Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities in Kutama, Zimbabwe

Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 2025 Volume 9 No. 2, 1-33 https://reserds.vsu.edu.ph Research Article *Corresponding author: Emmanuel Ndhlovu, School of Public Management, Governance and Public Policy, University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Email: [email protected] Received: May 30, 2025 | Revised: September 11, 2025 | Accepted: September 19, 2025 © The Authors (2025). This is an open access article (CC BY 4.0 License). WOMEN AND PERMACULTURE: TOWARDS RESILIENT PERIURBAN COMMUNITIES IN KUTAMA, ZIMBABWE Emmanuel Ndhlovu1*, Emelder M. Tagutanazvo2, and Prosper T. Mataruse2 1School of Public Management, Governance and Public Policy, University of Johannesburg, South Africa 2Department of Community and Social Development, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe This article explores a women-led permaculture intervention known as Mapfihwa to reinforce peri-urban resilience in Kutama, Zimbabwe. The intervention falls at the intersection between permaculture and women’s empowerment. The aim was to determine the effectiveness of the permaculture approach. The objectives were to explore the micro-level dynamics and resilience parameters of the Mapfihwa Project in Kutama, Zimbabwe. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods, the project review targeted women participants in the Mapfihwa Project, underpinned by a quasi-experimental approach. Qualitative data captured micro-level dynamics of permaculture, while quantitative data provided descriptive data on resilience parameters such as yield per area, income from the produce, asset base change, and household social mobility. Resilience was further measured through livelihood enhancement amidst socio-ecological challenges faced in the community. The findings suggest that women-led permaculture interventions improve community resilience by reducing food insecurity, revitalizing ecosystems, empowering women, and enhancing sustainable livelihoods in peri-urban Zimbabwe. The article concludes that undertaking women-led permaculture interventions in peri-urban settings improves resilience. The study provides a scalable and replicable community-based permaculture model tailored to the needs of vulnerable women in Zimbabwe. Keywords: Permaculture, women, resilience, peri-urban, food security, agro-ecology JEL Classification codes: Q18, O13, H43 Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 2 1. INTRODUCTION Permaculture, a holistic design approach, offers a promising solution to build resilient peri-urban communities in Zimbabwe (Holmgren, 2002). By promoting agroecological practices, permaculture provides a new way of enhancing biodiversity, improving soil fertility and increasing crop yields, consequently contributing to food security, sustainable livelihoods and community resilience (Ndhlovu, 2018; Rubio, 2023). Moreover, permaculture empowers women farmers to take control of their natural resources, improving their social and economic status (Ferguson & Lovell, 2013). It is a design system for creating sustainable and self-sufficient human settlements, modelled on the patterns and relationships found in natural ecosystems. Its success can be observed in a variety of projects around the world, ranging from small-scale urban gardens to largescale farms and community initiatives. Examples of success stories of permaculture include the Melliodora project in Australia. This project involves a two-acre homestead in Hepburn Springs, Australia, co-owned by David Holmgren, one of the co-originators of permaculture. It is a well-documented and widely known demonstration site. Permaculture is a powerful tool for improving food security and livelihoods in developing countries. A notable example is the work of organizations in Malawi, where permaculture farmers have, on average, better food security, larger dietary diversity, and higher crop yields than conventional farmers. Permaculture systems, with their focus on biodiversity and water conservation, help communities withstand the effects of climate change and environmental degradation. By promoting a variety of crops and livestock, permaculture helps to combat malnutrition. Permaculture projects often empower local communities by teaching them sustainable practices that are tailored to their specific environment and culture. Many permaculture ventures are financially successful without relying solely on teaching or design fees. In Zimbabwe, permaculture has been recognized as a valuable approach to building resilient peri-urban communities (Moyo et al., 2016). However, despite the potential of permaculture, women farmers in Zimbabwe face significant challenges in accessing and utilizing permaculture-based solutions (Pretty, 2002). Limited access to education, training, and resources hinders women's ability to adopt and benefit from permaculture practices (Karekezi et al., 2017). Permaculture, however, faces a range of challenges, from its intensive initial setup to legal and societal barriers. While the system is designed to create self-sustaining ecosystems, the journey to get there often requires significant effort, knowledge, and patience. Permaculture is a complex design system that requires a deep understanding of Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 3 ecology, soil science, water management, and local climate. For a beginner, the amount of research needed to create an effective plan can be overwhelming. The ‘low-maintenance’ promise of a mature permaculture system often comes after a lot of initial hard work. Tasks like building swales, creating terracing, or constructing hugelkultur beds are physically demanding and can be discouraging for those who want quick results. While successful on a small, homestead scale, permaculture faces criticism for not being able to feed a large, global population. Competing with the low costs of industrial agriculture can be difficult, making it challenging for permaculture farms to be financially viable without diverse income streams like education or consulting. Unlike conventional gardening, which yields results in a single season, permaculture systems like food forests take years to mature and become truly productive. This long-term commitment requires a different mindset and a great deal of patience. This article seeks to explore the diagnostic potential of permaculture in contributing to food security efforts in Zimbabwe, a highly foodinsecure country in Southern Africa. This article (i) explores the micro-level dynamics and (ii) examines resilience parameters of the Mapfihwa Project in Kutama, Zimbabwe. The study offers insights for policy makers in Zimbabwe on how to mobilized citizens to ensure household food security. It can also inform donors on the areas to target when working with households engaging in food production activities. Politicians can also find the article interesting, particularly considering Zimbabwe's distribution of farming inputs to farming communities in rural areas. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW The use of permaculture in agriculture With the adoption of permaculture in the 1970s by its proponents Bill Mollison and David Holmgren in the 1970s, permaculture has since been recognized as a holistic design model that incorporates sustainable agricultural practices to address social, economic and environmental aspects of sustainability (Didarali & Gambiza, 2019). LeVasseur (2014) refers to permaculture as a set of design principles centred around simulating or directly utilizing the patterns and features observed in natural ecosystems. Consequently, Mollison and Holmgren (1991) reveal that Australian permaculture practitioners have developed systems integrating native plants, water conservation techniques, and soil regeneration practices. Besides its ability to foster social cohesion, Hemenway (2009) states that permaculture principles in Portland and Los Angeles have been used for food production and community engagement. Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 4 Permaculture Association UK (2021) indicates that European countries have embraced permaculture through educational initiatives that increased awareness of ecological issues among communities. In Australia and the United States, Henfrey (2017) demonstrates the use of permaculture education as ecology of the mind and as a philosophy and practice of celebrating and making practical use of diversity. Fukuoka (1992) postulates that in Asia, permaculture has been integrated into traditional farming practices as the concept of "natural" farming, which emphasizes minimal intervention and working with nature rather than against it. This approach enhances soil fertility and crop resilience (Gliessman, 2013). In Latin America, Gonzalez et al. (2016) observed a rise in permaculture projects to restore ecosystems while providing livelihoods for local communities. Initiatives such as agroforestry systems combine trees with crops to create more resilient agricultural landscapes (ICRAF, 2020). Research by Jackson (2002) shows that these systems significantly increase biodiversity while providing economic benefits to farmers. In Africa, permaculture practices have been instrumental in addressing food insecurity and promoting sustainable land management. For instance, in Sub-Saharan Africa, the World Food Program (2020) has implemented food security and livelihood programs, inclusive of permaculture practices, to empower vulnerable communities to improve their access to food. In addition, permaculture practices such as the keyline design for water management have been practised in Africa to improve agricultural productivity while conserving water (Lawton, 2010). Permaculture Practices in Sub-Saharan Africa ICRAF (2020) observed agroforestry permaculture practices in Kenya, Tanzania, and Malawi as practices that involved integrating trees into agricultural landscapes. In the form of conservation agriculture, permaculture in Zambia and South Africa involves minimizing soil disturbances, maintaining soil cover, and promoting crop rotation to improve soil health and reduce erosion (FAO, 2019). In Ghana, Nigeria, and Ethiopia, permaculture is viewed by CGIAR (2020) as a sustainable intensification that involves improving crop yields and reducing environmental impacts using improved crop varieties, integrated pest management, and precision agriculture. Ecological restoration efforts have been adopted as permaculture practices in Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique, which include restoring degraded lands, promoting biodiversity, and improving ecosystem services (IUCN, 2019; Ndhlovu, 2025). In Uganda and Rwanda, permaculture is termed Climate-smart agriculture by the FAO (2020), which improves agricultural productivity and resilience in the face of climate change. Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 5 Permaculture is based on three core ethics: care for the earth, care for people, and fair share (Holmgren, 2002). In Zimbabwe, these principles are manifested through various practices such as water conservation techniques and organic farming (Ndhlovu, 2024). Research indicates that permaculture can enhance soil fertility and biodiversity while reducing dependency on chemical fertilizers (Altieri, 1999). For instance, integrating bees into agricultural systems improves plant reproduction and provides additional income sources through honey production (Garbuzov, 2015). In Zimbabwe, organizations like Chikukwa Ecological Land Use Community Trust (CELUCT) support community-based permaculture projects, contributing significantly to practitioners' income. The Impact of Permaculture on Food Security in Zimbabwe Due to economic instability and climate change, food security remains a critical issue in Zimbabwe. Studies have shown that permaculture practices can significantly improve food production at the household level. According to Garbuzov (2015), permaculture households reported increased crop yields compared to conventional farming methods. The use of techniques such as companion planting and mulching helps conserve moisture and suppress weeds, which are vital in arid regions of Zimbabwe (Moyo et al., 2019; Ndhlovu, 2017; Ndhlovu & Dube, 2024). Community involvement is essential for the successful implementation of permaculture projects. Various NGOs have initiated training programs aimed at educating farmers about sustainable practices. For example, the Permaculture Research Institute of Zimbabwe has provided workshops that empower local communities with knowledge about ecological farming methods (Altieri, 2002). These educational initiatives enhance agricultural productivity and foster community resilience against climate variability. Women and Permaculture in Zimbabwe In Zimbabwe, Kumar and Quisumbing (2015) observe that women have been empowered to control agricultural activities by their involvement in permaculture practices. By adopting permaculture practices, women have been able to increase their crop yields, improve their food security, and generate income from the sales of their products. Mutopo (2014) postulates that women in areas of Zimbabwe, such as the Mwenezi district, have formed networks and cooperatives to share knowledge on permaculture practices. Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 6 Despite the wide adoption of permaculture at global and local levels, Didarali and Gambiza (2019) state that women in Zimbabwe continue to face challenges in implementing permaculture. This is because they have limited capacity to access land, credit, and markets for their permaculture products. However, the government of Zimbabwe has made initiatives to promote women's access to land, agricultural resources and opportunities to participate in permaculture to improve their livelihoods (World Bank, 2019). The women-led permaculture project, ‘Mapfihwa, supports women in adopting permaculture practices, enhancing their capacity to manage natural resources sustainably, and improving food security. By fostering women's leadership and collective action, this study aims to build resilient rural communities capable of adapting to climate change, poverty, and other challenges. This initiative contributes to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 5 (Gender Equality), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). The study’s outcomes offer valuable insights into the potential of permaculture and women's empowerment to drive transformative change in rural Zimbabwe. 3. METHODOLOGY Research site This study was conducted in Kutama, a drought-prone area in Zvimba District of Mashonaland West Province in Zimbabwe, a low-income area found on the Western boundary of Harare. Its inhabitants survive through informal trading activities at the centre of Harare town. They also thrive on market gardening, a rampant source of household primary food. Agricultural practices in the area are conventional and rainfed with limited irrigation. Farmers in this area practice mixed farming, where both animal and crop husbandry are done in the same household. Their plots have residential space, farming space, and pasture space. The approximate size of their residential space is 0.5 hectares, 6 hectares of farming land, and 15 hectares of communal grazing land. The population size is estimated at 23011 with 6138 households. The level of unemployment, poverty, and food insecurity is very high. This is where the Mapfihwa training hub, a community laboratory point, is located, where permaculture training, experiments, and observations are made. Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 7 Sampling Procedure Participants for the study are exclusively women living within a 7 km radius of the Mapfihwa community laboratory centre. A community stakeholder consultation was done as a mobilization process to introduce the project to the community as a whole. A call was made to volunteers wanting to participate in the intervention. Only women who live within a boundary of less than or equal to 7km (walkable distance) from the Mapfihwa community laboratory centre were purposively selected from these volunteers. A random selection of 15 volunteers was made from these. The participants are women willing to work on the project for 3 years. Only women subsistence farmers were selected for the permaculture practice. The selection was informed by observations made from current interventions in the developing countries' communities, where occasionally food handouts are provided to migration-stricken households, where women are the spouses left behind. Often, the handouts comprise limited dietary requirements. These handouts are also not consistent; hence, dry food spells are experienced during some periods of the year. Such challenges might be addressed through permaculture. Procedure The findings of this article are basically project activities in the form of practices and methods that were implemented during the project. A total of 15 participants were given two equal beds with measurements of 8m in length and 1 meter wide in width within the Mapfihwa community laboratory centre. Plot A was for the permaculture activities, where permaculture activities were practised. Plot A was the control bed where non-permaculture agricultural activities and conventional sources of plant nutrients and pesticides were used. According to this article, permaculture practices involve the use of liquid poultry fertilizer, Azolla water as a source of nitrogen, vermicompost as a source of nutrients, and carbon and dolomitic lime to correct soil pH levels. Mulching and limited tillage were used as soil and water conservation methods. Organic pest management for the permaculture beds included rabbit urine and pepper juice as pesticides, crop rotation, and companion cropping as disease control strategies. Data Collection Method and Analysis Procedure Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires designed to gather a wide range of information. These questionnaires included sections on demographic details, Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 8 socio-economic characteristics before the permaculture intervention, details of the permaculture practices adopted during the intervention, and an assessment of the impacts resulting from these practices. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and presented using tables and figures. Meanwhile, qualitative data derived from responses to open-ended questions in the semi-structured questionnaires underwent content analysis. This involved cleaning and organizing the qualitative responses to identify recurring patterns. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21 was employed for the quantitative analysis. This software facilitated rigorous statistical analysis, allowing for a comprehensive examination of the data and providing insights into the effectiveness and outcomes of the permaculture intervention. 4. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS This section presents findings on how permaculture contributes to a convenient supply of healthy food, increased resilience to environmental shocks, reduced costs of inputs and the social status of Maphihwa project members. Demographic Data Age Distribution Figure 1. Age Distribution Figure 1 shows the age distribution of the Mapfihwa project participants. The participants' ages range from 20 to 60 years, with the majority (50%) concentrated in the 41 – 50 age group, highlighting a predominance of middle-aged members in the project. Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 9 Marital status Figure 2. Marital Status Figure 2 illustrates the marital status distribution within the group. Most participants (75%) are married, 17% are widowed, and 8% are single. Level of Education Figure 3. Level of Education The results presented in Figure 3 show that 8% of participants received some primary education, 17% completed primary education, 33% received some secondary education, and the majority (42%) completed secondary education. Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 16 Table 5 shows that 75% of participants practiced production at home, with all the participants practicing production near roadrunner chickens. Only one participant sold their chickens, generating USD20, which was used to buy household food. Table 6. Livestock Production Type of farming Proportion Type of livestock Proportion Livestock production 50 Cattle 50 Goats 50 Table 6 highlights that 50% of the participants were involved in livestock production. Among those involved in livestock production, 50% kept cattle and 50% kept goats. About 50% sold their livestock and generated income ranging from USD 30 to USD 350, with an average income of USD 162. The proceeds from selling livestock were used to pay school fees and buy household food and clothes. Household Food Supply in the Past 5 Years Figure 9. Household Food Supply in the Past 5 Years Figure 9 presents household food supply status in the past 5 years. About 75% of the participants reported experiencing food shortages, while 25% indicated having moderately sufficient food. No participants reported having a sufficient food supply in the past 5 years. Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 17 Table 7. Empowerment Status of Women in the Past 5 Years The proportion who Felt Empowered in the Past 5 Years The proportion of those participating in Decision-making in the Past 5 Years Type of Decision Proportion 33% 67% Food management 67 Asset purchasing 67 Farming 67 Family events 58 Going for casual labor 8 Table 7 shows that 33% of the participants felt empowered in the past 5 years. The results show that 33% of participants reported not having permission to make important household decisions in the past 5 years. While 67% of the participants are now participating in decision-making, participants highlighted that these changes are recent, as it was once tricky for many participants to be involved in decision-making. Among those allowed to participate in decision-making, 67% make food management, asset purchasing, and farming decisions. About 58% are allowed to make decisions regarding family events and functions, while 8% reported being allowed to decide which casual work to engage in for income generation. Permaculture Intervention Practices Understanding of permaculture by women Though participants demonstrated a general understanding of permaculture, their understanding of permaculture varied and reflected personal sentiments about the project. Technical understanding: Participants described permaculture as the practice of growing crops in the same bed and using restorative methods such as the use of organic fertilizer and biological pest control techniques. In addition, permaculture was viewed as small-scale farming that minimizes costs, emphasizing organic practices and incorporating other crops and foodstuffs to prevent pests. Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 18 Personal sentiments: Permaculture was viewed as a farming practice for sustenance and income generation. Some participants said that permaculture is a project aimed at empowering women, reducing domestic violence and decreasing the reliance of project members on their spouses for sustenance. Table 8. Crop Varieties Planted for the Summer Crop at Mapfihwa Training Hub Crop variety for summer Mentioned Mentioned for the winter season Green pepper 9 1 Tomatoes 10 2 King onions 8 2 Covo 9 2 Sugarloaf 5 3 Rape 10 2 Parsley 2 - Sweet cabbage 2 - Marigold 1 - Basil 1 - Peas - 2 Potatoes - 1 Table 8 presents the crops grown by participants during the summer and those lined up for the winter season. Summer crops mentioned by the participants included green pepper (9), tomatoes (10), king onion (8), covo (9), sugar loaf (5), and rape (10). The least mentioned summer crops were parsley (2), sweet cabbage (2), marigold (1), and basil (1). For Mapfihwa winter crops, participants mentioned green pepper (1), tomatoes (2), king onion (2), covo (2), sugar loaf (3), rape (2), peas (2) and potatoes (1). The low number of winter crops mentioned was largely attributed to participants either forgetting, yet planning or intending to consult their notebooks, or relying on advice to determine suitable crops for the winter season. Table 9. Bed sizes and number per person Bed Bed size Number of Beds Permaculture 8m x 1m 1 Conventional 8m x 1m 1 Due to challenges in accurately estimating bed size, participants reported that the lengths of their permaculture beds ranged from 8 metres to 15 metres and widths of 1 Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 19 metre. For conventional beds, participants reported sizes ranging from 10 metres x 1 metre to 25 metres x 1 metre. Upon verification, it was established that permaculture and conventional bed sizes are 8 metres x 1 metre. Each person had two beds. Table 10. Differences in the Practices Applied to Beds Mentioned Practices Bed A – Permaculture Bed B – Conventional Comment Mulching ✔ X Improved manure used ✔ X Direct poultry manure X ✔ Pesticides X ✔ Herbicides X ✔ Synthetic fertilizer X ✔ Companion crops ✔ X Group 1: tomatoes, green pepper, king onions; Group 2: shallots, rape covo, sugar loaf, Intercropping ✔ ✔ Group 1: Tomatoes, green pepper, king onions, marigolds Group 2: Shallots, rape covo sugar loaf, parsley, basel, Household foodstuff ✔ X Table 10 highlights the differences in Bed A (permaculture) and Bed B (conventional) practices. The table shows that practices such as mulching, using liquid or improved manure, using herbs and household foodstuffs to repel pests, intercropping, and companion cropping are applied in the permaculture beds. On the other hand, practices such as synthetic fertilizer, direct use of manure, use of pesticides, herbicides and intercropping are applied in the conventional beds. For companion cropping, participants are using two groups of crops: Group 1, consisting of tomatoes, green pepper, and king onions, and Group 2, which includes shallots, rape covo, and sugar loaf. For intercropping, participants are also using two Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 20 groups of crops: Group 1 included tomatoes, green pepper, king onions and marigold, while Group 2 included shallots, rape covo sugar loaf, parsley, and basil. Table 11. Standard Spacing for Main Crops Crops Standard spacing – Bed A Bed B Leafy vegetables 10cm 7cm Tomatoes 30cm 20cm The participants highlighted varied standard spacing for main crops. However, the standard space for permaculture beds was 10cm for leafy vegetables and 30cm for tomato crops, with companion crops in between the spaces. For conventional beds, spacing was not standardized, and it ranged from 3cm to 30cm for leaf vegetables and 5cm to 30cm for tomatoes, with an average spacing of 7cm for leafy vegetables and 20cm for tomatoes. Average Leaf Growth for Covo under Permaculture and Conventional Practices Figure 12. Average Leaf Growth for Covo under Permaculture and Conventional Practices Figure 12 shows that covo in the permaculture bed started at 3.6 cm in Week 1, steadily increasing each week, reaching 11.4 cm by Week 4. Similarly, the conventional bed started slightly higher at 3.8 cm in Week 1 and showed consistent growth, ending at 11.3 cm in Week 4. Although there is not much difference, the permaculture bed slightly outperforms the conventional bed in terms of growth by the end of the observation period. Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 21 Average Leaf Growth for Rape under Permaculture and Conventional Practices Figure 13. Average Leaf Growth for Rape under Permaculture and Conventional Practices Figure 13 shows that rape in the permaculture bed started at 4 cm in Week 1, increasing each week, reaching 13 cm by Week 4. Similarly, the conventional bed started at 4 cm in Week 1 and showed growth, ending at 13.3 cm in Week 4. Although there is not much difference, the conventional bed slightly outperforms the permaculture bed in terms of growth by the end of the observation period. Average Water Consumption for the Crops per Week Figure 14. Average Water Consumption for the Crops per Week Figure 14 shows that the permaculture beds consumed an average of 568 litres of water in Week 1, with fluctuations observed throughout the six weeks, culminating in an average consumption of 502 litres in Week 6. In comparison, the conventional beds started with 450 litres in Week 1, also fluctuating, and ended with 385 litres in Week 6. Overall, Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 22 the permaculture beds consistently recorded higher water consumption than the conventional beds, largely due to the larger cultivated area in the permaculture beds. Participants noted that water consumption typically starts high under normal circumstances and gradually decreases as plants establish. However, water usage increased significantly during hotter periods, contrary to expectations, higher water consumption should mainly occur when plants are still small and vulnerable. Source of water for Mapfihwa Gardening All participants indicated that the water used for Mapfihwa gardening is obtained from a borehole, which is consistent with the researchers’ observations. Water Availability Figure 15. Water Availability Figure 15 shows that only 25% of the participants reported that borehole water for the Mapfihwa gardening project is not always available. Water Use Challenges Figure 16. Water Use Challenges Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 23 Figure 17 indicates that about 42% of the participants reported facing challenges in using Mapfihwa water for gardening. About 25% of the participants highlighted that they are facing delayed water filling and water shortages when it is overcast, affecting the efficiency of solar panels. About 17% of the participants reported having to take turns to water their gardens since they only have two horse pipes and taps. Poultry Management at Mapfihwa Training Hub All participants (100%) mentioned practising poultry management at the Mapfihwa training hub. Table 12. Poultry Varieties Kept at Mapfihwa Training Hub Type of poultry Number of times mentioned Usefulness Layers 11 Manure, eggs Roadrunner chickens 8 Manure, meat Ducks 11 Manure, meat Table 12 shows the types of poultry kept at the Mapfihwa training hub. The types of poultry mentioned are layers, roadrunner chickens, and ducks. Participants reported that the poultry is useful for the project because it provides the much-needed manure, meat, and eggs. Participants also said that eggshells are an important ingredient for insect repellent. However, it was mentioned once that participants have yet to see poultry's usefulness in the Mapfihwa gardening project. Table 13. Other Useful Activities at Mapfihwa Training Hub Activities Number of times mentioned Number of times usefulness is mentioned Livestock production 0 Bee keeping 10 Honey (5), money (5), pollination (3) All participants (100%) reported not keeping any livestock at the Mapfihwa training hub. Nonetheless, though beekeeping was mentioned 10 times by the participants after they were prompted, they could not remember the direct usefulness of beekeeping to the crops. After prompting the participants, they mentioned that Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 24 beekeeping brings honey and money. Thus, many were not sure of the benefits to crops and were hoping to learn soon. Impacts of the Mapfihwa Intervention Figure 17. Difference in Crop Growth Rate Between Household and Mapfihwa Gardens Figure 18 shows that 92% of respondents observed differences in crop growth rates between their household gardens and the Mapfihwa garden. Participants noted that crops grown under permaculture practices in the Mapfihwa garden took longer to grow but lasted longer once established. Approximately 67% of participants attributed the better and faster crop growth at the Mapfihwa training hub to consistent and reliable access to water. This resource was often limited in their home gardens. Additionally, participants highlighted that permaculture vegetables remained fresh for longer, exhibited high quality, and had the potential for regeneration. Table 14. Differences in Crop Management Practices Between the Household Garden and the Mapfihwa Garden Practices Mapfihwa/ Garden Household garden Improve organic manure ✔ X Pesticides X ✔ Herbicides X ✔ Companion cropping ✔ X Intercropping ✔ X Biological pest control ✔ X Pruning and trimming ✔ X Review of Socio-Economic Research and Development Studies 9(1), 2025 25 Raised beds ✔ X Consistent watering ✔ X All participants noted significant differences in crop management practices between their household gardens and the Mapfihwa garden. Participants exclusively used organic manure in their permaculture beds, including liquid manure, avoiding synthetic fertilizers entirely. They also refrained from spraying pesticides and herbicides, instead relying on companion planting and simple foodstuffs to repel insects naturally. Participants reported regularly pruning and trimming vegetables in their permaculture beds to enhance growth and productivity. Raised beds were also implemented to prevent flooding during the rainy season. Furthermore, crops in the permaculture beds were better safeguarded against domestic animals by installing a security fence. Prospects for Mapfihwa and Permaculture About 92% of the participants were optimistic that the Mapfihwa garden will most likely yield more produce than their household gardens, mainly because of water availability for watering. However, they lamented that land under cultivation is still tiny. Table 15. Projections on Vegetable Use Vegetable benefits Proportion Household nutritional addition 25 Household food security 83 Income 83 Sharing with friends 50 Value addition 33 Participants expressed optimism about the benefits of vegetables from the Mapfihwa garden. Approximately 25% anticipated that the vegetables would improve household nutrition, while 83% believed they would enhance household food security and support income generation. Additionally, 50% of participants planned to share the vegetables with friends and relatives, and 33% intended to add value by drying the vegetables for future use. Ndhlovu et al.: Women and Permaculture: Towards Resilient Peri-urban Communities 32 Gliessman, S.R. (2013). Agro-ecology and the rebuilding of rural resilience. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 37(2), 147-164. Gonzalez, C. (2016). Permaculture: A Designers’ Manual. Echo Point Books. Gwimbi, P., Moyo, S., & Mlambo, V. (2018). 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