. Tapsco , D. 1982. O ice Au omalion: A use -d i en me hod. New Yo k: Plenum P ess. Tho , C.G. 1983. P oduc i i y Measu emen in whi e colla g oups. In: N. Leh e (Ed.) Whi e Colla P oduc i i y, McG aw-Hill, 29-42.