Enhancing Professional Health of School Teachers: A Physical Activity-Based Intervention to Bridge Theory and Practice in Physical Education

Editors: Gabriela Luptáková Branislav Antala Gheorghe Balint Marek Lazar Dario Novak Ionut Dantis Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education Research - Curriculum - Teacher Training EDITURA „ALMA MATER” BACĂU, 2025 SCIENCE OF SPORT AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION COLLECTION Each year, FIEPS publishes a specialized book collection featuring contributions from scholars, experts, and university professors on pressing issues within physical education and sport. This collaborative project is a core part of the organization's mission. The series began in 2017 with "Physical Education in Primary School: Researches - Best Practices - Situation," which was edited by D. Collela, B. Antala, and S. Epifani. That 502-page book, published by Pensa Multimedia in Italy, featured 102 authors from 27 countries across five continents. This year's volume has a new title, "Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education: Researches, Curriculum and Teacher Training" reflecting a specific and narrow topic. The following questions guided the contributions and were intended to be answered through country reports: Research • Has research been conducted in your country on the role of theoretical knowledge in promoting physical activity? • Have studies assessed students' theoretical understanding within Physical Education (PE)? • Have interventions been designed to integrate theoretical knowledge to increase physical activity among children or adults? Curriculum • Does your country's PE curriculum include theoretical content? If so, what content and topics are included, and at which educational levels are they taught? • Does the curriculum require teachers to evaluate students' theoretical knowledge? • Are students assessed and graded on their theoretical understanding, or only on their practical skills and performance? Teacher Training • Are prospective PE teachers trained to deliver theoretical content? • Beyond methods for teaching practical skills, are they taught strategies for imparting theoretical knowledge? • If a PE textbook is available, how are teachers trained to use it effectively in their instruction? With 96 authors from 22 countries across 5 continents, the book offers a truly global perspective. The contributors hail from Europe, the Americas, Asia and Oceania, ensuring a wide-ranging and inclusive examination of the topic. Editors Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education Research - Curriculum - Teacher Training ISBN 978-606-527-737-3 FÉDÉRATION INTERNATIONALE D´ÉDUCATION PHYSIQUE ET SPORTIVE Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training Editors: Gabriela Luptáková Branislav Antala Gheorghe Balint Marek Lazar Dario Novak Ionut Dantis SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS Prof. Bogdan Constantin RAȚĂ "Vasile Alecsandri" University of Bacău (Romania) Assoc. Prof. Nicolae Lucian VOINEA "Vasile Alecsandri" University of Bacău (Romania) Copyright © 2025 by the editors (Gabriela Luptáková, Branislav Antala, Gheorghe Balint, Marek Lazar, Dario Novak, Ionut Dantis) All rights to this edition are reserved by the editors. Editura „Alma Mater” Bacău ("Alma Mater" Plublishing House Bacău) 8 Spiru Haret Street, 600114, Bacău, Romania Phone: +40-234-542-411 ext. 638 Fax: +40-234-545-753 https://editura-almamater.ub.ro/ https://editura-alma-mater.ub.ro/en/ E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României Bridging theory and practice in physical education : researches, curriculum, teacher training / editors: Gabriela Luptáková, Branislav Antala, Gheorghe Balint, .... - Bacău : Alma Mater, 2025 Conţine bibliografie ISBN 978-606-527-737-3 I. Luptáková, Gabriela (ed.) II. Antala, Branislav (ed.) III. Balint, Gheorghe (ed.) 796 2 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education: Researches - Curriculum – Teacher Training Editors: Gabriela LUPTÁKOVÁ (Slovakia) Branislav ANTALA (Slovakia) Gheorghe BALINT (Romania) Marek LAZAR (Slovakia) Dario NOVAK (Croatia) Ionut DANTIS (Romania) Reviewers: Jarka ARGAJOVÁ ml. (Slovakia): [email protected] František SEMAN (Slovakia:) [email protected] Nadim NASSIF (Lebanon) [email protected] Manolis ADAMAKIS (Greece) [email protected] Arman AVETYSIAN (Armenia) [email protected] Biljana POPESCA (North Macedonia) [email protected] Badria Al-HADDABI (Oman) [email protected] Marko STEVANOVSKI (North Macedonia) [email protected] Tanja PETRUSIC (Slovenia) [email protected] Bartol VUKELIC (Croatia) bartol.vuke[email protected].hr Juiana JOHN JOHN (Malaysia) [email protected] Bogdan Constantin RAȚĂ (Romania) [email protected] Nicolae Lucian VOINEA (Romania) [email protected] Publisher: Editura „Alma Mater” Bacău ("Alma Mater" Publishing House Bacău), "Vasile Alecsandri" University of Bacău and FIEPS Europe Printed by: Editura „Alma Mater” Bacău ("Alma Mater" Publishing House Bacău) Book – Jacket: Circulation: Gheorghe BALINT (România): [email protected] 384 pages, 100 copies, 1st edition Book in cooperation with: "Vasile Alecsandri" University of Bacău (Romania) and Association for the Science of Physical and Sports Education (ASEFS) from Romania. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of the authors. 3 Foreword FIEPS New Leaders Programme: A Decade of Shaping Future Leaders in Physical and Sport Education The Origins of the FNL A unique initiative of the International Federation of Physical and Sport Education, the FIEPS New Leaders (FNL) program, was launched in 2015. It was established during the 1st FIEPS Afro-European Congress in Rabat, Morocco, an event that also marked the 10th FIEPS European Congress and the 25th FIEPS World Congress. The conference, which took place from November 12 to 15, 2015, was hosted by the Institut Royal de Formation des Cadres in collaboration with the Ministère de la Jeunesse et des Sports. At the time, the Federation was known as "FIEP" (International Federation of Physical Education), and the project was originally called the FIEP New Leaders Project. The program was established by Professor Dr. Branislav Antala, then FIEP Europe President, and Dr. Dario Novak, then FIEP Europe Secretary General. It is notable that Dr. Novak, who served as the inaugural FNL chair, is now the FIEPS Europe President, and Professor Antala is currently the FIEPS World Vice-president. The FNL Program: How It Works Each year, FIEPS New Leaders are nominated by FIEPS (Assistant) National Delegates. A call for nominations is typically sent around September, asking for promising scholars. Candidates submit a curriculum vitae and a motivation letter. After an evaluation, the best candidates are selected to become an FNL at the next FIEPS conference. The primary goal of this unique program is to integrate young, excellent, and promising students— from Bachelor's to PhD levels—into the broader scientific community. Becoming an FNL makes it significantly easier for a young, inexperienced scholar with a limited scientific network to actively participate in a congress. Being part of a peer group creates a supportive environment for learning by doing. In addition to a structured group program with both scientific and social activities, FNLs receive significant benefits, including free accommodation, full board, a waived conference fee, and a social program, all covered by the congress's organizing committee. The FNL program at a conference is typically structured around three main parts. First, we hold an introductory session that includes ice-breaking activities. This session is crucial, as it builds a pleasant and secure environment for participants before the more stressful oral presentations begin. It also serves as a vital first step in fostering lasting friendships and professional networks. Following this, oral presentation sessions are held throughout the conference. The number of sessions depends on how many participants there are. The final activity, usually on the last day, is a program evaluation and round-table discussion. These are group-based activities that encourage lively discussions on topics related to physical education and sports science. A key part of the program is that the top three presentations are recognized with special plaques from the President of FIEPS Europe. This award motivates participants to prepare for their presentations seriously and actively engage in the event. It is also important to note that all FNL participants submit an abstract to the conference. They are also encouraged to submit a full paper, providing them with a publication after the event concludes. A Decade of FNL: Event Highlights (2015-2025) At the inaugural event in Rabat, the FNL program welcomed 12 participants from across Europe and North Africa, including the Czech Republic, Italy, Greece, Lithuania, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovakia, Spain, Turkey, and Morocco. This diverse group of seven male and five female university students took part in the congress's poster sessions, where they presented their research. 4 Figure 1. FNL group at 1st Afro-European congress in Rabat, Morocco, 2015 Their presentations were evaluated by a committee, and the top award went to Agusti Castillo Caniz from Catalonia, Spain. Figure 2. FNL poster session at 1st Afro-European congress in Rabat, Morocco, 2015 The following year, the 11th FIEPS European Congress was held from September 14–18, 2016, in Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The FNL group for this event consisted of five female and five male students from the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Montenegro, Spain, Croatia, Romania, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Once again, poster sessions were a key part of the congress. The top three awards went to Agusti Castillo Caniz (Catalonia, Spain), Marita Ukic (Croatia), and Michal Vorlicek (Czech Republic). Starting in 2016, the new FIEP Europe New Leaders International Section was created and the role of FNL Europe Chair was taken up by Dr. Gabriela Luptáková (Slovakia), who was herself a participant in the inaugural Rabat program, now serving as a FIEPS Europe Secretary General. Gunay Yidzer (Turkey) and Hrvoje Podnar (Croatia) were appointed as FNL vice-chairs. 5 Figure 3. FNL participants at 11th FIEPS European Congress in Banja Luka, 2016 Figure 4. FNL poster session 11th FIEPS European Congress in Banja Luka, 2016 6 Figure 5. Social Programme at 11th FIEPS European Congress in Banja Luka, 2016 In 2017, the 12th FIEPS European Conference was held at the University of Luxembourg from September 13th to 16th. This event marked the largest participation in the FNL program's history, with 17 students—8 females and 9 males—from a wide range of countries: Croatia, Slovakia, Turkey, Montenegro, Greece, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Spain, and Romania. Figure 6. FNL at the 12th FIEPS European congress in Luxembourg, 2017 The top three poster presentations were awarded to Vedrana Sember (Slovenia), Michal Vorlicek (Czech Republic), and Angels P. Nicolau (Catalonia, Spain). A significant highlight of the FNL program that year was a very successful invited presentation on "Writing Academic Papers" delivered by Dr. Richard Bailey, which provided valuable additional learning for the participants. Table of contents 13 Table of Contents Introduction 17 Making Physical Literacy Finally Visible Within England’s Physical Education Curriculum: The Importance of Teacher Training. David Grecic – Nigel Green – Alan Thomson – Andrew Sprake – Clive Palmer 19 Reimagining Physical Education in Cyprus: Curriculum Standards, Teacher Training, and the Emergent Role of Physical Literacy. Efstathios Christodoulides – Elisavet Konstantinidou – Elena Antoniadou – Andrew Sprake – David Grecic 29 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education in Finland – towards leaving certificate in physical education. Kasper Salin 39 Research on Competency Characteristics and Promotion Strategies of Middle School Physical Education Teachers Under the New Curriculum Standard. Zhang Xinyi – Garry Kuan – Yee Cheng Kueh – Li Shiming 45 Practical during Physical Education: Utilising OMNI Rate of Perceived Exertion Color-Face Scale Among Obese Adolescents in Singapore. Govindasamy Balasekaran – Ng Yew Cheo 61 Integrating Technical Skill Development, Tactical Understanding and Motivation: An Example from a Tennis Camp Programme in Malaysia. Lingsong Li – Yin Liang – Garry Kuan 67 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education: The Case of Armenia. Yu.G. Grigoryan– A.V. Avetisyan 77 Health Education Based on the PRECEDE-PROCEED Model in Promoting Physical Activity Among High School Students in Yunnan Province, China: Practical Application. Linxian Zeng – Garry Kuan– Wei Liu – Xiawei Wang – Weipeng Duan– Yee Cheng Kueh 85 Where is the “Physical” in Samoa’s Health and Physical Education Curriculum. Suzie Schuster - Johannes Uili 99 Analysis of the educational process in teaching physical and sports activities collectives for secondary education under the competency approach. Bekhtaoui Djamel - Mokrani Djamel - Benzidane Houcine 107 An Empirical Analysis of the Relationship Between Adolescent Physical Education and Academic Performance at the Jiangsu Province, China. Jinyu Lu - Garry Kuan 115 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 14 Elementary School Students’ Motivational Climate and Physical Enjoyment Towards Physical Activity in Physical Education. Teo Boon Sian - Chin Ngien Siong - Nguang Ung Siong - Teng Seet May 123 The Malaysian Physical Education Curriculum: An Analysis of Structure and Challenges. Jeswenny Fresshila John - Chin Ngien Siong - Garry Kuan - Yee Cheng Kueh 133 Curricular restructuring of the 2012 Study Plan for the Bachelor's Degree in Physical Culture and Sports at UAEMéx. Edwin Róman Albarrán Jardón - Alicia López González - María de Jesús Serrano Plata 141 The Role of Olympic Education in Ensuring the Unity of Theory and Practice in Youth Physical Education. Ivashchenko Sergii 151 Trainee Teachers’ Lifestyle and Attitude Towards Fitness Testing. Chin Ngien Siong - Wee Eng Hoe - Teo Boon Sian - Arthur Ling Wei 165 The Trend of Elementary School Teachers towards Drama-Based Physical Education Lessons and Activities. Difallah Imed - Benomar Djabouri - Benyoucef Dahou - Bouaziz Mohammed 173 Rethinking the Competencies of Physical Educators for New Generations. Teresa Melchor Moreno - José Guadalupe Montaño Corona - Antonio Eugenio Rivera Cisneros - Manuel Guerrero-Zainos 191 Physical Education as an Alternative to Improve the Quality of Life of Young People in Malambo Atlántico, Northern Area of the Colombian Caribbean. Jose Francisco Mora NúñezJose Manuel Guerrero Zainos - Antonio Eugenio Rivera Cisneros 201 Enhancing Professional Health of School Teachers: A Physical Activity-Based Intervention to Bridge Theory and Practice in Physical Education. Belkadi Adel – Sebbane Mohamed– Beboucha Wahib – Koutchouk sidi Mohamed – Benbernou Othman 209 Comparative Perspectives on Integrating Physical Activity and STEAM in Austria, Serbia, and Finland: A Policy Framework for Interdisciplinary Learning and the STEPAM Initiative. Marjorie Da Cruz – Josephine Lau – Aleksandra Mihajlović – Kristóf Fenyvesi – Zsolt Lavicza – Aleksandar Ignjatović 223 Physical Education in Spain: from Theory to Practice. Josep Campos-Rius – Enric M. Sebastiani Obrador – Marta Moragas Rovira 241 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education: Research in Italy based on UNESCO 2021 Survey. Sara Pasero – Stefania Cazzoli 251 Table of contents 15 The Role of Theoretical Knowledge in Promoting Physical Activity Among Chinese Students: A Systematic Review. Li Shen – Garry Kuan – Yee Cheng Kueh – Ke Zhou 259 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education: Country Rapport - Italy. Stefania Cazzoli – Sara Pasero 279 Self-Determination Theory in Physical Education. Tanner Wheat – Minsook Kim – Gabrielle Strittmater – Wesley J. Wilson – Kim C. Graber – Kevin Andrew Richards 287 Game-Based Learning in 6th Grade Physical Education: Fostering Knowledge and Understanding in Volleyball and Handball. Gabriela Luptáková – Pavlína Sobotová – Dominika Gondeková – Jaroslava Argajová 295 A Physical Education Experience in the New Mexican School. From Theory to Practice of Physical Education in Primary Education. Manuel Guerrero Zainos – Antonio Eugenio Rivera Cisneros – Jose Francisco Mora Nuñez – Gisela Palma Rosales – Giovanni Hernández Hernández 303 Motor Skills, Perception of Physical Education, and Health as Evidence of the Bridge Between Theory and Practice in the Physical Education Curriculum: A Mexican Experience. Antonio Eugenio Rivera Cisneros – Manuel Guerrero Zainos – Guadalupe Montaño Corona – Teresa Melchor Moreno 313 Physical Activity and its Immediate Effect on Children's Attention in Primary Education. Tibor Balga – Natália Brtková 321 Bridging Theory and Practice: Implementing the Maltese Physical Education Curriculum. Andrew Decelis 329 The Experience of 27 Years of Postgraduate Experience in Physical Education Related to Motor Skills Acquisition and Healthy Lifestyles in Mexico: A Bridge Between Theory and Practice. Aurelia Gutiérrez Ríos - Antonio Eugenio Rivera Cisneros - Manuel Guerrero Zainos - Jose Francisco Mora Núñez 341 “How Do You Feel Today?” SEL and Special Education Tools and Strategies for Improving Secondary Education Students’ Participation in Physical Education Lessons and Reducing Disruptive Behaviour. Agustí Castillo Cañiz - Nàdia Pesarrodona Rovira 347 Differentiation of Motor Tasks of the Track and Field and Game Segments of the Program in Physical Education, 5th -6th grade. Gennady Germanov - Alexandr Gorascenco - Ekaterina Tsukanova - Elena Mocrousov 357 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 16 ARTICLES IN FRENCH Articles en français Sport et catastrophes naturelles. Cas des activités sportives destinées aux enfants sinistrés par le tremblement de terre au Maroc. Abderrazak Elakari 369 Introduction 17 Introduction The International Federation of Physical and Sport Education (FIEPS) is an independent, nongovernmental organization founded in Brussels in 1923. Now active in 142 countries, FIEPS is committed to promoting physical education, sport for all, and recreational physical activities that enhance health and fitness for people of all ages worldwide. FIEPS actively collaborates with national and international institutions to achieve these goals, fostering global cooperation and partnering with numerous organizations. As a "Recognized Organization" by the IOC, FIEPS works closely with international bodies like UNESCO, ICSSPE, EUPEA, and AIESEP. A Specialized Focus on Quality and Research Each year, FIEPS publishes a specialized book collection featuring contributions from scholars, experts, and university professors on pressing issues within physical education and sport. This collaborative project is a core part of the organization's mission. The series began in 2017 with "Physical Education in Primary School: Researches - Best Practices - Situation," which was edited by D. Collela, B. Antala, and S. Epifani. That 502-page book, published by Pensa Multimedia in Italy, featured 102 authors from 27 countries across five continents. The last volume, "Quality Physical Education in Active School and its Perspectives: Researches - Best Practices - Situation," is the eighth book in this series. Published under the auspices of FIEPS, it is based on the UNESCO project "Fit for Life," adopted at MINEPS VII in Baku in 2023. This edition is a collaborative effort between FIEPS, Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacău, and the Association for the Science of Physical and Sports Education (ASEFS) in Romania. A Global and Focused Perspective As decided at the FIEPS Europe Delegates Meeting in Ohrid, North Macedonia, on June 1, 2024, the next four editions (2024–2028) of this collection will be published by the Alma Mater publishing house of Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacău. This decision is a special tribute, celebrating both the 60th anniversary of Higher Education in Physical Education and Sport at the university and the 17year cooperation between FIEPS and the Faculty of Movement, Sport, and Health Sciences. The book is typically structured into four distinct parts for a comprehensive overview: • "Researches" presents the latest research findings. • "Best Practices" offers real-world examples from different countries. • "Situation" provides an overview of the global state of physical education. • The final part is dedicated to articles in French, a result of an agreement between FIEPS and CONFEJES. This year's volume has a new title, "Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education: Researches, Curriculum and Teacher Training" reflecting a specific and narrow topic. The following questions guided the contributions and were intended to be answered through country reports: Research • Has research been conducted in your country on the role of theoretical knowledge in promoting physical activity? • Have studies assessed students' theoretical understanding within Physical Education (PE)? • Have interventions been designed to integrate theoretical knowledge to increase physical activity among children or adults? Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 18 Curriculum • Does your country's PE curriculum include theoretical content? If so, what content and topics are included, and at which educational levels are they taught? • Does the curriculum require teachers to evaluate students' theoretical knowledge? • Are students assessed and graded on their theoretical understanding, or only on their practical skills and performance? Teacher Training • Are prospective PE teachers trained to deliver theoretical content? • Beyond methods for teaching practical skills, are they taught strategies for imparting theoretical knowledge? • If a PE textbook is available, how are teachers trained to use it effectively in their instruction? With 96 authors from 22 countries across 5 continents, the book offers a truly global perspective. The contributors hail from Europe, the Americas, Asia and Oceania, ensuring a wide-ranging and inclusive examination of the topic. Acknowledgments The editors extend their sincere gratitude to the reviewers whose invaluable feedback helped authors enhance the quality of their contributions. We also thank the Association for the Science of Physical and Sports Education (ASEFS) from Romania for their financial support, which made this publication possible. Editors: Gabriela LUPTÁKOVÁ Branislav ANTALA Gheorghe BALINT Marek LAZAR Dario NOVAK Ionut DANTIS Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 19 Making Physical Literacy Finally Visible Within England’s Physical Education Curriculum: The Importance of Teacher Training David Grecic 1 – Nigel Green 2 – Alan Thomson 1 – Andrew Sprake 1 – Clive Palmer 1 1 School of Health, Social Work, and Sport, University of Central Lancashire, Preston; UK 2 International Physical Literacy Association; UK. e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The chapter describes England’s Physical Education curriculum content in light of the current and ongoing national teaching curriculum review. This curriculum consultation process presents the Physical Education subject and its teachers, a wonderful opportunity to shape children’s future knowledge and practical activity. Physical Literacy, previously absent from all curriculum documents, is now being considered as a foundational principle to support England’s Quality PE provision. However, for this to be achieved in practice and for Physical Literacy to be fully embraced, teacher training programmes’ content and delivery mechanisms will require reviewing and enhancement. The chapter then explores what this is starting to look like in England and some of the challenges that it is presented with. To conclude we consider what will be needed to facilitate children’s positive PE experiences underpinned by the Physical Literacy concept and the vital role of the new teachers joining the profession. Key words: curriculum review, physical literacy, teacher training Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 20 Introduction The focus on our country’s investigation is upon the concept of Physical Literacy (PL) in England and how it is currently considered, promoted, and embedded within the PE curriculum, teacher training and the research community. The chapter initially describes how PL is defined in the English context, and its adoption by key sectors to promote children’s and adults’ physical activity. The theoretical content of England’s National Curriculum in Physical Education (ages 5-16) is presented along with new proposals that hope to see PL play a much greater and explicit role in children’s developmental journeys in living active lives. As curricular physical education offers opportunities for how young people can navigate their personal literacy journeys, it makes sense for prospective teachers coming into the profession to have a good understanding of the concept and how it may be delivered in schools. Therefore, the next section sets out the varied practice of Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) regarding PL, with thoughts and recommendations on how PETE needs to evolve. Although Sport England have developed a consensus statement for physical literacy in 2023, contextually, there are still different understandings of how it may look for the realities of young peoples’ lives. As such, the chapter concludes by summarising the important role future teachers will need to play if the PE profession is to better appreciate PL’s theoretical knowledge base and enable PE teachers to more effectively apply the PL concept in their lessons and have the PL concept as the underpinning aim for PE. PL is a complex concept with different conceptualisations and applications depending on the culture, context and the desired outcomes of those adopting and/or promoting it (Cairney et al, 2019; Harvey & Pill, 2019; Hyndman & Pill, 2017). Indeed, the term itself is often contested in many sectors which has led to many varied definitions, frameworks and approaches being followed (Edwards et al., 2017; Shearer et al., 2018; Robinson et al., 2018; Young et al., 2023). In England we have been highly influenced and guided by Margaret Whitehead’s pioneering work which saw PL, underpinned by monist, existentialist and phenomenological positions, offering a broad conceptualisation of physical activity regardless of ability, focusing on holistic development, and thus offering opportunities for everyone to become active and motivated participants, who flourish through valuing and engaging in physical activity throughout their lives (Whitehead, 2019; Durden-Myers & Bartle, 2023). This ethos has been built upon to refine PL’s definition in England with The International Physical Literacy Association (also originating in the UK) defining PL as “the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life.” (IPLA, 2017). However, despite PL being clearly defined (e.g. Whitehead, 2010; Sport England, 2023) and utilised as a term to describe various organisations’ aspirations for people’s movement behaviour, the understanding and application of PL in England has often been misunderstood. In 2022 to address this, Sport England commissioned research to develop a consensus statement on PL for England. Following desk research, two national consultations involving 50+ organisations, and the creation of an expert panel, The Physical Literacy Consensus Statement for England was developed to facilitate a shared understanding of PL for those working in the sport, education, physical activity, recreation, play, environment, health and youth sectors. It suggests that “Physical literacy is our relationship with movement and physical activity throughout life” and relates to one’s personal engagement and valuing of PA throughout life (Sport England, 2023). Building upon the work of Margaret Whitehead and the International Physical Literacy Association, the aim of this consensus statement was to offer a framework that was better able to be understood and utilised by stakeholders in developing young peoples’ relationship(s) with movement. These stakeholders include those working in the sport, education, leisure, health and community planning. In discussing the concept of physical literacy throughout this chapter, it is the Sport England consensus statement that we are using to define it. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 21 CURRICULUM How does England’s physical education curriculum incorporate theoretical content? Despite the growing national interest in PL and the Early Years Framework (YST, nd), set out for nursery / kindergarten, there has yet been no embedding of the concept into school aged children’s curricula. In England this curriculum is organised via children’s developmental stages (Key Stages-KS) with each subject setting out the aim, attainment targets, knowledge and skills contained in each stage. KS1 includes children aged 4-7, KS2 children 8-11 with these Key Stages being delivered in Primary Schools in England. KS3 includes children 11-14 and KS4 for children 14-16 are delivered in Secondary Schools in England. KS5 for children 16-19 exists in the education system but the current NCPE does not apply for this age group who may be attending a School Sixth Form or Tertiary / Further Education College. In England therefore the National Curriculum for Physical Education states: “A high-quality physical education curriculum inspires all pupils to succeed and excel in competitive sport and other physically demanding activities. It should provide opportunities for pupils to become physically confident in a way which supports their health and fitness. Opportunities to compete in sport and other activities build character and help to embed values such as fairness and respect” (DofE, 2013). The stated aims of the National Curriculum are as follows,”The national curriculum for physical education aims to ensure that all pupils: develop competence to excel in a broad range of physical activities, are physically active for sustained periods of time, engage in competitive sports and activities, lead healthy, active lives” (DofE, 2013). By the end of each key stage, pupils are expected to know, apply and understand the matters, skills and processes specified in the relevant programme of study. For Key stage 1: Pupils should develop fundamental movement skills, become increasingly competent and confident and access a broad range of opportunities to extend their agility, balance and coordination, individually and with others. They should be able to engage in competitive (both against self and against others) and co-operative physical activities, in a range of increasingly challenging situations. At Key stage 2: Pupils should continue to apply and develop a broader range of skills, learning how to use them in different ways and to link them to make actions and sequences of movement. They should enjoy communicating, collaborating and competing with each other. They should develop an understanding of how to improve in different physical activities and sports and learn how to evaluate and recognise their own success. For Key stage 3: Pupils should build on and embed the physical development and skills learned in key stages 1 and 2, become more competent, confident and expert in their techniques, and apply them across different sports and physical activities. They should understand what makes a performance effective and how to apply these principles to their own and others’ work. They should develop the confidence and interest to get involved in exercise, sports and activities out of school and in later life and understand and apply the long-term health benefits of physical activity. Whilst finally at Key stage 4: Pupils should tackle complex and demanding physical activities. They should get involved in a range of activities that evelops personal fitness and promotes an active, healthy lifestyle (DofE, 2013). To summarise all the above, the current NCPE for KS1-KS4 describes many of the elements of the PL concept. Children’s competence is intended to be developed by focussing on their motor movement and sporting skills. Their confidence and motivation will be enhanced by student centred pedagogy and students’ positive experiences in the subject. Their personal responsibility to be active is expressed in how they are informed, encouraged and introduced to a range of sports and physical activities which implies a feed forward and feed outwards into other extra-curricular activities in and beyond school into the children’s future lives. Despite this positive correlation of knowledge and content there is no explicit inclusion of the PL term nor understanding of its philosophical basis nor application. Indeed, the formal Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 22 assessment of any PE related theory only occurs in England if children choose PE as an examination subject at GCSE level (KS4) or at Advanced / Diploma Level (KS5). Implicitly the underpinning theory is present but difficult to see or apply to the untrained teacher who may often not be a PE specialist if working in the Primary School sector. Hopefully this is about to change. In response to new learning and understanding about PL a new PE curriculum is under national consultation. With a new Labour Government, elected in 2023, this offers the opportunity to embed PL in the curriculum allowing it to play a pivotal role in all stages of children’s development and extend its reach into KS5 adolescents and young adults. The proposals intend that a new NCPE would position PE at the heart of school life. It would provide a ‘movement curriculum’ that would be context driven with specialist and knowledgeable PE teachers delivering content at every level of schooling. The proposal explains that initially in Early Years & KS1 there will be a focus on the development of fundamental movement skills, learning to move with confidence and developing basic social skills (e.g. sharing and playing with others). Following this KS2, KS3, KS4 & KS5 would aim to build, maintain, and then sustain a positive relationship with movement (physical literacy) with a focus on preparing for an active lifestyle. (AfPE, 2025) Firstly, while it sounds promising, it will be interesting to see how this proposal can be operationalised when the monist underpinnings of PL appear to be at odds with delivering gross motor skills as a foundation for more complex movements. Secondly, and importantly for many (ourselves included), this proposal does not go far enough and belies a superficial understanding of those seeking curriculum change with PL not being explicitly noted in the Early Years KS1 phase, and being proposed as an outcome measure within later stages. For us PL should underpin teacher practice at all stages of child development. It is not something to be measured and reported upon (which will undoubtedly drive teacher practice towards demotivating pupil assessments) but something which if better understood could galvanise whole school communities and be at the forefront of all school leadership decisions. PL must be promoted throughout the life course. Schools provide a most valuable site for the start of the PL journey and have the opportunity and responsibility of preparing our young people for a healthy and fulfilling life. PL’s adoption and promotion, not just in the PE curriculum but throughout and beyond the school gate is critical. Any future planning must therefore also consider active travel to and from school, active engaging breaks within and between lessons and at break times, as well as engagement in PE lessons, extra-curricular activities and experiences along with involvement in activities within the wider community. The curriculum proposals are a good start but do not go far enough if the benefits of children experiencing the joy of movement are to be maximised. The Important Role of Teacher Training Teachers have long been socialised into their beliefs about physical education (Richards et al., 2017), and traditionally it has made changes to their praxis difficult (Kern et al, 2020). Going forward with this call to embed PL into both the curriculum and teachers’ practices, it may be worth looking at the PETE educators and their prospective students as a means of initiating more PL aware PE teachers in the future. This would involve PETE with PL at the forefront of programme aims and outcomes, ensuring that the tools to develop PL for young people going forward are in place for our future teachers of PE. We therefore need to consider how prospective physical education teachers in England are trained to deliver the NCPE’s theoretical and practical content. In England there are 3 main routes to gaining Qualified Training Status (QTS) as a PE teacher: 1. Higher Education Institute (HEI) degrees with QTS or a Post Graduate Certificate of Education (PGCE) PE with QTS embedded. These courses are usually taught at a university or college with extended school placement periods; 2. School Based partnerships sometimes referred to as SCITT (School Centred Initial Teacher Training) – in school practical experience with academic support on site or at partner QTS approved HEI course in person or online; 3. Private provider’s / Charity providers – these operate in partnership with schools and HEIs to deliver government approved QTS courses. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 29 Reimagining Physical Education in Cyprus: Curriculum Standards, Teacher Training, and the Emergent Role of Physical Literacy Efstathios Christodoulides 1 – Elisavet Konstantinidou 2 – Elena Antoniadou 1,4 – Andrew Sprake 3 – David Grecic 3 1 Sport and Exercise Sciences, School of Sciences, University of Central Lancashire (UCLan Cyprus), Cyprus. 2 Department of Life Sciences, School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Cyprus. 3 School of Health, Social Work, and Sport, University of Lancashire, Preston, UK. 4 Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth, Cyprus. e-mail: echristodoulid[email protected].uk Abstract Cyprus is addressing the global challenge of physical inactivity through ongoing reforms to its Physical Education (PE) curriculum. Over the past 15 years, the Ministry of Education, Sport, and Youth has advanced a vision oriented towards lifelong physical activity (PA) and holistic student development, responding to pressing issues such as high childhood obesity rates and youth inactivity. This country report provides an overview of the Cyprus PE system, focusing on curriculum structure, teacher training, and emerging research trends related to Physical Literacy (PL). The current national PE curriculum, spanning from pre-primary to secondary education, is based on six standards that encompass physical, cognitive, emotional, and social learning domains, promoting the inclusion of theoretical content related to movement, health, and sports science. Assessment practices emphasise individual progress through diagnostic, formative, and summative approaches. Although not formally embedded in policy, the concept of PL is increasingly reflected in curricular goals and emerging research. PE teacher qualifications are regulated by national legislation and aligned with EU directives. This report also identifies current research efforts that aim to explore how PL can be more systematically embedded into curriculum design and implementation, and teacher training, positioning Cyprus within international efforts to enhance inclusive and evidence-informed PE. Key words: physical literacy, teacher change, Cyprus, indicators of success. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 30 Introduction Physical inactivity remains one of the most pressing global public health challenges, with far-reaching social, economic, and health consequences. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2022a), the age-related decline in physical activity significantly burdens healthcare systems and impedes progress toward global health targets. In Europe, this issue is further complicated by shifting demographic trends and persistent health disparities. In Cyprus, the situation reflects broader regional concerns. Although adult obesity rates align with the European Union average, childhood obesity is among the highest in the region (Rakić et al., 2024; WHO, 2022b), and insufficient PA is a leading behavioural risk factor for morbidity and mortality that needs to be addressed (OECD, 2023; Theodorou et al., 2024). The situation appears even more concerning among adolescents (Rakić et al., 2024) and adults, with approximately 40% failing to meet the WHO’s recommended levels of PA. Inactivity is particularly prevalent among individuals aged 15–55 (WHO, 2024). These trends highlight the critical role that education systems must play in promoting lifelong engagement in PA, particularly through PE. This chapter is structured as a Country Report, and it draws on document analysis and synthesis of national educational reforms, PE curricula, and teacher training policies in Cyprus, with particular attention to their alignment with PL principles. While PL is not formally embedded in Cyprus’ national education policy, its underlying dimensions, such as motivation, confidence, physical competence, and knowledge and understanding, are increasingly reflected in national standards, curriculum goals, and suggested pedagogical strategies (Table 1). This distinction between implicit curricular adaptation (PLaligned components) and lack of formal policy anchoring (PL explicit recognition) is central to understanding the current status of PL in Cyprus and will be explored throughout the report. Table 1. Mapping PL domains to the Cyprus PE Curriculum Standards (the number in the standards column corresponds to Table 2). PL Component Mapped Cyprus PE Standards Motivation 4. Positive experiences, selfexpression, sociability; 6. Responsible sporting and social behavior. Confidence 1. Motor skill competence; 3. Physical fitness for health; 4. Positive experiences fromPA. Physical Competence 1. Motor skill development; 3. Health – related fitness; Knowledge and Understanding 2. Knowledge from sports science and application; 6. Responsible behavior. Valuing and Taking Responsibility for PA for Life 5. Respect and cooperation; 6. Social and ethical responsibility; 2. Knowledge application to future PA context. Grounded in embodied and holistic theoretical assumptions (Edwards et al., 2017; Whitehead et al., 2018), PL is now widely acknowledged in international policy discourse as foundational to meaningful and sustained engagement in PA (UNESCO, 2015; UNESCO & Loughborough University, 2024; Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 31 WHO, 2018). Countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom have placed PL at the forefront of national frameworks to align education, sport, and health policies with shared outcomes (Sport Australia, 2019; Sport England, 2023; Tremblay et al., 2018). In the Cypriot context, however, PL remains an emerging discourse, largely confined to academic initiatives and isolated projects [e.g. ePhyLi Project (project number: 101089928)], and is not yet explicitly embedded in formal policy or curriculum frameworks (Carl et al., 2023; Christodoulides, Tsivitanidou, Adamakis, & Grecic, 2024; Christodoulides et al., 2023; Christodoulides, Tsivitanidou, & Hadjimatheou, 2022). The report is organised into three core sections: an overview of the national PE curriculum, a description of teacher training and qualification frameworks, and an outline of current and emerging research related to PL and PE in the Cypriot context. Curriculum A major educational reform effort began in Cyprus in 2008, leading to substantial changes in the national PE curriculum. The revised curriculum, implemented in 2009, was structured around six comprehensive standards (Table 2) within a humanistic pedagogical framework. Further changes followed in 2014-15, when the broader educational system underwent restructuring, introducing and implementing the socalled Success and Adequacy Indicators in 2015-16 (MESYC, n.d.d). The curriculum adopts a hierarchical and continuous approach to learning from pre-primary education through secondary education, emphasising year-by-year progression and subject-specific achievements while maintaining flexibility to address individual student needs. General aims and thematic units are defined for each educational stage and distributed across scheduled instructional time (see Table 3). In primary education (Υπουργείο Παιδείας, Αθλητισμού και Νεολαίας, n.d.b), the mission is to develop future citizens who embrace PA in their daily lifestyle. The main aim is to provide equal opportunities for all children to develop, apply, and improve motor skills across various athletic activities. Additionally, it seeks to foster complete personality development through values such as collectivity, solidarity, fair play, competitiveness, and respect for rules and social values, while emphasising personal development and positive peer relationships. In secondary education (Υπουργείο Παιδείας, Αθλητισμού και Νεολαίας, n.d.a), the focus shifts to promoting lifelong adoption of an active and healthy lifestyle. Students are expected to analyse, synthesise, and engage in various physical and sports activities within and outside school. As stated in the curriculum, it aims to help students identify and participate in activities that match their interests and abilities, supported by a strong theoretical foundation in sports science that enables them to solve practical challenges for future PA participation. Table 2. Cyprus PE National Standards 1 Development of motor skills and satisfactory execution of specific skills. Students must develop movement concepts, fundamental motor skills, and complex athletic skills for participation in recreational physical activities. 2 Acquisition and application of sports science knowledge (how and why) for effective participation in present and future physical activity settings. Students should understand basic sports science principles (rules, strategies) for effective participation in educational and sports games. 3 Knowledge and development of health - related physical fitness. Students must develop and understand how to achieve and maintain adequate fitness levels for present and future health. 4 Gaining positive experiences from physical activity and developing selfexpression and sociability. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 32 Students should experience success in physical activities, create varied movement patterns, express emotions and thoughts through movement, and develop communication and social interaction skills. 5 Understanding and respecting individual differences and cooperating with all. Students must understand and respect human differences and willingly participate with everyone in all activities. 6 Demostrating responsible athletic and social behavior as a result of participation in physical activity. Students should learn appropriate behavior in physical activities both within and outside school settings, helping them become well-rounded citizens in society. Note. Adapted from the Cyprus National Physical Education Curriculum Standards (MESYC, n.d.c) The claim that PE is moving beyond traditional sport-focused approaches, embracing a multidimensional perspective that recognises the subject’s vital role in both academic achievement and lifelong well-being, is also prominent there, structured around three core principles, building a solid foundation of knowledge, promoting democratic values and citizenship, and developing essential competencies for contemporary life. This framework is operationalised through the six national PE standards, which articulate what students should know and be able to do across cognitive, affective, psychomotor, and social domains. To support implementation, the Success Indicators outline the expected learning outcomes for each grade level, while the Adequacy Indicators define the content that teachers are expected to cover to help students reach those outcomes (MESYC, n.d.a). While the curriculum looks conceptually robust, its effective implementation depends on several factors, including teacher training, resource availability, institutional support, and pragmatic strategies. At the preschool level, the curriculum emphasises experiential learning and discovery-based approaches through exploration and creative challenges. While standards remain consistent across educational levels, the second standard uniquely concentrates on the activation of creative and critical thinking. Through play and guided discovery, this approach introduces movement concepts, cultivating experimentation with movement patterns, laying the foundation for higher-order thinking and embodied understanding. In primary education, the focus expands to include fundamental movement skills and patterns and basic theoretical concepts. At this stage, the emphasis lies on learning through play and structured activities, introducing basic health and fitness concepts and developing social skills through PA. Children begin to learn fundamental theoretical concepts such as body awareness, spatial orientation, and basic movement principles. They are introduced to key anatomical terminology, including major muscle groups and basic body systems, presented in age-appropriate language and context. Middle school students build on this foundation by learning more complex movement patterns, sportspecific techniques and strategies and introductory fitness and biomechanical principles. The theoretical content expands to include a more detailed understanding of training principles, heart rate response and energy systems, allowing students to make connections between physical performance and physiological mechanisms. By high school, students are expected to demonstrate theoretical knowledge and applied physical competence. The curriculum advances to sophisticated skill development and complex movement patterns, comprehensive theoretical understanding of exercise science. The curriculum proposes several pedagogical approaches for integrating this theory and practice. Direct instruction methods include brief explanations during activity transitions, structured lessons on specific concepts, demonstration and analysis sessions, and guided discovery learning opportunities. These theoretical components are then reinforced through practical application, including integrating Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 33 concepts during physical activities, real-time feedback and correction, student-led analysis and problemsolving, and cross-curricular connections with science and mathematics. Table 3. Distribution of Thematic Units, Success Indicators and Teaching hours across Educational Levels in the Cypriot PE Curriculum Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 34 Based only on recommendations by the PE Inspectors Office, assessment takes on three forms, diagnostic, formative, and summative (MESYC, n.d.b). Each form serves a distinct purpose within the teaching and learning process. Diagnostic assessment is employed at the outset of instruction to identify learning gaps or specific needs of students, enabling tailored, individualised support. Formative assessment is embedded throughout the instructional process and entails continuous and systematic monitoring of student progress. Through timely corrective and supportive interventions by the teacher, it facilitates students’ progression toward expected learning outcomes. This assessment form is considered an essential and dynamic element of pedagogical practice in PE, directly contributing to achieving curricular goals. In contrast, summative assessment is typically conducted at the conclusion of a defined instructional period and is used to determine the extent to which learning objectives have been met. The assessment framework presents a comprehensive system across all levels, combining practical and theoretical evaluation methods. Practical assessment includes skill performance evaluation, game play observation, physical fitness testing, and movement analysis. Theoretical assessment encompasses written tests, quizzes, project work, student portfolios, and oral presentations. Despite this structured approach, practical challenges persist. Teachers often report limited time, insufficient training, and a lack of tools to apply these assessment models effectively. The overarching assessment criterion in Cyprus PE is each student’s individual progress. Rather than comparing students against one another, assessment practices are based on the principle of intraindividual development, wherein students are evaluated relative to their growth and achievements or, maybe implicitly, with their own PL development. To support these assessment practices, educators are supposed to utilise a variety of developmentally appropriate tools, selected according to the age and maturity of the students. While this comprehensive assessment framework demonstrates a thoughtful design, its practical implementation presents significant challenges. Teachers must effectively present complex theoretical concepts in practical, engaging contexts while maintaining appropriate PA levels. That said, teachers play a central and increasingly empowered role in driving curricular innovation (Grecic et al., 2024). As autonomy increases, so does the need for targeted training and professional responsibility to ensure that complex theoretical content enhances rather than detracts from the quality of movement experiences. PE Teacher Qualifications and Training The teaching of PE in Cyprus is formally regulated by both national legislation and European directives. The profession falls under the provisions of Directive 2005/36/EC of the European Commission (European Commission, n.d.) and is governed nationally by Law Ν.17(I)/1995, known as the ‘Ο ΠΕΡΙ ΕΓΓΡΑΦΗΣ ΓΥΜΝΑΣΤΩΝ ΝΟΜΟΣ ΤΟΥ 1995’ (Republic of Cyprus, 1995). This legal framework defines the qualifications required for individuals to offer PE and exercise-related instructional services in the Republic of Cyprus. According to this legislation, individuals must possess a title/university degree recognised by the Cyprus Council for the Recognition of Higher Education Qualifications (KY.S.A.T.S.) (KYSATS, n.d.). The title/university degree must be deemed equivalent and corresponding to an existing four-year academic programme, used as the benchmark for evaluation. Such a benchmark is generally provided by the programmes offered at public universities or other public tertiary education institutions in Cyprus. However, in the case of PE and Sports Science degrees, Cyprus’ public higher education institutions currently offer no equivalent programmes. As a result, KY.S.A.T.S. evaluates relevant qualifications by referencing the corresponding programmes provided by public universities in Greece, which serve as the primary benchmark for assessing academic equivalence and correspondence. This regulatory framework apparently ensures that PE professionals in Cyprus possess formally recognised academic training and are held to uniform national standards, reinforcing the field's professionalisation and credibility, as also advocated in UNESCO’s (2015) Quality Physical Education guidelines. However, this requirement applies exclusively to secondary education PE teachers whose degrees align with the stipulated regulatory framework. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 35 Once appointed to public schools, secondary education PE teachers are required to complete the Preservice Training Program for Secondary Education Educational Officers (ΠΠΚΥΕΛΜΕ) (University of Cyprus, n.d.), which covers an additional academic year. The ΠΠΚΥΕΛΜΕ is underpinned by the position that epistemological competence in a subject cannot by itself constitute a basis for quality teaching and learning. The program aims to equip graduates with all those experiences and skills that will enable them to practically interpret pedagogical theories and transform the content of various subjects, including PE, to successfully exercise their role in the school environment. Meanwhile, PE at the primary level is typically delivered by generalist teachers with a Degree in Primary Education. In the current educational landscape of Cyprus, four private universities offer undergraduate academic programmes in PE and Sport Science that are evaluated as equivalent and corresponding to the established national benchmarks used for professional recognition. As such, graduates of these programmes are eligible for registration as physical educators under the existing legal framework and may pursue employment within the field of PE, though their exposure to PL frameworks varies significantly depending on institutional curricula and teaching placements. However, ongoing efforts are needed to ensure coherence between initial training, continuous professional development and pedagogical expectations. Despite these formal regulatory structures, readiness to implement PL principles remains uneven across educational levels, leaving a gap which calls for strategic investment in teacher education and a professional support system. Future Research Routes While Cyprus has made substantial progress in aligning its PE curriculum with holistic, inclusive, and lifelong learning goals, PL remains largely implicitly adopted rather than explicitly embedded. Bridging this gap requires empirical investigation into how PL principles are understood, applied, and experienced within school communities. Building on the conceptual and systemic foundations outlined in this chapter, future research in Cyprus should focus on critically examining and redefining the role and delivery of PE through the lens of PL. A proposed research route would explore pupils' and teachers' perceptions of PL within the Cypriot PE landscape. Research should assess how teachers conceptualise PL, their confidence in delivering PL-aligned pedagogy and the professional development supports needed to build capacity. Ideally, in this same line, future research should explore students’ experiences, expectations and personal perceptions of PL across education, examining how these factors correlate with assuming the responsibility for engagement in PA and broader wellbeing outcomes. This dual-perspective approach could yield actionable recommendations for teacher training, curriculum enrichment, school policy, student development, preventive health, and educational inclusion in Cyprus. This responds directly to global policy imperatives, including UNESCO’s call for Quality Physical Education (UNESCO, 2015), and the International Physical Literacy Association’s (IPLA, 2017) widely endorsed definition of PL as: “The motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life.” The potential of PL to act as a guiding philosophy that aligns with the broader educational mission of PE is also highlighted in several studies (e.g., Kern et al., 2023; Kirk, 2009). In Cyprus, emerging research initiatives, led by authors of this chapter, are already contributing to this agenda, signalling a growing academic commitment to embedding PL in national education discourse. These research routes respond directly to recent calls for deeper national-level exploration of PL integration in underrepresented regions, such as Cyprus and Southern Europe (Carl et al., 2024). Ultimately, this body of research has the potential to serve as a catalyst for transformative educational reform. By meaningfully placing PL at the heart of curriculum design and pedagogical practice, Cyprus can contribute to a regional movement that promotes inclusive, equitable, and holistic PE for all children, one that prioritises lifelong engagement, wellbeing, and personal development through PA. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 36 References Carl, J., Bryant, A. S., Edwards, L. C., Bartle, G., Birch, J. E., Christodoulides, E., ... & Elsborg, P. (2023). Physical literacy in Europe: The current state of implementation in research, practice, and policy. Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness, 21(1), 165-176. Carl, J., Jaunig, J., Schnith, L., Mayer, J., O’Connor, J., & Young, L. (2024). Mapping the ‘lifelong journey’of physical literacy: a biographical assessment method for the physical activity and health context. Sport, Education and Society, 1-15. 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WHO-EURO-2022-6594-46360-67071-eng.pdf WHO (2018). Global action plan on physical activity 2018–2030: more active people for a healthier world. Geneva: World Health Organization; Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. 9789241514187eng.pdf Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 45 Research on Competency Characteristics and Promotion Strategies of Middle School Physical Education Teachers Under the New Curriculum Standard. Zhang Xinyi 1 – Garry Kuan 1 – Yee Cheng Kueh 2– Li Shiming 3 1 Exercise and Sports Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia; 2 Biostatistics and Research Methodology Unit, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia; 3 Physical Education Department, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong, China e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Education is a vital driver of national development, with teachers serving as the cornerstone of this system. The implementation of new curriculum standards demands enhanced professional competencies among educators, thereby significantly influencing educational reform. In this context, the competency of middle school physical education (PE) teachers plays a crucial role in determining the effectiveness of PE and health curricula. This study examines the current competencies of middle school PE teachers in Shandong Province through a mixed-methods approach, including literature review, interviews, questionnaires, and statistical analysis. A competency model was developed, encompassing four key dimensions: personal characteristics, knowledge base, practical skills, and ideological and behavioral guidance. Using SPSS 28.0, the analysis revealed significant differences in competence across demographic variables, including gender, educational background, and professional titles, with notable disparities within each dimension. Based on these findings, targeted strategies for optimizing teacher competencies are proposed, emphasizing the importance of ongoing professional development and tailored training to meet evolving educational standards. Ultimately, this research aims to enhance the quality of PE teaching and promote better health outcomes for students. By addressing these competency gaps, the study advocates for a holistic approach to teacher development that supports both professional growth and the advancement of physical education as a core component of comprehensive education. Key words: secondary school; physical education teacher; competency characteristics; health promotion; promotion strategies. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 46 Introduction In 2019, the State Council of China issued the “Sports Power Construction Outline”, which underscored the ambition to establish a modern socialist sports power by 2050. This framework positions sports as a pivotal element in the broader narrative of the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. Achieving high-quality development in secondary physical education is essential for realizing this goal, and such development is intricately linked to the cultivation of a cadre of high-quality physical education teachers. Consequently, in the context of the sports power strategy, the professional capabilities of physical education (PE) teachers have gained significant attention from various sectors of society (General Office of the State Council, 2019; Tiantian et al., 2022). With the swift advancement of sports initiatives, the reform of the middle school physical education curriculum has similarly garnered focus from governmental efforts (Xusheng et al., 2021). The World Health Organization (WHO) has persistently reported concerning levels of physical inactivity among adolescents, contributing to a multitude of non-communicable diseases, diminished mental health, and an overall reduction in quality of life (Pengpid et al., 2015). In light of this, strengthening awareness of physical fitness and health promotion among young people has emerged as a critical component of school physical education. Enhancing the professional quality and proficiency of PE teachers is essential for cultivating scientific and rational attitudes and behaviours related to sports among students. This evolving landscape presents new challenges and heightened expectations for PE teachers (Qianmeng et al., 2022). The exploration of competencies can be traced back to Taylor's study on "time-action" in the early 20th century (Zhong et al., 2003). The term "competency" was first explicitly proposed in Professor McClelland's article "Measuring Competency but not Intelligence", published in the American Psychologist in 1973 (cited by Zhong et al., 2003). He argued that traditional intelligence tests and ability assessments failed to predict performance in complex and high-level jobs, introducing the concept of competency as an indicator that fundamentally influences individual performance (Li et al., 2020). In 1993, British scholar Spencer characterised competency as the deep-seated personal attributes that distinguish outstanding performers from their average counterparts within specific job roles (cited by Wang et al., 2002). Despite variations in definitions among foreign scholars, there is a consensus that competency is intricately linked to performance, distinguished by traits possessed by high performers and directly related to specific job functions. As such, different positions require different competency characteristics. In the educational landscape, teacher competency refers to the professional knowledge, skills, and values that individual educators possess, all of which are instrumental in the effective implementation of successful teaching. The concept has gradually expanded to encompass various disciplines. For instance, Goh and Wong (2014) stated that "teacher competency" includes understanding the unique characteristics of each student, ensuring the accuracy of curricular content, and adapting teaching methods to suit learners' aptitudes. Consequently, as the understanding of competencies evolves, research has extended from fields such as politics and management to encompass psychology, education, economics, and other domains, significantly guiding and promoting the development of teachers' competencies. The emergence of competence frameworks in China occurred relatively late compared to those developed in foreign countries (Yuan, 2019). Initially, scholars Wang (2000) and Shi et al. (2002) stated that competency serves as a positive driving force within the working environment, proposing three dimensions of competency characteristics that contribute to effectiveness in various roles. As the concept of people-oriented education management has developed, it has gradually penetrated pedagogical research perspectives, increasing the focus on educator competencies. Diverse interpretations of the term "competence" have led to extensive research and reflection within the academic community on the notion of "teacher competence." For example, Wang (2018) argued that teacher competency is a prerequisite for effective engagement in education and teaching. The core Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 47 components of teacher competency encompass professional knowledge, professional skills, and the values that educators embody, all of which have a direct impact on teachers' practical activities and their students' learning outcomes. With ongoing reforms of the educational curriculum, the knowledge structures, skill sets, and personality traits of middle school physical education teachers will prove critical to enhancing the overall quality of educators and ensuring the successful implementation of curricular changes (Tang & Lin, 2013). In her work on constructing and testing a competency model for middle school physical education teachers, Li (2012) proposed that competency features consist of seven dimensions. This model serves as a framework for evaluating various individual traits that indicate a teacher's suitability for the role of physical educator in primary and secondary education, ultimately contributing to exemplary work performance. Further research conducted by Zhang (2011) involved constructing and empirically testing a competency model for middle school physical education teachers, identifying three primary dimensions: comprehensive ability, personality, and essential knowledge. This was achieved through literature review and questionnaire surveys, which provided valuable insights into the competencies required for effective teaching. Therefore, as the reform of physical education and health curricula continues to deepen, it becomes increasingly imperative to explore the competencies of middle school physical education teachers in the contemporary context. Addressing the existing challenges and deficiencies within this demographic and identifying effective strategies for enhancing their competencies is of paramount importance. Such efforts will not only contribute to the professional growth of physical education teachers but also support the overarching goals of improving educational quality and promoting student health. As the competence of middle school physical education teachers in the contemporary era reflects their potential and ability to navigate complex daily teaching scenarios effectively through adept behaviours. This competence serves as the distinguishing characteristic that sets exceptional physical education teachers apart from their more typical counterparts (Jianqiang et al., 2020). Therefore, this study employs a variety of research methodologies, including literature reviews, interviews, questionnaires, and mathematical statistical analysis, to investigate the current competencies of middle school PE teachers in Shandong Province. A specific emphasis is placed on analysing differences related to gender, educational background, and teaching titles, aiming to inform the development of targeted training programmes for teachers. The ultimate goal is to provide robust theoretical guidance and practical recommendations that will enhance the quality of training for middle school physical education teachers and promote the overall professional development of the teaching profession within Shandong Province. This research aspires to contribute valuable insights concerning the selection and evaluation processes of PE teachers in China, thereby supporting the overarching goal of improving educational standards and outcomes in physical education. Materials and Methods Literature search Grounded in the theory that competency is intrinsically linked to career success, this study utilises the keywords “middle school”, “physical education teacher”, “competency characteristics”, and “promotion strategies” to guide its investigative framework. A comprehensive collection of competency characteristics relevant to middle school physical education teachers was compiled from existing literature, including policy documents, journal articles, and academic research. This review aimed to synthesize insights and findings from similar studies conducted within the field. To facilitate a thorough analysis, the research team engaged in preliminary discussions supported by frequency statistics derived from the gathered data. This collaborative approach ensured a meticulous understanding of the competencies identified across various sources. As a result, the paper delineates a comprehensive summary of the competency characteristics pertinent to middle school physical Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 48 education teachers, encompassing four core elements and 21 sub-elements. These elements include personal characteristics, comprehensive knowledge, practical abilities, and guidance concerning thought and behaviour. This categorisation provides a robust theoretical foundation and literature support for the development of a competency model tailored to middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province. By identifying and characterizing these critical competencies, the study can further enhance the understanding and training of physical education teachers, thereby contributing to their professional growth and the overall improvement of physical education practices in the region. This framework not only addresses current challenges but also lays the groundwork for future research and policy formulation aimed at elevating the standards of physical education teaching. Interview The interview method is a qualitative approach that enables researchers to gain insights into the views and attitudes of participants through structured conversations between the interviewer and the interviewee. During this research, a series of interviews was conducted using various communication platforms, including phone calls and WeChat, to engage with a total of 32 physical education teachers from urban middle schools in Shandong Province. These interviews aimed to gather consensus and suggestions regarding the 21 identified competency sub-factors relevant to middle school physical education teachers in the region. By utilising this approach, the research obtained valuable first-hand information about the competencies deemed important by practitioners in the field. This data not only enriches the understanding of the competencies required for effective teaching in physical education but also provides a foundation for further recommendations on the professional development of physical education teachers in Shandong Province. Questionnaire Survey The questionnaire survey method is a systematic approach for collecting data through the administration of structured questionnaires, enabling the gathering of rigorous data from research participants. This method primarily utilises quantitative measurement techniques, allowing for the rapid and concise acquisition of substantial datasets within a brief period. As a result, it significantly enhances the efficiency of research processes and facilitates quantitative analysis of collected data. In this study, a total of 448 competence evaluation questionnaires were distributed to middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province. Among these, 435 questionnaires were returned, yielding a recovery rate of 97.1%. Of the returned questionnaires, 414 were deemed valid, resulting in a valid recovery rate of 92.41%. This substantial response rate not only underscores the relevance of the study but also provides a robust dataset for analysing the competencies of physical education teachers in the region. Mathematical Statistics After ensuring the accuracy of the data, SPSS version 28.0 was utilised for the necessary statistical processing. This involved analysing scores related to the competencies of middle school physical education teachers across 16 cities in Shandong Province. An independent samples t-test was conducted to examine potential differences in competencies between physical education teachers of different genders. Additionally, variance analysis was performed to assess the competency levels of PE teachers with varying educational backgrounds and teaching titles. These analyses constitute a critical basis for the data interpretation and conclusions presented here. Results Competency Model Development 1. Establishment of the Competency for Middle School PE Teachers in Shandong Province. The competency dictionary for middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province was Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 49 established through a comprehensive literature review. Relevant literature and materials about the competencies of middle school physical education teachers were consulted via online resources. A total of 100 competency characteristics identified in analogous studies conducted by other researchers were collected. These findings were discussed with experts in pedagogy, physical education, and personnel from provincial training centres, leading to a thorough analysis and synthesis of the information. Ultimately, a questionnaire was developed that comprised 48 terms related to the competencies of middle school physical education teachers, thereby creating a competency conceptual framework tailored to Shandong Province. 2. Preliminary Determination of Competencies Through Questionnaire Survey. The competency dictionary for middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province was Shandong Province is divided into 16 cities, from which 28 middle school physical education teachers were randomly selected as subjects for the questionnaire. Each teacher received the questionnaire containing the 48 competency characteristics. The participants were asked to indicate the 21 sub-factors they deemed most important in the context of their work as middle school physical education teachers. The intention was to gain insights into the competency characteristics of middle school PE teachers through the survey, ultimately selecting the top 21 sub-elements based on their frequency of occurrence. The results of this survey are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Competency Characteristic Frequency Table of Middle School Physical Education Teachers in Shandong Province Number Competency vocabulary Frequency (N = 414) Percentage (%) 1 Love one's job and be dedicated to one's work 411 99.28 2 Teaching practice ability 408 98.55 3 Organization and management ability 405 97.83 4 The ability to demonstrate motor skills 400 96.62 5 Subject expertise 389 93.96 6 Lifelong learning ability 368 88.89 7 Will power 351 84.78 8 Educational teaching knowledge 343 82.85 9 Communication 321 77.54 10 Information-based teaching ability 307 74.15 11 Emergency response capability 298 71.98 12 Teaching reflection and evaluation ability 284 68.59 13 Teamwork spirit 277 66.91 14 Sense of responsibility self-confidence 275 66.43 15 Sports safety and health knowledge 269 64.98 16 Self-confidence 251 60.63 17 Positive attention and encouragement 239 57.73 18 Psychological knowledge 234 56.52 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 50 19 Psychological counseling 175 42.27 20 Moral education consciousness 155 37.44 21 Education concept 154 37.20 Based on the questionnaire survey of middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province, the top 21 sub-factors were identified according to their frequency of occurrence. It was preliminarily concluded that the competency characteristics of middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province can be categorised into four core elements and 21 sub-elements. A consensus on these behavioral indicators was reached through expert interviews. The four core elements include personal characteristics, comprehensive knowledge, practical abilities, and thought and behaviour guidance. Specifically, personal characteristics encompass six sub-elements: love and dedication, cooperative mindset, communication skills, responsibility, self-confidence, and perseverance. Comprehensive knowledge includes four sub-elements: subject expertise, educational and teaching knowledge, sports safety knowledge, and psychological knowledge. Practical abilities consist of eight sub-elements: teaching practice ability, organisational and management skills, ability to demonstrate motor skills, lifelong learning ability, information-based teaching ability, emergency response skills, teaching reflection and evaluation competence, and scientific research ability. Lastly, thought and behaviour guidance includes three sub-elements: psychological guidance, moral education awareness, and educational philosophy. Collectively, these characteristics constitute a comprehensive framework of 21 competencies for physical education teachers. 3. Constructing the Competency Model of Middle School PE Teachers in Shandong Province The competency structure is also referred to as a competency model. Teacher competency encompasses the amalgamation of personal characteristics, knowledge, teaching skills, and attitudes necessary for fulfilling the role of an educator across various teaching contexts (Chang et al., 2009). According to the literature review, the concept of competency was initially proposed by Professor David McClelland of Harvard University in 1973. Within this framework, competency models are generally categorised into two types: the iceberg model（Figure 1) and the onion model (Figure 2). The onion model, in particular, effectively highlights the hierarchical relationships inherent within the internal structure of competencies. Therefore, in constructing the competency model for middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province, it is essential to consider both the comprehensiveness of the competency characteristics and the proportional significance of different characteristics within the model. Figure 1. Iceberg competency model. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 51 Figure 2. Onion competency model. Based on the analysis results in Table 1, this study proposed a competency model for middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province (Figure 3). Figure 3. Competency Model of Middle School Physical Education Teachers in Shandong Province According to this model, the competency of middle school physical education teachers in Shandong Province mainly includes four aspects, namely: 1) Personal traits: - This category includes six sub-elements: dedication, teamwork, communication skills, a sense of responsibility, self-confidence, and perseverance. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 52 2) Comprehensive knowledge: - This encompasses four sub-elements: professional discipline knowledge, knowledge of sports safety and health, education and teaching knowledge, and psychological knowledge). 3) Practical ability: - This aspect includes eight sub-elements: teaching practice ability, organisation and management capability, ability to demonstrate sports skills, lifelong learning ability, informationbased teaching ability, emergency response skills, teaching reflection and evaluation ability, and active engagement in encouragement and support., and 4) Thought and behavior guidance: - This includes three sub-elements: psychological counselling, moral education awareness, and educational philosophy. In the context of the iceberg model, comprehensive knowledge and practical abilities are regarded as the dominant factors within the competency framework, while personal characteristics and thought and behaviour guidance serve as recessive factors. Personal Traits The primary indicators of “personal traits” include dedication to the profession, teamwork spirit, effective communication, responsibility, self-confidence, and perseverance. Physical education teachers are expected to uphold the teaching philosophy of “health first”. Strong personal qualities are foundational to establishing harmonious teacher-student relationships and fostering positive student characteristics, such as a cheerful disposition, self-discipline, cooperation, and fairness (Zhang, 2011). Furthermore, these traits are crucial for teachers to engage in successful pedagogical practices, reflecting an overall positive and stable emotional demeanor. The role of physical education teachers in middle schools extends beyond imparting sports skills and enhancing students’ physical fitness; it also involves delivering quality education that nurtures holistic student development throughout the physical education curriculum. Comprehensive Knowledge The comprehensive knowledge includes several critical areas, including subject-specific professional knowledge, sports safety and health knowledge, educational and teaching knowledge, and psychological knowledge. The establishment of a robust knowledge system is essential for educators to fulfil their roles competently. In light of increasingly rigorous demands placed on middle school physical education due to curriculum reforms, physical education teachers must possess not only foundational theoretical knowledge and practical skills related to their subject but also interdisciplinary knowledge that includes insights from psychology and sociology. This diverse knowledge base is vital for promoting the coordinated development of students. Therefore, physical education teaching is a multifaceted endeavour that integrates theory with practice, intellectual engagement with physical activity, and serves as a collective societal experience, necessitating a comprehensive knowledge repertoire for middle school physical education teachers. Practical Ability The practical abilities of physical education teachers encompass not only the general teaching competencies typical of all educators but also the specialised skills uniquely required for physical education. This practical ability can be further subdivided into specific domains, including teaching practice ability, organisational and management skills, proficiency in demonstrating sports skills, lifelong learning capacity, information-based teaching ability, emergency response skills, teaching reflection and evaluation ability, and the ability to engage and encourage students actively. Practical ability is integral to the professional growth of physical education teachers, as it complements pedagogical theory and forms the core of effective teaching practice. Mastery of these practical skills is hence paramount in ensuring that physical education teachers can deliver high-quality instruction and support student development. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 53 Thought and Behaviour Guidance The guidance of thought and behaviour incorporates psychological support, moral education, awareness, and educational philosophy. The recently updated curriculum outlines that physical education and health programmes should not solely focus on promoting students' physical fitness and sports skills but also aim to cultivate a lifelong capacity for physical education while attending to their mental and emotional development (New Outline, 2020). The middle school years represent a period marked by significant physical and psychological changes, as well as a critical time for the formation of students' values, thought processes, behavioural norms, and social conduct. Thus, middle school physical education teachers are uniquely positioned to guide students in navigating their thoughts and behaviours, providing appropriate outlets for negative emotions through physical education activities. Additionally, encouraging student participation in sports competitions or engaging with athletic video games can further enhance their character development and overall well-being. Through these approaches, physical education teachers play a vital role in shaping not only students' athletic abilities but also their personal growth and social responsibility. Analysis of the Differences in the Competency Characteristics of Middle School PE Teachers In alignment with the competency model for middle school physical education teachers, a questionnaire was developed to assess the competencies of physical education teachers in Shandong Province. The questionnaire was administered to 448 respondents, resulting in the recovery of 435 copies. After excluding invalid responses, a total of 414 questionnaires were utilised, yielding a response rate of 92.41%. The questionnaire encompassed not only the personal data of respondents but also the background and objectives of the survey, along with the evaluation indicators previously discussed. Basic demographic information about the respondents is presented in Table 2 below. Table 2. Basic Information of the Respondents Factor Category Respondents (n) Percentage (%) Gender Male 313 75.6% Female 101 24.4% Age Under 25 years old 69 16.67% 26-35 years old 116 28.02% 36-45 years old 100 24.15% 46-50 years old 98 23.67% Over 50 years old 31 7.49% Teaching experiences Less than 5 years 121 29.23% 5-10 years 71 17.15% 10-20 years 77 18.6% 20-30 years 122 29.47% More than 30 years 23 5.56% Educational background Below undergraduate level 19 4.59% Undergraduate course 358 86.47% Postgraduate and above 37 8.94% Teaching title Senior teacher 20 4.83% Associate senior teacher 78 18.84% First-grade teacher 164 39.61% Second-grade teacher 152 36.71% Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 54 Analysis of PE Teachers of Different Genders in Middle Schools An independent samples t-test was used to compare the mean competency scores of male and female middle school PE teachers in Shandong Province across various dimensions, as outlined in Table 3. The analysis included male PE teachers (N=313) and female PE teachers (N=101). Table 3. Analysis of PE Teachers of Different Genders (N=414) Competency dimension Male Female t p-value Mean± S.D Mean± S.D Personal trait 9.09±1.38 9.06±1.62 0.212 0.832 Comprehensive knowledge 8.92±1.44 8.94±1.63 -0.128 0.898 Practical ability 8.84±1.41 8.78±1.64 0.335 0.738 Thought and behaviour guidance 8.99±1.44 8.89±1.67 0.555 0.579 Through the analysis, it was found that the average scores of male middle school PE teachers surpassed those of their female counterparts in three dimensions: personal traits, practical ability, and thought and behaviour guidance. Conversely, female PE teachers scored higher in the comprehensive knowledge. However, the significance values (p-values) for all four dimensions were greater than 0.05, indicating no statistically significant differences in the competency across these dimensions for middle school PE teachers in Shandong Province. Analysis of PE Teachers with Different Academic Qualifications In the analysis of competency based on academic qualifications, the respondents' educational qualifications were categorized into three levels: below undergraduate level (N = 19), undergraduate degree (N = 358), and postgraduate degree (N = 37). The results of this analysis are presented in Table 4. Table 4. Competency Difference analysis of PE teachers with different educational backgrounds (N=412) Competency dimension Educational background Mean±SD F p-value Personal trait Below undergraduate level 8.65±1.97 1.782 .170 Undergraduate course 9.07±1.46 Postgraduate 9.40±0.67 Comprehensive knowledge Below undergraduate level 8.28±2.11 3.755 .024 ✱ Undergraduate course 8.91±1.49 Postgraduate 9.40±0.67 Practical ability Below undergraduate level 8.22±2.08 2.441 .088 Undergraduate course 8.82±1.47 Postgraduate 9.13±0.78 Thought and behaviour guidance Below undergraduate level 8.50±2.21 1.562 .211 Undergraduate course 8.96±1.50 Postgraduate 9.24±0.86 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 61 Practical during Physical Education: Utilising OMNI Rate of Perceived Exertion Color-Face Scale Among Obese Adolescents in Singapore. Govindasamy Balasekaran 1 – Ng Yew Cheo 1 1 Nanyang Technological University, Singapore e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Purpose: To investigate the effects of utilizing the OMNI Rate of Perceived Exertion Color-Face scale (OMNI RPE CFS) during exercise intervention for severely obese youths. Methods: A total of 45 participants (Study 1: 26 participants (age: 14.27 ± 0.96 yrs, height: 1.59 ± 0.08 m, weight 82.50 ± 11.38 kg, body mass index (BMI) 32.44 ± 2.79 kg·m-2; study 2: 19 participants (age: 14.37 ± 1.30yrs, 1.61 ± 9.29 m, 87.61 ± 19.61 kg, 33.33 ± 4.65 kg·m-2) participated in this study. Participants underwent 12 sessions including a familiarization trial and anchoring orientation on the use of the OMNI RPE CFS. Participants did a 5-minute warm up, 5-minute break (record HR and RPE), 35 minutes of game play (record HR and RPE). Results: Study 1: There were significant differences between preand post-height (pre-height: 1.59 ± 0.08 m vs. post-height: 1.61 ± 0.07 m, p = 0.010); pre-BMI and post-BMI (pre-BMI: 32.44 ± 2.79 kg·m-2 vs. post-BMI: 31.86 ± 2.80 kg·m-2, p = 0.044). Study 2: There were significant differences between preand post-height (pre-height: 1.61 ± 9.29 m vs. post-height: 1.63 ± 9.48 m, p = 0.003); warm up RPE and game RPE (warm up RPE: 3.10 ± 1.37 vs. game RPE: 4.95 ± 1.67, p = 0.000). Conclusion: The OMNI CFS can be employed by sports practitioners, Physical Education teachers, coaches, and student-athletes as a practical tool to monitor and regulate exercise intensity, thereby facilitating training within optimal effort zones while simultaneously promoting greater enjoyment of physical activity. Key words: obesity, self-regulation, exercise intensity Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 62 Introduction The rate of perceived exertion (RPE) is defined as an individual’s subjective perception of effort, strain, discomfort, and/or fatigue experienced during physical activity (Noble & Robertson, 1996). Numerous studies have demonstrated that RPE scales are widely utilised to provide a subjective estimate of exercise intensity, closely reflecting underlying physiological responses such as heart rate (HR), oxygen consumption (VO2), blood lactate concentration, and pulmonary ventilation. The OMNI RPE scale, developed to enhance accessibility and accuracy across diverse populations, uses a 0–10 scale accompanied by modality-specific pictorial descriptors tailored for different age groups (Robertson et al., 2004; Borg, 1988; Borg, 1990). This allows individuals to self-regulate their exercise intensity effectively. Previous research has shown that the OMNI RPE scale is a reliable tool for guiding safe and appropriate exercise intensities, particularly for promoting weight loss and improving cardiorespiratory fitness (Balasekaran et al., 2014). In clinical, educational, and athletic settings, OMNI RPE scales offer a simple, cost-effective, and non-invasive method for monitoring and prescribing exercise intensity. Beyond internal physiological and psychological states, recent research has begun to explore how external sensory stimuli may influence perceived exertion. For instance, different colours have associated with different states of emotion and individual perceptions regarding their external environment (Tanaka, Weiskopf, & Williams, 2001). Visual colour perception also affects mood and perceived exertion during exercise. Another study revealed that lower total mood disturbance and RPE was found during cycling performance when participants were exposed to colour green compared to other colours such as grey or red (Akers et al., 2012). In addition, the use of facial scale has also shown to correlate with RPE and exercise intensity (Huang & Chiou, 2017). This presented new perspective of how an observer can use facial scale to determine exertion level during exercise. Understanding these factors is especially important in light of growing public health challenges, such as the increasing prevalence of obese and overweight children in technologically advanced countries (Gupta, Balasekaran, Govindaswamy, Haw & Shun, 2011). Therefore, the following studies investigated the effects of self-regulation by utilising the OMNI Rate of Perceived Exertion Color-Face Scale (OMNI RPE CFS) on obese students’ physiological responses during exercise. Materials and Methods This study consists of a longitudinal study based on two batches of participants – Study 1 and Study 2. Participants were selected based on their body mass index (BMI), which classified them as severely overweight according to World Health Organization (WHO, 2023) standards, following standardized height and weight assessments. A total of 45 participants (Study 1: 26 participants (age: 14.27 ± 0.96 yrs, height: 1.59 ± 0.08 m, weight 82.50 ± 11.38 kg, body mass index (BMI) 32.44 ± 2.79 kg·m-2; study 2: 19 participants (age: 14.37 ± 1.30yrs, 1.61 ± 9.29 m, 87.61 ± 19.61 kg, 33.33 ± 4.65 kg·m-2)) participated in this study (Table 1). Participants underwent a preand post-Bioimpedance Analysis (BIA) scan that was conducted at the National Institute of Education (NIE)/ Nanyang Technological University (NTU). A talk was also conducted by Assoc. Prof. Dr. G. Balasekaran (NIE/NTU) on body composition that included exercise and nutrition. Subsequently, participants completed an exercise intervention programme for 45 minutes for 12 sessions in studies 1 and 2. In the first session, participants went through a familiarisation trial and anchoring orientation to understand how to apply the OMNI CFS (Figure 1) and measure their HR during their exercise. For the remaining 11 sessions, the intervention programme consisted of a 5-minute warm up (light jogging and stretches), 5 minutes’ water break and 35 minutes of net barrier or invasion games (e.g., badminton, modified frisbee, netball, Kinball etc.). At the end of the warm up and game, participants recorded their RPE and HR into a google form. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 63 For study 1, participants were loaned a Polar heart rate sensor to track their heart rate (HR) and in study 2, participants were provided a Smart Band watch to track their HR during the exercise intervention. Figure 1. OMNI Rate of Perceived Exertion Color-Face Scale Table 1. Studies 1 and 2 Participants’ Descriptive Statistics (n = 26, n = 19). Variables Pre Mean ± SD Post Mean ± SD P Value Study 1 (n = 26) Age (years) 14.27 ± 0.96 14.27 ± 0.96 - Height (m) 1.59 ± 0.08 1.61 ± 0.07 0.010* Weight (kg) 82.50 ± 11.38 82.50 ± 10.56 0.994 Body Mass Index (BMI) (kg∙m-2) 32.44 ± 2.79 31.86 ± 2.80 0.044* Study 2 (n = 19) Age (years) 14.37 ± 1.30 14.37 ± 1.30 - Height (m) 1.61 ± 9.29 1.63 ± 9.48 0.003* Weight (kg) 87.61 ± 19.61 87.70 ± 19.86 0.958 Body Mass Index (BMI) (kg∙m -2 ) 33.33 ± 4.65 32.83 ± 2.38 0.490 Values are in mean ± SD. Age (years); height (meters, m); weight (kilograms, kg); body mass index (BMI, kilograms per square meter, kg∙m-2). *Indicates significant difference between preand post-intervention (p<0.005). Both studies used a power of 0.80 and α level of 0.05 with an effect size of > 1.1, and it was determined that a sample size of minimally 10 participants per group were required (Robertson et al., 2001). Paired sample t-test for intervention groups, independent t-test between both groups, Pearson’s Correlation Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 64 from IBM SPSS Statistics 23.0 were used to analyse the data. Results Study 1: There were significant differences between preand post-height (pre-height: 1.59 ± 0.08 m vs. post-height: 1.61 ± 0.07 m, p = 0.010); pre-BMI and post-BMI (pre-BMI: 32.44 ± 2.79 kg·m-2 vs. post-BMI: 31.86 ± 2.80 kg·m-2, p = 0.044) (Table 1); warm up RPE and game RPE (warm up RPE: 3.03 ± 1.70 vs. game RPE: 4.22 ± 1.41, p = 0.000); warm up HR and game HR (warm up HR: 123.81 ± 23.14 beats·min-1 vs. game HR: 140.42 ± 21.52 beats·min-1, p = 0.000) (Table 2). There were significant positive correlations between RPE and HR for warm up (RPE: 3.03 ± 1.70 vs. HR: 123.81 ± 23.14 beats·min-1, R2 = 0.310, p = 0.01); game (RPE: 4.22 ± 1.41 vs. HR: 140.42 ± 21.52 beats·min1, R2 = 0.313, p = 0.01). Study 2: There were significant differences between preand post-height (pre-height: 1.61 ± 9.29 m vs. post-height: 1.63 ± 9.48 m, p = 0.003) (Table 1); warm up RPE and game RPE (warm up RPE: 3.10 ± 1.37 vs. game RPE: 4.95 ± 1.67, p = 0.000); warm up HR and game HR (warm up HR: 83.48 ± 16.08 beats·min-1 vs. game HR: 94.28 ± 26.60 beats·min-1, p = 0.009). There were no significant differences between preand post-weight (pre-weight: 87.61 ± 19.61 kg vs. post-weight: 87.70 ± 19.86 kg, p = 0.958); pre-BMI and post-BMI (pre-BMI: 33.33 ± 4.65 kg·m-2 vs. post-BMI: 32.83 ± 2.38 kg·m-2, p = 0.490) (Table 2). There were significant positive correlations between pre-weight and preBMI (pre-weight: 87.61 ± 19.61 kg vs. pre-BMI: 32.83 ± 2.38 kg·m-2, R2 = 0.886, p = 0.00); postweight and post-BMI (post-weight: 87.70 ± 19.86 kg vs. post-BMI: 32.83 ± 2.38 kg·m-2, R2 = 0.856, p = 0.00). Table 2. Reported registered values of T0 (top table) and T1 (bottom table) with numerical scores. Variables (N = 10) Warm up Game P value Study 1 HR (beats∙min-1) 123.81 ± 23.14 140.42 ± 21.52* 0.000* OMNI RPE 3.03 ± 1.70 4.22 ± 1.41* 0.000* Study 2 HR (beats∙min-1) 83.48 ± 16.08 94.28 ± 26.60 0.009* OMNI RPE 3.10 ± 1.37 4.95 ± 1.67 0.000* Values are in mean ± standard deviation (SD). Heart rate (HR, beats∙min-1); OMNI rate of perceived exertion (RPE). *Indicates significant difference (p<0.05). Discussion The participants’ growth was developing progressively as there was a significant difference in their preand post-height, and there was no significant difference for their preand post-weight. The results may suggest that participants may have an increase in lean muscle mass from the exercise. There is a significant difference for intensity discrimination among the students based on their OMNI RPE across all sessions. In study 1, participants achieved an average of 67.97% of their maximum HR (HRmax) across all exercise sessions. They were able to keep within 60-80% of their HRmax. This also correlates to the participants’ HR and RPE of 140.42 ± 21.52 beats·min-1 and 4.22 ± 1.41 respectively. In study 2, participants maintained an average of 45.77% of HRmax during the game. However, this needs to be further investigated as the HR sensor from the Smart Band watch may not be as accurate. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 65 Evidence from these studies recommend and encourage students to exercise at ventilatory breakpoint (Vpt) by keeping their OMNI RPE between 4 and 6. This would allow individuals to reap cardiovascular benefits, and simultaneously reduce the risk of sustaining any injuries and prevents early burnout (Balasekaran et al., 2022; Balasekaran et al., 2019; Robertson, 2004; Robertson, et al., 2001; Robertson et al., 2000; Stoudemire et al., 1996). The participants were able to self-regulate their exercise intensity using the OMNI CFS during physical activities and significantly reduce their BMI after the 11 sessions of exercise. Additionally, previous investigations also revealed that obese participants experience weight loss in post-interventions by utilizing the OMNI RPE scale during physical activities and games (Table 3) (Balasekaran et al., 2014). Therefore, by utilizing the OMNI RPE CFS scale, obese youths can also use it to as a guide for exercise intensity while gradually increasing exercise duration as recommended by WHO and ACSM (ACSM, 2018). Table 3. Examples of OMNI RPE Application during Physical Education (PE) Lessons. RPE 0, 1, 2, 3 4, 5, 6 7, 8, 9, 10 Intensity Low Moderate (Vpt) High Example of Activity During warm up and cool down: Slow jogging/recovery runs, stretching Invasion games i.e., Hockey, Soccer, Captain’s Ball, Floorball etc. Not appropriate. High risk of injuries. RPE: rate of perceived exertion. Vpt: Ventilatory breakpoint. Adapted from Balasekaran et al., 2019; Balasekaran et al., 2021. Conclusion Sports practitioners, Physical Education teachers, obese individuals may utilize the OMNI CFS during their exercise and physical activity sessions to exercise within an optimal intensity. The use of the OMNI CFS offers a practical strategy for regulating exercise intensity among overweight individuals, particularly in educational and training settings. By allowing the individual to monitor their RPE, the scale helps ensure that physical activity is performed within an optimal intensity range (OMNI RPE 4 – 6). Simultaneously, this approach may enhance the enjoyment of physical activity and exercise, as overweight individuals are not required to overexert themselves, which can often lead to negative perceptions of exercise. Promoting a more enjoyable and sustainable exercise experience is essential in encouraging long-term physical activity adherence, especially in populations at higher risk for sedentary behaviour and related health complications. References ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription. (2018). In Riebe, D., Ehrman, J. K., Liguori, G., & Magal, M. (Eds.). Wolters Kluwer. Akers, A., Barton, J., Cossey, R., Gainsford, P., Griffin, M., & Micklewright, D. (2012). Visual color perception in green exercise: Positive effects on mood and perceived exertion. Environmental science & technology, 46(16), 8661-8666. Balasekaran, G., Thor, D., Ng, Y. C., & Boey, P. (2022). A normalized rate of perceived exertion at ventilatory breakpoint for different exercise modalities and production of exercise intensity with self-regulation for Singapore children. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness. (Preprint DOI: 10.23736/S0022-4707.22.13411-0). Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 66 Balaskearan, G., Govindaswamy, V.V., Lim J.Z., Boey, P., Ng, Y.C. (2021). Applied Physiology Exercise. World Scientific. Balasekaran, G., Loh, M. K., Govindaswamy, V. V., & Cai, S. J. (2014). Omni Scale Perceived Exertion responses in obese and normal weight male adolescents during cycle exercise. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 54(2), 186-196. Gupta, N., Balasekaran, G., Govindaswamy, V. V., Hwa, C. Y., & Shun, L. M. (2011). Comparison of body composition with bioelectric impedance (BIA) and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) among Singapore Chinese. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 14(1), 33-35. Huang, D. H., & Chiou, W. K. (2017). G8-4 The effect of pictorial face images for observational rating of perceived exertion. The Japanese Journal of Ergonomics, 53 (Supplement 2), S688-S691. Noble, B. J., & Robertson, R. J. (1996). Perceived exertion. (No Title). Robertson, R. J. (2004). Perceived exertion for practitioners: rating effort with the OMNI picture system. Human Kinetics. Robertson, R.J., Goss, F.L., Boer, N., Gallagher, J.D., Thompkins, T., Bufalino, K., Balasekaran, G., Meckes, C., Pintar, J., Williams, A. (2001). OMNI scale perceived exertion at ventilatory breakpoint in children: response normalized. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 33(11):1946-1952. Robertson, R. J., Moyna, N. M., Sward, K. L., Millich, N. B., Goss, F. L., & Thompson, P. D. (2000). Gender comparison of RPE at absolute and relative physiological criteria. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 32(12), 2120-2129. Stoudemire, N.M., Wideman, L., Pass, K.A., McGinnes, C.L., Gaesser, G.A., Weltman, A. (1996). The validity of regulating blood lactate concentration during running by ratings of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 28:490–495 Tanaka, J., Weiskopf, D., & Williams, P. (2001). The role of color in high-level vision. Trends in cognitive sciences, 5(5), 211-215. World Health Organization. (2023). Body mass index – BMI. [Retrieved 2 May, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight] Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 67 Integrating Technical Skill Development, Tactical Understanding and Motivation: An Example from a Tennis Camp Programme in Malaysia. Lingsong Li 1 – Yin Liang 1 – Garry Kuan 1 1 Exercise and Sports Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kelantan, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This study examines how a tennis camp programme integrates skill development and theoretical understanding to enhance participants’ motor skills and tactical comprehension. The analysis focuses on the design logic and pedagogical framework of the programme, drawing upon motor skill learning theories, such as Fitts and Posner's three-stage model of skill acquisition, and self-determination theory. Through a case study of a six-week tennis camp, this chapter explores the course objectives, teaching methods, participant feedback, and training outcomes. The findings indicated that a course structure that combines theoretical instruction with skill training effectively improves participants’ technical mastery, tactical decision-making abilities, and long-term motivation in the sport. This study provides physical educators and coaches with an empirical foundation for optimizing training programmes. Key words: tennis training camp, skill development, theoretical instruction, motor skill learning, case analysis. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 68 Introduction In recent years, the field of sports skill training has undergone significant changes, evolving from a traditional “technology-cantered” model to a more holistic “skill and theory” approach (Schmidt et al., 2008). This shift reflects a growing understanding of the comprehensive development of athletes within physical education, emphasising not only the accuracy and proficiency of technical movements but also the mastery of theoretical knowledge, including sports principles, tactical strategies, and sports psychology (Waldziński et al., 2024). However, despite the theoretical advantages of this comprehensive training model, effectively integrating skill development with theoretical understanding into specific training plans remains a pressing issue (Zhang et al., 2024). The theoretical foundation of this study is grounded in Fitts and Posner’s three-stage model of skill acquisition (Fitts & Posner, 1967), which provides a robust framework for understanding the motor skill development process (Luo et al., 2024). This model delineates the skill acquisition process into three distinct stages: cognitive, associative, and autonomous (Caccianiga et al., 2023). During the cognitive stage, learners familiarize themselves with the task requirements and basic action patterns through observation and practice; in the associative stage, learners refine their coordination of various movement components through repetitive drills, facilitating smoother action sequences; and in the autonomous stage, the execution of actions becomes highly skilled and automatic, requiring minimal conscious control (Palaiothodorou et al., 2024). This model not only clarifies the stages of motor skill development but also serves as a basis for designing effective training programmes (Atatekin et al., 2024). Self-determination theory (SDT) introduces a valuable perspective for understanding motor skill training (Zhu et al., 2024). Proposed by Deci and Ryan, SDT posits that autonomy, competence, and relatedness significantly influence learners’ engagement and learning efficacy (Wang et al., 2024). In the context of sports skill training, learner autonomy is reflected in their ability to independently select training content, methods, and pacing. A sense of competence is linked to the learners’ self-efficacy regarding their skill levels, while relatedness pertains to the support and recognition they receive from coaches and peers. SDT suggests that fulfilling these three basic psychological needs enhances motivation for learning and, consequently, participation and performance outcomes. Despite the strong theoretical backing provided by Fitts and Posner’s model and self-determination theory, the challenge remains to effectively incorporate these principles into practical training plans, particularly in the context of tennis training camps (Oppici et al., 2022). Traditional tennis training often emphasises repetitive technical practice while neglecting the teaching and application of theoretical knowledge (Quan et al., 2024). Furthermore, such approaches may overlook the cultivation of learners’ autonomy, competencies, and sense of belonging. Therefore, this study aimed to explore methods for effectively integrating skill development and theoretical understanding in tennis training camp curricula, drawing upon both Fitts and Posner’s model and self-determination theory to enhance participants’ overall athletic abilities and comprehension of tennis. The intent is to combine theoretical instruction with practical training through scientifically sound curriculum design while also addressing the psychological needs of learners. By mastering foundational skills, participants will gain deeper insights into tactical principles, competition strategies, and psychological adjustment techniques pertaining to tennis. This research is expected to provide innovative training models for tennis coaches and sports educators, ultimately promoting the holistic development of athletes in both theoretical and practical domains. Methods Research Participants In this study, 60 young tennis players aged 12 to 16 years from a tennis club in Harbin, Heilongjiang Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 69 Province, participated in a six-week tennis training camp held in Penang, Malaysia. The participants were grouped according to their skill levels: beginners, intermediate, and advanced, 20 persons at each level. To ensure the integrity of the data collection process, the study was conducted under professional supervision. Results were communicated to the school administration to support informed decisionmaking regarding the programme. All participants’ parents provided informed consent for their children’s involvement, and participants were informed about their right to withdraw from the study at any point without facing any repercussions. Training Course Structure The tennis camp followed a “theory and practice” integrated model. Training sessions were conducted four times per week, each lasting 90 minutes. The course components were structured as follows: a) Theoretical Instruction (30 minutes): This segment introduced participants to basic tactics, key technical points, psychological strategies, the rules of the game, and motivation in sports. b) Technical Skills Training (60 minutes): Building upon the theoretical discussions, participants engaged in targeted technical training exercises, including serving, receiving, baseline attacks, and defensive manoeuvres. Assessments were conducted bi-weekly to measure progress, including technical assessment tests (e.g., service success rate test, Stability of baseline returns test, Forehand and backhand accuracy tests, and Percentage of wins), Theoretical cognitive assessment methods (Tactical awareness test) and selfassessment learning motivation questionnaires for the participants. Technical Assessment Tests a) Service Success Rate Test Objective: To evaluate the basic serving skills of participants. Equipment: Standard tennis court, tennis balls, and service area markers. Procedure: Each participant served 10 one-shots and 10 two-shots from the designated service area. The number of successful serves that landed in the opponent’s effective service area was recorded. Scoring Criteria: The service success rate was calculated using the formula: Service Success Rate = (Successful Serves/Total Serves) *100%. b) Baseline Returns Test Objective: To assess the stability and consistency of participants’ returns during baseline exchanges. Equipment: Standard tennis court, tennis balls, and optional video equipment for subsequent analysis. Procedure: Participants paired with coaches at the baseline for 5 minutes. The number of successful returns that landed in the opponent's court, without going out of bounds, was recorded. Scoring Criteria: A comprehensive score was assigned based on the success rate and the consistency of depth, speed, and angle. A threshold was established for high scores, such as achieving at least eight successful returns out of ten attempts. c) Forehand and Backhand Accuracy Tests Objective: To evaluate the accuracy of forehand and backhand strokes. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 70 Equipment: Target area markers (e.g., cones or tape) and tennis balls. Procedure: Participants hit 10 forehand and 10 backhand strokes from the baseline towards defined target areas. The number of balls landing within the target area was recorded. Scoring Criteria: Accuracy was calculated as follows: Accuracy test = (Number of balls in the target are/Total Hits) * 100%. d) Percentage of Wins Objective: To evaluate the overall competitive level and the application of competition strategies. Procedure: Participants were divided into groups for round-robin or knockout matches. The outcomes of each game were recorded. Scoring Criteria: The winning percentage was calculated using the formula: Percentage of Wins = (Number of Wins/Total Games) *100%. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 77 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education: The Case of Armenia. Yu.G. Grigoryan 1 – A.V. Avetisyan 1 1 Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sport, Yerevan, Armenia e-mail: arman.avetis[email protected] Abstract Education in Armenia is rooted in centuries-old traditions, having long served as a cornerstone for national identity, resilience, and progress. In this context, the subject of "Physical Culture" holds a unique place in public education, aimed at developing physically healthy, socially responsible, and holistically educated citizens. The national standard, first approved in 2007 and updated in 2023, outlines a comprehensive curriculum from grades 1 to 12 that includes theoretical and practical components, aligning with contemporary scientific, cultural, and sporting advancements. The curriculum emphasizes fundamental knowledge about physical education, healthy lifestyles, Olympic values, safety, and social skills. It introduces age-appropriate, structured content, focusing on physical development, ethical values such as fair play, and national pride through the study of Armenian athletes and Olympic history. Assessment methods ensure fairness and promote student engagement, while teacher preparation is delivered through specialized programs at institutions such as the Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sports. Methodological tools, pedagogical innovations, and textbooks support teaching, while academic research underscores the growing role of theoretical knowledge in fostering lifelong physical activity and education. The integration of physical culture as both a practical and intellectual discipline reflects Armenia’s commitment to nurturing well-rounded individuals capable of contributing to society with physical and moral resilience. Key words: Armenia, school, curriculum, physical education, assessment. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 78 Introduction Education in Armenia is deeply rooted in national traditions, having historically served as a safeguard for cultural identity and resilience. Within this system, the subject of Physical Culture holds a unique status, not only developing motor skills and physical fitness but also shaping values, social responsibility, and national pride. Since the introduction of the national standard for Physical Culture in 2007 (updated in 2023), Armenia has pursued a holistic approach that integrates theoretical knowledge with practical physical training. Unlike many systems where PE is largely skill-based, the Armenian model systematically includes health education, Olympic values, and ethical principles. This paper examines how Armenia bridges theory and practice in physical education, focusing on the school curriculum, teacher training, assessment, and supporting research. Education in Armenia has a centuries-old history and tradition. Since its inception, the Armenian school has been the bulwark of the people's political and national survival and a guarantee of progress. The current education system was established during the brief existence of the First Republic of Armenia (1918-1920) and developed during the years of Soviet rule (1920-1990) [5]. Methods A multi-source qualitative approach was employed, combining: 1. Document analysis of official standards, ministerial decrees (2007, 2023), and state education laws. 2. Curriculum content review for grades 1–12, mapping both mandatory and elective components. 3. Teacher education analysis at the Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sport, which prepares future PE specialists. 4. Research synthesis of dissertations and studies addressing theoretical knowledge, Olympic education, and health promotion. 5. Pedagogical resources review including textbooks, Olympic notebooks, and methodological manuals. This approach allows for a comprehensive view of how Armenian PE integrates theory, practice, and pedagogy. Curriculum. In general education institutions (public schools) of the Republic of Armenia, the subject "Physical Culture" is taught in accordance with the subject standards for grades 1-12 of the subject "Physical Culture" in public schools, approved for the first time by the Order of the Minister of Education and Science of the Republic of Armenia dated 01.11.2007 N989-A/Q. This standard, with minor changes and additions, was approved by Order No. 34-N of the Minister of Education, Science, Culture and Sports of the Republic of Armenia dated 30 March 2023. The subject standards for the subject "Physical Culture" in public schools are a normative document approved by the authorised state educational administration body [6]. The objective of the standard for the subject of "Physical Culture" is to ensure uniform results of physical education within the framework of the 12-year secondary education established by the state curriculum of general education (public schools). In the presence of schools operating with an alternative concept, the standard aims to form a citizen who is physically healthy, harmoniously and comprehensively developed, with sufficient physical fitness, prepared for future work activities, who knows the rules of a healthy lifestyle, who is oriented in different situations, and who is able to take Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 79 initiative and organise [6]. The curriculum for the subject "Physical Culture" includes: - The concept of physical education in public schools. - The general objectives of physical education. - The compulsory content of the subject of physical education for primary, basic and secondary schools. - Types of educational activities. - Mandatory requirements for pupils - description of the scope of their knowledge, skills and abilities and value system according to educational levels (elementary, basic, higher), moreover, the requirements related to knowledge, skills and abilities are presented on three levels: A, B, C, corresponding to A - minimum, B - average, C - high preparation, - the procedure of control and evaluation of learning results, - the list of recommended literature, - the list of physical education gyms and educational furniture of public schools. The main goal of physical education in public schools is to create a physically healthy, fully developed citizen, who is prepared for work, knows the rules of a healthy lifestyle and is able to cope with emergency situations [6]. Through physical education, pupils acquire knowledge about the importance of physical culture and sports, the rules of a healthy lifestyle, the Olympic Games, the rules of first aid, as well as skills of cooperation, organisation and initiative. The content of the subject of “Physical Culture” in public schools is structured in accordance with modern achievements in science, technology, culture and sport. The content of physical education is structured in such a way that, in addition to the development of knowledge and skills, it contributes to the formation of pupils' attitudes and value systems and the development of social skills. The topics and content of the curriculum include: "Knowledge about Physical Education and Sports" (hereinafter referred to as "Fundamentals of Knowledge"), "Gymnastic Exercises", "Athletic Exercises", "Movement Games", "Sports Games", and "Elective Educational Material" sections. In turn, the “Fundamentals of Knowledge” section includes: a) General information about physical education and sports, its significance. The significance of physical education for strengthening health and shaping posture. b) Personal hygiene and hygienic rules of physical exercise classes. Rules and significance of stretching. c) Observance of safety rules during physical education classes and classes. d) Information about the Olympic movement and the Olympic Games. e) Information about famous athletes. f) Methods of self-monitoring of physical development and physical fitness. g) Healthy lifestyle in the life of a schoolchild. h) Functions of the National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Armenia. i) The significance of fair play in physical education and sports activities. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 80 The program allocates 5 hours to the “Fundamentals of knowledge”, which is advisable to plan for the winter months, in addition, 4-6 minutes are allocated for this purpose in each lesson throughout the year. The "Elective Educational Material" section is also noteworthy, which includes the educational materials "Ski Training, "Swimming", "Wrestling", "Strength Training", "Tourist Training", "Rhythmic Gymnastics" and "Table Tennis". Here, too, the approach to conveying theoretical knowledge that is present during the teaching of the main material (4-6 minutes per lesson) is maintained. The "Fundamentals of Knowledge" section includes such basic issues of physical education as a healthy lifestyle, posture formation, hygiene of physical exercise classes and rules for hardening the body, independent physical exercise classes, safety rules, as well as knowledge about the Olympic Games, Olympism, and fair play, through which the humanistic and moral potential of sports is demonstrated. In elementary school (grades 1-4), the main topics studied within the "Fundamentals of Knowledge" section are aimed at pupils' physical education, the formation of a healthy lifestyle, and compliance with safety rules. In grades 1-2, the topics are clear: the role of physical education in maintaining health, the daily routine, hygiene, the use of walking, running, jumping, swimming and other motor skills, as well as the importance of hardening and the history of physical exercises. In grades 3-4, the focus is squarely on the impact of the motor regimen and physical exercises on various components of health: posture, heart, breathing and vision. The role of prominent Armenian athletes and educators (Kh. Abovyan, H. Shahinyan and others) is emphasised, as is the historical and modern significance of the Olympic Games. The main aim of physical culture in primary schools is to teach pupils to regularly monitor their health, physical development, physical fitness, the development of motor skills and life skills, and the development of theoretical knowledge and motor skills. In the 5th grade, pupils are introduced to the connection between physical education and health, the school day routine, and the detrimental impact of harmful habits. The curriculum also includes knowledge about the ancient Greek Olympic Games and Armenian athletes, as well as safety rules and basic forms of developing motor skills. In the 6th grade, the role of Armenian Olympic champions and intellectuals in the field of sports is emphasized. Topics include the principles of a healthy lifestyle, independent development of motor skills, load control, and the impact of physical culture on personality formation. In the 7th grade, the importance of physical education is studied from a psychological and social perspective. Pupils study the negative impact of harmful habits, means of maintaining posture, Olympic ideas, and the ethics of fair play. Next, in the 8th grade, topics include the impact of physical exercises on mental activity, components and methods of loading, as well as the application of exercises in everyday life. The importance of maintaining a healthy lifestyle, the role of prominent Armenian athletes, and the impact of physical culture on public consciousness are emphasized. In the 9th grade, pupils study the impact of physical training on the systems of the human body, sport as a means of patriotism and military training, as well as first aid rules in case of injuries. Special attention is paid to the organizational structure of the Olympic movement (NOC of Armenia), the formation of social adaptation through physical activity, and the principles of fair play. The main goal of the "Physical Culture" subject in high school is to support the harmonious physical development of pupils, develop motor skills, teach them to analyze their physical fitness, independently engage in the development of motor skills, and contribute to the upbringing of self-awareness, selfassessment, self-control, goal-orientation, and endurance. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 81 In grades 10-12, within the framework of the "Fundamentals of Knowledge" section, pupils are introduced to the role of physical culture and sports in the all-round development of an individual, including the enhancement of their working capacity and preparation for military service. The curriculum encompasses the study of rules of self-control and safety, fatigue indicators and prevention measures, methods of developing various motor abilities, as well as the principles of fair play and their dissemination. The programme of study includes the participation of women in the Olympic Games, the study of the Olympic ideology as a universal value, the role of physical culture in the family and in the socialisation process, the social role of physical culture specialists, and the importance of a healthy lifestyle, as well as about ways to control the load of exercises and the importance of physical training necessary for army life. The main principles of assessment of pupils in public schools are: fairness, reliability, impartiality, validity, justification, accessibility and transparency. The main purpose of assessment is to check the level of assimilation and mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities of pupils, their personal qualities and to control the quality of education. The assessment of the subject Physical Culture is carried out with current and summative grades on a 10-point scale. The ongoing assessment of pupils consists of two mutually supporting forms: 1) Unitary assessment of progress, which is used to check the degree of mastery of the entire topic by the pupil and is carried out by recording and calculating the grade. It is carried out through oral questioning and practical work. 2) Educational assessment, which is carried out without recording the assessment and is usually accompanied by suggestions and comments made by the teacher regarding the performance of the educational task or assimilation of the material. With pedagogical skill, these two assessments should be combined in a way that contributes to the pupil's progress. The oral inquiry is assessed according to the following main criteria: knowledge acquisition, ability to apply, ability to present, and ability to see interdisciplinary connections. Teacher Training. The Training and Pedagogical faculty of the "Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sports" provides bachelor's degree (full-time and part-time) education in the specialty of Physical Education and Sport Training, where prospective physical education teachers receive professional education. In the full-time and part-time education systems, over the course of four years (and 5 years respectively), future specialists study subjects such as "History of Physical Culture and Sports", "Ecology of Physical Culture and Sports", "Fundamentals of a Healthy Lifestyle", "Theory and Methodology of Physical Education", "Theory of Sports", "Olympic Movement", "Methodology of Teaching a Healthy Lifestyle in a Secondary School". The programs of the listed subjects include topics that are directly anchored in the foundations of theoretical knowledge of teaching physical culture in a secondary school. From here, the interrelationship between the theoretical knowledge taught at school and the subjects taught at university is clearly visible. The subject is taught using pedagogical technologies, including modern ones, which allow the material to be conveyed in depth, ensuring stability and efficiency. The latter include brainstorming, collaborative and snowball methods. Physical education textbooks are available for grades 2-5 in public schools. They are successfully used in the education system. Furthermore, "My Olympic Notebook" has been developed for 3rd and 4th graders, which are maintained by the pupils themselves. The aforementioned factors contribute to the development of physical education self-education skills in school children. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 82 Future specialists receive appropriate methodology for the effective use of textbooks, mainly during the "Theory and Methodology of Physical Education" classes taught at the university. Let us also add that physical education teachers have at their disposal a number of teaching and methodological manuals, including “Physical Education: Fundamentals of Knowledge” [3], “Teaching Theoretical Knowledge in Physical Education Classes” [2], “Collection of Educational Materials for the Olympic Games” [1], etc. Research Within the higher education system of the Republic of Armenia, there is a plethora of studies that underscore the significance of theoretical knowledge in physical education and its role in promoting physical activity. Notably, dissertation works represent a significant body of research in this area. Among them are studies dedicated to the role of parents' physical education in organizing children's physical education (G. Sargsyan, 2002, H. Ghulyan, 2011), the methodology for forming theoretical knowledge of elementary schoolchildren in physical education classes (M. Zeid, 2013, H. Avagyan, 2017), the peculiarities of the methodology of Olympic education of elementary schoolchildren (A. Gyozalyan, 2015, S. Harutyunyan, 2007), the socio-pedagogical conditions of the physical education of the population (A. Grigoryan, 2003), the methodology for teaching a healthy lifestyle in physical education classes (S. Khachatryan, 2024). It is evident that the role and significance of theoretical knowledge in the domain of physical culture are increasing year on year, as various social groups of the population become increasingly involved in the physical culture movement. It has been demonstrated that this significantly contributes to leading a healthy lifestyle, the formation of motor abilities and skills necessary for life, the activation of independent physical education classes, the formation of self-control abilities and, in general, the formation of motivation in a person to engage in physical education and sports. Furthermore, the importance of the values existing in this field has been identified. Discusion The Armenian model of physical education represents a holistic and values-driven approach that balances physical training with theoretical knowledge, ethical principles, and cultural identity. Its key strengths lie in the systematic integration of theory and practice, strong institutional alignment between schools and higher education, and the unique emphasis on national heritage and Olympic ideals. At the same time, the model faces challenges such as limited incorporation of modern digital technologies, uneven implementation across different regions, and the need for continuous teacher professional development. These issues also highlight opportunities: Armenia could position itself as a regional leader in Olympic and value-based education while enhancing its curriculum through digital innovations, comparative research with international models, and strategies to increase student engagement in an era of sedentary lifestyles and digital distractions. Armenia’s physical education curriculum stands out for its comprehensive integration of theoretical knowledge and practice. It simultaneously develops motor skills, instills ethical principles, and reinforces national and Olympic values. This alignment of school curricula, teacher training, and research creates a robust framework that other countries could learn from. However, to remain competitive globally, Armenia must modernize its approaches by embedding digital tools, expanding inclusive practices, and producing longitudinal research on student outcomes. References Arakelyan V.B. (2005)."Collection of educational materials for the Olympic Games". Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 83 Meliksetyan R.T. (1991). Teaching Theoretical Knowledge in Physical Education Classes, Yerevan, 167p. Minasyan H., Gabrielyan H. (2011). Physical Culture. Fundamentals of Knowledge, Yerevan, 2011, 132p. Simonyan H., Gabrielyan H. (2012). Assessment of physical culture subject in public school. For grades 2-12. Educational Manual. – Yerevan. Astghik Library, 96p. Law of the Republic of Armenia on approval of the state program for the development of education in the Republic of Armenia for 2001-2005 (adopted on June 26, 2001) https://www.arlis.am/DocumentView.aspx?docid=39397 (Accessed on 16.04.2025) Order N34 of the minister of Education, Science, Culture and Sport of the Republic of Armenia on approval of the Subject standard for grades 1-12 of the subject "physical culture" in comprehensive educational institutions (adopted on march 30, 2023) https://www.arlis.am/DocumentView.aspx?DocID=176075 (Accessed on 16.04.2025) Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 84 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 85 Health Education Based on the PRECEDE-PROCEED Model in Promoting Physical Activity Among High School Students in Yunnan Province, China: Practical Application. Linxian Zeng 1,2 – Garry Kuan 2 – Wei Liu 3 – Xiawei Wang 2 – Weipeng Duan 2 – Yee Cheng Kueh 4 1 School of Continuing Education, Yunnan Minzu University, Kunmin, China. 2 Exercise and Sports Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia. 3 Yunnan Provincial Academy of Educational Sciences, No. 2 Xuefu Road, Kunming, Yunnan, China. 4 Biostatistics and Research Methodology Unit, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia. e-mail: [email protected] Abstract Physical activity is essential for the physical and mental well-being of adolescents, effectively preventing chronic diseases, enhancing mental health, and promoting hollistic development. This study investigates the practical application of health education based on the PRECEDE-PROCEED model in encouraging physical activity among high school students in Yunnan Province, China. Serving as a systematic framework for health education and promotion planning, the PRECEDE-PROCEED model assists educators in designing and implementing effective health education programs through evaluation and intervention. This article outlines the implementation process of health education within this model, detailing strategies at each stage, offering practical recommendations, and providing guidance on applying the PRECEDE-PROCEED model to high school students. The study aims to equip educators with specific practical guidance to foster healthy behaviour formation and engagement in physical activity among adolescents. Key words: PRECEDE-PROCEED model, health education program, high school students, physical activity, interventions. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 86 Introduction Physical activity (PA) has significant benefits for the physical and mental health of adolescents (Abdullah et al., 2019; Janssen et al., 2013; Kuan et al., 2019; Kueh et al., 2018). Firstly, regular physical activity not only enhances cardiopulmonary function and muscle strength but also promotes bone health, effectively preventing obesity and related chronic diseases (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). Secondly, physical activity positively influences the mental health of adolescents by reducing stress, anxiety, and depression, while also improving self-esteem and overall happiness (Biddle & Asare, 2011; Kuan et al., 2023). However, physical inactivity among adolescents has become a major global public health issue. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), physical inactivity is one of the primary factors contributing to obesity, cardiovascular disease, and mental health problems in adolescents (World Health Organization, 2020). Although school physical education classes are an important means of promoting physical activity among adolescents, their actual outcomes are often unsatisfactory. Therefore, it is particularly necessary to implement more systematic and multi-level intervention measures. The PRECEDE-PROCEED model serves as a practical theoretical framework for evaluating, planning, implementing, and promoting health programmes (Crosby & Noar, 2011; Gielen et al., 2008; Green & Kreuter, 2005). In 1974, Lawrence W. Green, a prominent American health educator, developed the PRECEDE component for diagnosing health needs and educational requirements (Green, 1974). Subsequently, the PROCEED component was integrated into the framework (Green, 1991), incorporating elements such as policies, regulations, organisations, and environmental factors. The model has been enriched and refined to form a multi-level health education model known as the PRECEDE-PROCEED model (Green & Kreuter, 2005). Following continuous improvements over time, the model has become one of the most commonly used frameworks in health education (Crosby & Noar, 2011; Gielen et al., 2008). It comprises nine steps: social assessment, epidemiological assessment, behavioural and environmental assessment, educational and organisational assessment, administrative policy assessment and implementation, process evaluation, impact evaluation, and outcome evaluation (Crosby & Noar, 2011; Green & Kreuter, 2005), as shown in Figure 1. The PRECEDE-PROCEED model considers multiple perspectives, integrates psychological and social factors into its framework, comprehensively analyses various factors that affect health problems, and systematically evaluates factors that promote behavioural change, those that facilitate change using existing resources, and reinforcing factors that maintain or develop motivated behaviours. Based on this analysis, comprehensive health intervention measures are formulated, and their effects on health promotion are evaluated (Crosby & Noar, 2011; Green & Kreuter, 2005). Interventions employing the PRECEDE-PROCEED model primarily utilise educational methods to measure health-related behaviours (Kim et al., 2022). The model serves as an effective tool for individuals of all age groups (Crosby & Noar, 2011; Green & Kreuter, 2005; Kim et al., 2022). The PRECEDE-PROCEED model could provide a structured approach for identifying and analysing the multiple factors influencing adolescent physical activity and developing targeted intervention strategies to promote physical activity among high school students. For instance, by conducting a comprehensive assessment of students, families, and schools, key factors that promote or hinder adolescent participation in physical activities can be identified (Sallis et al., 2000). Based on these assessment results, specific health education programmes can be designed and implemented, such as increasing the attractiveness of physical activities, improving sports facilities, and reinforcing family and social support. Currently, relevant research has demonstrated that using the PRECEDEPROCEED model for health education interventions can effectively increase physical activity levels among high school students and improve their overall physical health. For example, a study based on the PRECEDE-PROCEED model demonstrated that implementing a systematic health education programme significantly enhanced students' participation rates in physical activities and improved key physical fitness indicators (Jeihooni et al., 2019). Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 93 Table 5. Intervention plan of PRECEDE-PROCEED model - Physical Activity Intervention Overview Time Method Physical Activity Intervention Week112 Organise a variety of physical activities 1. Warm-Up Exercise (5 minutes). 2. Participation in physical activity (30 minutes). Options will include: • Walking and running • Table tennis • Badminton • Basketball • Volleyball • Skipping rope • Aerobics • Yoga • Martial arts 3. Group Stretching and Relaxation (10 minutes). Process Evaluation In the process of implementing the intervention plan, conducting process evaluation is essential to ensure that the plan proceeds as intended. Key steps include monitoring implementation progress by observing, recording, and interviewing to monitor intervention activities in real-time; collecting feedback information to understand participants' feedback and assess the effectiveness of the intervention activities and identify any existing issues; adjusting intervention measures promptly based on evaluation results to enhance implementation outcomes. After a period of implementing the intervention plan, conduct an impact assessment to understand the short-term effects of the intervention measures. Key steps include evaluating behaviour changes by assessing the health behaviour changes of the target population through methods such as questionnaires and interviews; evaluating changes in health knowledge and attitudes by analysing changes in health knowledge and attitudes among the target population; summarizing impact effects by summarizing the short-term effects of intervention measures on the health behaviours, as well as health knowledge and attitudes, of the target population. Impact Evaluation Upon completion of the intervention plan, a result evaluation should be conducted to understand the long-term effects of the intervention measures. Key steps include assessing changes in health outcomes through physical examinations and questionnaire surveys to evaluate the health status of the target population; evaluating the sustainability of healthy behaviours by analysing whether the target population continues to maintain these behaviours after the intervention concludes; and summarising and reporting the overall effectiveness of the intervention plan, culminating in the preparation of an evaluation report to serve as a reference for subsequent interventions. A Practical Guide to Implementing the PRECEDE-PROCEED Model Health Education Intervention Programme Mobilising Key Participants Ensuring the planning and implementation of physical exercise programmes for high school students can increase their sense of identification and responsibility towards the programme, thereby enhancing its relevance and attractiveness (see Figures 4-9). Support from parents and families is crucial for students' participation in physical exercise (Hohepa et al., 2007; Trost et al., 2003). Schools can Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 94 introduce the benefits of physical exercise to parents through regular information meetings, concurrently providing practical guidance to help them effectively support their children's fitness needs (see Figures 4-6). Teacher training and resource support are essential for integrating physical activities into the curriculum (Tannehill et al., 2013). Therefore, schools should regularly offer professional training sessions for teachers to equip them with modern teaching methods in sports education, as well as to design diverse physical activities catering to varying student interests and ability levels. Figure 4. Explanation of the health education project of the PRECEDE-PROCEED model (Parents and children participate together). Figure 5. Parents and children participate in physical activities together. Figure 6, 7. Students participate in group activities. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 95 Figure 8, 9. Fitness Test. Creating a Supportive Environment Schools should ensure the availability of sufficient and diverse facilities and equipment to support the development of various sporting activities (Bocarro et al., 2012), including standard sports fields and professional equipment. It is also essential for schools to provide safe and convenient spaces for activities, particularly during break times and after school hours (Chaeroni et al., 2022). By thoughtfully planning to utilise campus idle areas and equipping them with safety features, students can engage in physical exercise in a secure environment. Furthermore, schools need to develop inclusive plans, particularly to provide opportunities for students with special needs (such as those with disabilities) or for those who may not wish to participate in traditional sports activities (Spencer-Cavaliere & Watkinson, 2010). Introducing inclusive activities such as group games and yoga can help students improve their physical fitness, mental health, and sense of social participation while fostering a sports culture that supports and includes every student (Khalsa & Butzer, 2016). Policy Promotion and Support Schools should develop and implement policies that support sports activities, such as optimizing the configuration of sports facilities, introducing diversified courses, providing professional training for teachers, and encouraging teachers and students to participate in sports. These policies should receive backing from school management to ensure the long-term sustainable development of sports activities (Lounsbery, 2017) and to facilitate the smooth implementation of health education programmes utilising the PRECEDE-PROCEED model. Discussion The PRECEDE-PROCEED model emphasises the evaluation of factors influencing students' physical activity from multiple levels and perspectives, as well as the development of corresponding intervention strategies (Crosby & Noar, 2011; Green & Kreuter, 2005). This comprehensive approach allows educators and health professionals to better understand the complex interplay of individual, social, and environmental factors that affect adolescent physical activity. For example, research indicates that systematic health education programmes can significantly improve students' awareness of the benefits of physical exercise, thereby enhancing their willingness to participate in such activities (Sharma, 2021). Health education extends beyond traditional classroom instruction; it encompasses various formats, including campus promotions and interactive health lectures. This multi-faceted approach aims to convey the importance of physical exercise in a comprehensive manner, thereby creating a positive sporting atmosphere among student groups (Green & Kreuter, 2005). In addition to environmental and programme factors, the PRECEDE-PROCEED model underscores the significance of individual factors when developing intervention measures. A detailed assessment of Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 96 individual differences among students, such as physical fitness levels, interest in sports, and selfefficacy, enables the formulation of personalised intervention plans that can substantially enhance the effectiveness of these interventions. For instance, a study by Dishman et al. (2004) indicated that students with low self-efficacy can significantly increase their participation in physical activities by enhancing their sports skills and setting achievable exercise goals. This highlights the critical role of self-efficacy in fostering motivation and engagement in physical activities. Furthermore, incorporating a diverse range of sports activities into personalised exercise plans based on students’ interests and hobbies not only attracts greater participation but also fosters a sense of ownership and commitment among students (Bauman et al., 2012). This tailored approach helps to enhance students’ intrinsic motivation and promotes sustainability in their involvement in sports and physical activities. The PRECEDE-PROCEED model also places a strong emphasis on optimising social support and the school sports environment to promote physical exercise among high school students. Research has shown that support from family, peers, and the community is a crucial factor influencing adolescent physical activity levels. Positive involvement from families and encouragement from peers can significantly increase youth participation in sports (Trost et al., 2003; Yao et al., 2024). Therefore, it is essential for schools to establish supportive sports environments through collaboration with families and communities. Initiatives might include improving sports facilities, increasing opportunities for extracurricular sports activities, and fostering partnerships with local sports organisations. Moreover, the role of school policies and cultural development regarding sports cannot be understated. Regular teacher training can enhance educators' emphasis on physical education and improve their professional competence, thus enabling them to better guide and encourage student participation in physical activities (Hellison, 2010). Schools should also implement reward mechanisms and utilise role models to stimulate students' enthusiasm for exercise, thereby creating a positive sporting culture that resonates throughout the educational environment. Conclusion The PRECEDE-PROCEED model provides a systematic and structured approach to promoting physical exercise among high school students. This model assists schools in identifying key factors that influence student participation in sports activities through comprehensive assessments of their needs, health conditions, and environmental factors. Throughout this process, schools gain a holistic understanding of the opinions and needs of stakeholders, including students, parents, teachers, and the community, thus ensuring the relevance and feasibility of their plans. By integrating input from all involved parties, schools can develop personalised, targeted, and implementable exercise programmes that effectively improve students' levels of health and quality of life. 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Suzie Schuster 1 - Johannes Uili 1 1 National University of Samoa e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This paper investigates the evolution of Samoa's Health and Physical Education (HPE) curriculum, evaluating its progress over 11 years and the effectiveness of recent revisions in addressing longstanding issues. While the curriculum incorporates cultural values and health education, movementbased learning is overshadowed by theoretical classroom instruction, compromising physical literacy development. A comparison with international models, particularly the Cook Islands, reveals gaps in daily physical activity, active learning strategies, and assessment methods. Stakeholder consultations indicate gaps in teacher training, space constraints, and a reliance on theory-heavy instruction, which impedes full implementation. To reestablish movement as a core pillar of education, the curriculum must shift toward formative assessments, experiential learning, and holistic skill development, ensuring Samoan students gain lifelong physical literacy and health advantages. Strengthening teacher training and curriculum structure will encourage active participation and align education with national health objectives. Key words: Samoa, physical literacy, health and physical education (HPE), movement-based learning, curriculum reform. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 100 Introduction: The Need for Movement in Education Physical activity is fundamental to child development, contributing to overall well-being and preventing non-communicable diseases (NCDs). There is a strong connection between daily movement and improved cardiovascular health, musculoskeletal strength, body composition, mental well-being, and cognitive function (Ekelund et al., 2016; Walsh et al., 2018). Further studies have proven that children who engage in physical activity are more likely to adopt lifelong healthy habits, equipping them with the skills to prevent or reduce health risks in adulthood (Hills et al., 2011; Strong et al., 2005). The island states of the Pacific region have some of the world’s highest rates of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and type 1 and 2 diabetes (Parry, 2010), and they are also home to some of the most gifted athletes, both nationally and internationally (Schuster, 2023; Kwauk, 2014). This dichotomy seems to be at odds when addressing how to uplift our future generation and prevent further disabilities and diseases. While the health and medical industry navigates the complexities surrounding the concerning rates of non-communicable diseases within the Pacific, the education sector is realigning its curriculum to tackle these growing health issues. Samoa recently underwent an extensive review of its HPE primary curriculum, which revealed significant challenges related to its design and delivery. Unlike other industrialised countries, Samoa has not had a long history with HPE. This small archipelago in the South Pacific, with a population of around 200,000 people, is relatively new to the constructs of Health and Physical Education curriculum. As a society based on the Fa’a Samoa, which prioritises collectivism, foundational principles of reciprocity, love, respect, and service, Samoa adopted a Western-style curriculum design in the early 2000s to cater to the significant youth sub-population with 80% of the population under the age of 30 years (MESC 2007, p. 23). While outcomes-based curriculum design is endorsed and widely used, the model carries imprints of early colonial education, emphasising exam performance, knowledge retention, and rising to the top of the academic food chain. Education efficiency and policy creation are heralded with this curriculum model (Lee, 2003). Since the inception of the Primary HPE curriculum in 2011, the focus has shifted to personal health and community health learning outcomes with minimal movement and practical components. Eleven years later, the curriculum was revised to reflect Samoan values and tackle society's growing health concerns. However, the new curriculum required a review to confront the ongoing challenges of a lack of Samoan context (Rasmussen, 2010), a lack of facilities and equipment (Rasmussen, 2010; Schuster, Schoeffel & Heard, 2018; Schuster & Schoeffel, 2018), and the need to ensure that HPE has been appropriately monitored and timetabled (Rasmussen, 2010) since its inception over a decade ago. Further findings of curriculum implementation challenges indicated lack of confidence (Schuster, et al., 2018; Schuster, Tufue & Rasmussen, 2021), critical need for professional development (Schuster & Lauina-Viliamu Fa’amatuainu, 2019; Schuster, 2019), elevated partnerships with sport federations (Schuster, 2020) and the negative attitude regarding HPE (Rasmussen, 2010; Schuster, et al, 2018). This paper analyses the progress of the Primary HPE curriculum over the past 11 years and examines whether the revised framework effectively addresses historical and ongoing challenges. Methodology The methodology employed to review the curriculum used curriculum content analysis, comparative review and stakeholder input. Eight primary school principals were interviewed for the consultations in a 45-minute session. This approach ensured a comprehensive understanding of how outcomes-based education has impacted movement integration in Samoa’s HPE framework. We generated qualitative data using semi-structured interviews with 8 Principals at peri-urban primary schools in Samoa. Interviews were audio recorded, and audio recordings were transcribed verbatim before being subjected to reflexive thematic analysis. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 101 Key questions asked were: - What do you believe your school does well regarding physical education curriculum? - What aspects of the physical education curriculum need further development? - What are the key challenges to delivering the physical education curriculum in your school? Interviews were semi-structured so that the participant and interviewer could explore issues relevant and significant to them as the interview unfolded (Bryman, 2016). The data were analysed using a thematic approach (Braun & Clarke, 2022). This research was conducted with formal university ethics approval, ensuring adherence to ethical standards, participant protection, and confidentiality throughout the study. The Decline of Physical Literacy in Samoa’s HPE Curriculum Despite the confirmed benefits of physical activity, Samoa’s Primary Health and Physical Education curriculum has deprioritised movement, favouring theoretical instruction over experiential learning. While Samoa’s outcomes-based education model aims to provide measurable learning objectives, its overemphasis on theory has reduced movement-based learning. Harris & Cale (1997) confirmed that “regular and well-conducted physical activity as part of the PE curriculum can play a significant part in enhancing children’s health and fitness status” (p. 99). Some may argue that the curriculum cannot be the sole intervention and may not fulfil all expectations for a child's physical and mental well-being. Nevertheless, engaging in an active curriculum is essential, as the current imbalance between theory and practical learning means students do not consistently participate in physical activity throughout the year, risking the development of physical literacy and diminishing students’ confidence and skills in being active. This paper explores the significant challenges that confine the HPE curriculum to a classroom-based, theory-riddled curriculum. The Misnomer within the HPE Curriculum The Samoan HPE curriculum has three strands: Active Personal Health, Active Human Movement, and Active Community Health. This exposes a fundamental flaw in the curriculum design: the misnomer that all strands are ‘Active’. A comprehensive review of the curriculum revealed a strong emphasis on theoretical instruction, with a predominant focus on the explanation, analysis, and understanding of health and physical education concepts. This emphasis tends to anchor learning within the confines of the classroom, limiting opportunities for students to engage in embodied, experiential practices that deepen personal connection and contextual relevance in HPE. Specifically, Strand 2 (Active Human Movement) is the only movement-based component taught. Physical activity and movement are mainly limited to Strand 2: Active Human Movement, while Strand 1 (Personal Health) and Strand 3 (Community Health) depend on passive, classroom-based instruction. This delay in movement exposure stems from prioritising instruction in a step-by-step manner. Teachers often adhere to a linear structure, addressing theoretical strands before physical education. Consequently, this limits students’ active engagement and postpones physical participation until later in the school year. From an ideal pedagogical standpoint, students could engage in active, hands-on lessons that align directly with the learning outcome in Strand 1: Active Personal Health—specifically, describe ways to manage stress effectively in daily life. Moving beyond theoretical instruction, educators might facilitate experiential activities such as mindfulness exercises, guided breathing, or creative movement journaling. These practices allow students to explore stress management strategies through direct engagement and personal reflection. However, this outcome is often delivered through teacher-led discussions, primarily due to systemic constraints. Large class sizes limit the capacity for supervising individual or small-group activities, and many schools lack quiet or adaptable spaces conducive to mindfulness or movement. Furthermore, few teachers have access to professional development that equips them to deliver experiential mental health education, let alone the resources to do so meaningfully. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 102 Summative Assessments are prioritised over physical activity. The reliance on summative assessments favours theoretical evaluations over practical movement assessments, failing to measure students’ motor skills and physical literacy progress. While there are internal assessments based on skill acquisition, the current skill acquisition internal assessment in Samoa’s HPE curriculum lacks depth, failing to measure a child’s ability beyond basic execution. It emphasises surface-level skill performance without assessing progression, decision-making, or adaptability, making it difficult to distinguish students with higher proficiency. The assessment does not effectively challenge students or showcase their ability to transfer skills to varying contexts by focusing heavily on theory rather than real-world application. Additionally, its reliance on summative evaluation overlooks engagement, creativity, and problem-solving in movement-based learning, limiting its effectiveness in fostering true physical literacy. Passive learning is reinforced due to limited integration between health topics and physical activity. For example, lessons on nutrition, self-esteem and safety are taught within the classroom with little to no realworld application. No space for ‘physical’ education The conversations with principals revealed that their schools are challenged with limited space and overcrowded classrooms. One principal reflected that some classes have over 72 students with one teacher. All schools, being peri-urban, spoke about the physical space of their schools. Some schools had fields but were poorly maintained with holes and rocks; others flooded, making them unfit for activities. Equipment was nonexistent, so it was easier for teachers to teach within the classrooms. Principals admitted that teachers were not keen to teach outside, battling the hot sun, the rain, and the student behaviour. One particular school, with a high enrolment, admitted that it has an indoor-only policy, preventing outside classes and activities during school hours. Addressing the Fa’aSamoa Context in the revised curriculum The revised curriculum uses a Samoan conceptual framework. Specifically, the Mau Autū principles— Equity, Efficiency, Quality, Sustainability, and Relevance—form the foundation of Samoa’s HPE curriculum, ensuring a holistic, culturally responsive education. However, these values remain abstract and not actively embedded into learning experiences. Integrating them across all strands and sub-strands ensures students develop physical, social, and emotional well-being through meaningful, action-based learning. Furthermore, the Mau Autū must centre the strengths of Samoan education, children and the culture. Findings from the review and interviews reconfirm the natural sports abilities of Samoan children, the preferred learning style of kinesthetic, hands-on, experiential learning and increased engagement with school when sports and physical activities are scheduled. The challenges of teacher training However, curriculum design does not ensure an active, movement-based, theory-supported HPE curriculum. When considering the agents of delivery, teachers contribute another complex layer to the HPE curriculum. The report highlights several challenges teachers face in delivering Samoa’s HPE curriculum, particularly concerning movement-based learning and teacher training gaps (Schuster, 2025 MEC Report). As noted previously (Schuster, 2024), teacher discomfort with movement-based instruction continues to be evident. They reported feeling unprepared to lead physical activities, particularly in sports science, water safety, and outdoor fitness. Furthermore, they lacked experience in marrying theoretical content with movement activities, tending to teach in a siloed approach and not linking the topics holistically. Due to their limited physical and games-based training, they defaulted to classroom-based lessons focusing on health learning outcomes rather than active participation. The teachers are given full authority to design their lessons as desired. Therefore, it is optional to teach outdoors or in a kinesthetic manner. Teachers reported that they opt out of teaching outdoors due to the environmental conditions (poor field Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 109 All these studies have dealt with the subject of the educational process, and on the basis of previous theoretical readings, we have presented the following problem: Is the educational process in teaching collective physical and sports activities for secondary education in Algeria based on criteria (model) ? Research Procedures 1. The method used in the research: The two researchers used the descriptive approach 2. The sample and its selection methods: The research sample included 23% of the research community consisting of 879 professors, to obtain a sample of 206 teachers for physical education and mathematics for secondary education, who were randomly selected. without taking into account the variable of age, sex or years of work The questionnaires were distributed to teachers during seminars and days study with inspectors. 3. Search tools: Questionnaire: The researcher used a form (of three grades) prepared by the researcher, Mohamed Al-Saleh Saadawi, and presented it to a group of arbitration professors with specialization to make it appropriate to study what was prepared for him according to the local environment. Distribution of questionnaires: The questionnaire was distributed to professors during seminars and academic days with the inspectors in some secondary schools in the cities of the western Algeria. The attached table shows the distribution of questionnaire forms to teachers. Table 1. Clarifies the distribution of the questionnaires among the professors of each of the western states surveyed The percentage of the study population Number of forms expressed Direction The number % 2.5028 22 Tlemcen 01 % 1.7064 15 Ain Temouchent 02 % 2.5028 22 Sidi belabbas 03 % 7.6222 67 Oran 04 % 1.1376 10 Mascara 05 % 4.2093 37 Mostaghnem 06 3.7542 % 33 Chlef 07 % 23.4353 206 Échantillon total 4. Statistical tools: The researcher used statistical methods using the SPSS statistcal program in order to calculate: percentage, iterations, alpha-Krumbach coefficient, standard deviation, The average Arithmetic, quadratic test (Ca2). View, analyze and discuss the results of the questionnaire as a whole Table 2. Clarifies the results of the questionnaire as a whole Degree of approval Standard deviation The average Arithmetic The hub The number %88.2 0.2124 2.646 Goal axis 01 %89.1 0.3548 2.672 Axis of educational procedures 02 %87.2 0.3336 2.617 Calendar axis 03 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 110 View, analyze and discuss the results of the questionnaire: According to the axes View, analyze and discuss the results of the first axis linked to the objectives: Table 3. Clarifies the results of the first axis (objectives) Significance Degree of approval ka2 schedule Ka2 Calculated Degree of liberty Significance level The average Arithmetic The question Means %80.9 5.99 101.282 2 0.01 2.43 01 %89.8 150.184 2.69 02 %95.5 274.291 2.86 03 %81.1 86.515 2.43 04 %96.0 118.136 2.88 05 %95.8 279.505 2.87 06 %78.3 90.913 2.35 07 %82.5 91.379 2.48 08 %79.4 80.981 2.38 09 %96.0 284.107 2.88 10 %87.2 118.961 2.62 11 %94.3 89.786 2.83 12 %86.4 111.184 2.59 13 View, analyze and discuss the results of the second axis linked to the pedagogical procedures: Table 4. Clarifies the results of the second axis (educational procedures) Significance Degree of approval ka2 schedule Ka2 Calculated Degree of liberty Significance level The average Arithmetic The question Means %81.6 5.99 101.282 2 0.01 2.45 14 %81.9 150.184 2.46 15 %83.7 274.291 2.51 16 %96.6 86.515 2.90 17 %86.2 118.136 2.59 18 %89.6 279.505 2.69 19 %88.5 90.913 2.66 20 %79.9 91.379 2.40 21 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 111 %91.7 80.981 2.75 22 %83.3 284.107 2.50 23 %97.7 118.961 2.93 24 %90.0 89.786 270 25 %90.3 111.184 2.71 26 %91.6 182.019 2.75 27 %94.0 235.757 2.82 28 Presentation, analysis and discussion the results of the third axis linked to evaluation: Table 5. Clarifies the results of the third axis (evaluation) Significance Degree of approval scheduleka2 Ka2 Calculated Degree of liberty Significance level The average Arithmetic The question Means %95.5 5.99 109.223 2 0.01 2.86 29 %89.6 147.796 2.69 30 %90.1 158.456 2.70 31 %85.0 94.495 2.55 32 %86.6 110.456 2.60 33 %79.4 88.379 2.38 34 %81.4 86.049 2.44 35 %86.6 110.573 2.60 36 %91.7 189.33 2.75 37 %81.7 72.01 2.45 38 Discussion Through the results of the first axis of the questionnaire, we concluded that the educational process of teachers of physical and sports education in teaching physical and sports activities collective for secondary education in Algeria is based on objectives ; With an average score of 2,646 and a very high approval score of 88.2% ; this is due to the fact that teachers have constructed and formulated objectives; starting with diagnostic assessment and indicators ; Where these results were consistent with the results of the Asiri study in (2001) under the title "The extent of the importance of the pedagogical skills required for physical education teachers at Riyadh college ; And the study of Mohammed Al-Draij in (2004) under the title of analysis of the educational process and teacher training; Through the previous presentation to discuss the results of the first hypothesis, it is clear that this hypothesis indicates that the educational process in teaching collective physical and sports activities for secondary education in Algeria is based on the objectives. Through the results of the second axis of the questionnaire, we concluded that the educational process of teachers of physical and sports education in teaching physical and sports activities collective for secondary education in Algeria is based on Educational procedures and achievements ; With an average score of 2.672 and a very high approval score of 89.1%; This is due to the use of teachers in Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 112 teaching group physical and sporting activities for very acceptable educational procedures and achievements represented in appropriate methods and methods and appropriate strategies such as cooperative learning strategy and problem solving strategy; Where these results were consistent with the results of the Asiri study in (2001) under the title "The extent of the importance of the pedagogical skills required for physical education teachers at Riyadh college ; And the study of Mohammed Al-Draij in (2004) under the title of analysis of the educational process and teacher training; A Mauban study at Cherbrooke University in Geneva in 2009 under the title Professional educators: a new perspective on the analysis of teaching practices, Through the previous presentation to discuss the results of the second hypothesis, it is clear that this hypothesis indicates that the educational process in teaching collective physical and sports activities for secondary education in Algeria is based on the Educational procedures and achievements. Through the results of the third axis of the questionnaire, we concluded that the educational process of teachers of physical and sports education in teaching physical and sports activities collective for secondary education in Algeria is based on evaluation ; With an average score of 2.617 and a very high approval score of 87.2% ; This is the result of the great role that teachers give to the evaluation component, starting with diagnostic evaluation, since formative evaluation as a process evaluation is in line with the educational process and indicators, and finally at the end of the periodic unit ; Where these results were consistent with the results of the Asiri study in (2001) under the title "The extent of the importance of the pedagogical skills required for physical education teachers at Riyadh college ; And the study of Mohammed Al-Draij in (2004) under the title of analysis of the educational process and teacher training , Through the previous presentation to discuss the results of the third hypothesis, it is clear that this hypothesis indicates that the educational process in teaching collective physical and sports activities for secondary education in Algeria is based on the evaluation. Conclusions In discussing the results of the first partial hypothesis, we have come to say that the educational process in teaching collective physical and sports activities for secondary education in Algeria is done on the basis of the objectives. In discussing the results of the second partial hypothesis, we have come to say that the educational process in teaching collective physical and sports activities for secondary education in Algeria is done on the basis of the Educational procedures and achievements. In discussing the results of the third partial hypothesis, we have come to say that the educational process in teaching collective physical and sports activities for secondary education in Algeria is done on the basis of the evaluation. General conclusion: Through our study focused on the subject of the analysis of the educational process in the teaching of physical activities and group sports for secondary education in the light of the competency-based approach, we found that most teachers of physical education and sports in secondary schools in some cities of western Algeria focus on the objectives because of this axis of great importance and the great importance of the analysis of the educational process, The component of educational procedures is also of great importance in light of their use of appropriate strategies such as cooperative learning strategy in the first place and problem-solving strategy, as well as evaluation and achievement component, plays an important role and important in the course of this process Thus, the analysis of the educational process in the teaching of group physical and sports activities for secondary education in the secondary towns of the towns of western Algeria in particular and of Algeria in general has positively reflected their professional performance, as shown by the results achieved. This process, which is represented in the pedagogical analysis in the teaching of group physical and Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 113 sports activities for secondary education in the light of the competency approach, is a complex process in which a group of elements s' are intertwined, but it is very positive that he should focus on the development of educational processes and work on the development of study methods in order to highlight weaknesses to work on correcting them. And highlight strengths and work to assess them. References Al-Dorij Muhammad, (2004), Analysis of the educational process and teacher training, Rabat, Knowledge Series for All. 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Jack Noel (1997) Lanalyse des pratiques educatives, Chille. Krom Mohamed, (2010), Practical obstacles to applying the curriculum of physical and sports education according to the approach with competencies, Scientific Journal of Science and Technology for Physical Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 114 and Sports Activities, Vol (07), No. (07), 99-114. https://www.asjp.cerist.dz/en/article/356 Rochelle Davis, (2000). Teacher evalution: introduction. USA. Zubaysh Samir and others, (2020), The role of physical and sporting activities in improving the cognitive level of handball for secondary school students, Scientific Journal of Science and Technology for Physical and Sports Activities, vol. (17), No. (02), 151-165. https://www.asjp.cerist.dz/en/article/116631 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 115 An Empirical Analysis of the Relationship Between Adolescent Physical Education and Academic Performance at the Jiangsu Province, China. Jinyu Lu 1,2 - Garry Kuan 1 1 Exercise and Sports Science Programme, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia. 2 Shangqiu Professional Training College, Henan University, Shangqiu, Henan, China. e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This study investigates the relationship between adolescent physical education and academic performance. Using empirical methods, including a questionnaire survey and score analysis of middle school students, the research examines the correlation between physical activity participation and academic outcomes. Findings suggested that regular participation in sports activities enhances not only students’ physical health but also their academic performance significantly. Specifically, students engaged in sports activities demonstrated increased learning motivation, better time management skills, and improved stress regulation, factors that collectively contribute to higher academic achievement. Additionally, physical activities are shown to enhance concentration and self-efficacy, further promoting academic success. This research underscores the importance of integrating physical education into school curricula as a vital component for comprehensive students’ academic performance and development. Key words: Adolescents, Physical education, Academic performance, Empirical analysis, Time management Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 116 Introduction In today’s rapidly evolving society, academic performance remains a key indicator of educational success. However, the emphasis on holistic development has prompted increased attention to physical education’s role within the educational landscape. This study examined the correlation between adolescent physical activity and academic achievement through empirical investigation, aiming to understand how regular participation in sports influences students’ academic outcomes (Imek et al., 2023). Contrary to traditional views that suggested that a negative relationship between physical activity and academic performance (Gen, 2024; Maria et al., 2024), our findings support a positive association. Moderate engagement in sports can simultaneously improve students’ physical and mental health and enhance academic performance (Nakao et al., 2022; Rainer et al., 2023). These results highlight the significance of school-based physical education and advocate for the integration of sports into students’ daily routines (Wang et al., 2023). Building on this foundation, the current study further examines mechanisms linking physical education to academic improvement, providing empirical support for educators and policymakers (Zhang et al., 2024). Research in neuroscience and psychology supported that sports activities significantly impact adolescents’ cognitive functions. The American Psychological Association reports that students who regularly participate in sports exhibit superior performance in attention, memory, and decision-making tasks compared to their inactive peers (see Wang et al., 2023). For example, a study of 300 adolescents found that those engaging in at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity weekly scored approximately 15% higher on executive function assessments than inactive peers (Zhang et al., 2025). Physical activity enhances blood circulation to the brain, increasing oxygen supply, which fosters cognitive efficiency. Additionally, exercise promotes neurotransmitter release, such as dopamine and serotonin, which contribute to improved attention and emotional regulation. Assessing academic performance should extend beyond exam scores to include multidimensional indicators, including classroom engagement, homework completion, participation, creativity, and critical thinking. For instance, a study by the Australian Institute of Education involving 500 students found those participating in sports scored 20% higher on assessments of innovative thinking and 10% higher in critical thinking than non-participants (Franceschini & Musetti, 2022). Employing a comprehensive evaluation framework provides a more accurate understanding of how sports participation influences overall learning capacity and academic outcomes, offering valuable insights for instructional design. Extensive research confirms a positive relationship between physical education and academic achievement. For example, a longitudinal study from 2005 tracked 1,000 students across elementary to high school, revealing that regular participation in sports correlated with a 5–10% increase in standardized test scores (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). Similarly, a 2010 study published in the Journal of Educational Psychology followed 400 middle school students and found that those involved in organized sports scored 12% higher in math and 8% higher in language arts assessments than non-participants (Fox et al., 2010). These findings emphasize the role of physical activity in fostering cognitive development and academic success during adolescence. Overall, scientific evidence supports a positive link between physical education and academic performance. Understanding the mechanisms, such as cognitive functions, multidimensional evaluation, and historical research, provides comprehensive insight into how sports participation promotes academic improvement. These findings reinforce the importance of integrating physical activity into students’ regular routines for holistic development. Methods Research Design and Sample Selection This study employs a cross-sectional research design to investigate the relationship between physical Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 117 education participation and academic performance. The sample comprises students from three middle schools located in different geographical regions. A total of 600 students volunteered to participate in this study, with 200 participants from each school. The sample includes students from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, genders, and ages (12–16 years), enhancing the representativeness and broad applicability of the findings. To minimise selection bias, a stratified random sampling method was employed, ensuring that the proportions of subgroups within the sample reflect those in the target population. Data collection Data were collected through two methods: questionnaire surveys and academic performance records. The questionnaire assessed students’ participation in sports activities, including frequency, type, and duration, along with demographic information such as age, gender, and economic background. The questionnaire design adhered to principles of psychological measurement, emphasising reliability and validity to ensure data accuracy and credibility (Aiken, 2017). Academic performance was evaluated based on the most recent final exam scores in Chinese, mathematics, and science, as well as the students’ overall average scores. Recognising the multidimensional nature of academic achievement, supplementary data were collected on classroom participation and homework completion, providing a broader perspective on students’ learning and engagement. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were used to summarize sample characteristics, including age and gender distribution. The Pearson correlation coefficient assessed the relationship between participation in physical activities and academic performance. To further test the research hypothesis, multiple regression analyses were conducted, controlling for potential confounding variables such as socioeconomic status and gender. This approach allowed for a more precise estimation of the effect of physical activity participation on academic outcomes. All analyses were performed using SPSS version 28.0 (IBM Corporation, 2023). To ensure the robustness of the findings, a cross-validation technique was applied, whereby 20% of the sample data was allocated for model testing. This process evaluated the predictive validity and stability of the regression models. Results Table 1 showed the demographic information and the distribution of final average grades of the participants. Analysing the data from the sample of 600 students, a preliminary observation indicates a positive correlation between the frequency of participation in sports activities and academic performance. Notably, among students from higher-income families, those who participate more frequently in physical activities tend to achieve higher average grades. This suggests potential socioeconomic influences and provides a basis for further in-depth analysis. Table 1. Sample Basic Information and Distribution of Final Average Grades Gender Age group Economic background Frequency of participation in sports activities (weekly) Final average grade Male 12-14 years old Low income 3 times 75 Female 12-14 years old Low income 2 times 73 Male 15-16 years old Middle-income 4 times 78 Female 15-16 years old Middle-income 4 times 80 Male 12-14 years old High Income 1 times 70 Female 15-16 years old High Income 5 times 82 Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 118 Relationship Between Participation in Sports Activities and Academic Performance The empirical analysis conducted in this study indicates a significant positive correlation between participation in sports activities and academic performance. The Pearson correlation coefficient between weekly participation and final average grades was found to be 0.24 (p < 0.05), indicating a statistically significant relationship. Specifically, students who engage in sports more than three times weekly tend to score approximately 10 percentage points higher on average compared to less active students or those not participating in sports. These findings support the hypothesis that increased physical activity correlates with improved academic outcomes. Physical Education Factors Influencing Academic Performance Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that various factors related to physical education are significantly associated with academic performance. The type of sport, frequency, duration, and intensity of participation emerged as key influences. Notably, participation in team sports such as basketball and football was more strongly associated with positive academic outcomes, with regression coefficients of 0.18 and 0.12, respectively (p < 0.05). Furthermore, students engaging in physical activities for more than three hours per week showed a more significant improvement in academic performance, with a regression coefficient of 0.21 (p < 0.01). Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Relationship From an interdisciplinary perspective, the relationship between physical activity and academic performance involves insights from psychology, education, and neuroscience (see Table 2). Psychological research indicated that sports participation enhances self-efficacy and reduces examrelated anxiety, thereby contributing to better academic results (Zhang et al., 2025). In educational contexts, physical activity fosters teamwork and social skills, which indirectly support academic success. Neuroscientific evidence suggests that regular exercise promotes frontal lobe development, supporting functions such as planning, decision-making, and inhibitory control—critical components of academic achievement (Hillman et al., 2008). Overall, this study showed a significant positive relationship between participation in sports and academic performance. The extent of this relationship is influenced by factors such as sport type, frequency, duration, and level of participation. An interdisciplinary approach further deepens our understanding of the underlying mechanisms, providing a scientific basis for the integration of physical education into academic curricula. Table 2. Correlation analysis results between participation in sports activities and academic performance Variable Regression coefficient Standard error p -value Description Frequency of sports activities 0.24 0.05 < 0.05 The number of weekly participation is positively correlated with grades Team sports 0.18 0.04 < 0.05 Compared to individual sports, the positive impact on performance is more significant Individual sports 0.12 0.03 <0.05 Compared to not participating in sports activities, there is a significant positive impact Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 125 principles of AGT and SDT, the T.A.R.G.E.T model has been identified as a promising framework for cultivating motivational environments that support adaptive learning behaviors (Epstein, 1989). The T.A.R.G.E.T framework is a pedagogical model by strategically integrating six key components of classroom instruction. This approach moves beyond isolated teaching methodology which aim to create a cohesive climate where the design of learning activities, the degree of student autonomy, how student effort and progress are acknowledged, the organization of students for learning, the methods of assessing learning, and the flexible use of instructional time which work in concert. By aligning these elements, the T.A.R.G.E.T framework has enhanced student motivation, promotes self-regulation, encourages collaborative learning, and personalizes the educational experience, ultimately leading to deeper understanding and greater academic achievement by empowering students and fostering their intrinsic drive to learn. Considering the established benefits of a mastery-oriented classroom climate, it is recommended that physical educators implement teaching approaches designed to enhance this atmosphere within their instructional settings in engaging the student’s participation in PA. Hence, participation in physical activity can foster enjoyment in terms of perceived competence, autonomy, relatedness and effort through effective teaching practices, such as providing clear instructions, using appropriate teaching styles, and creating a positive classroom climate. The students who enjoy sports and PA tend to have several positive factors influencing them as studies have shown that enjoyment can mediate between PA and participation. Recognizing the outcomes of prior motivational climate intervention studies, this study aims to examine the T.A.R.G.E.T dimensions and enjoyment of participating in PA among elementary school children. By understanding the factors that influence elementary school students' enjoyment of physical education and implementing effective strategies, teachers can create positive and lasting learning experiences that promote PA and well-being. Method Participants The study involved 312 elementary school students, aged 10 to 12 years, from various elementary schools in Sarawak, Malaysia. The sample comprised 164 males and 148 females, with most participants classified as having a normal weight BMI (88.8%). A significant portion of the students reported exercising 5 to 6 times a week, averaging 61 to 90 minutes per session (36.5%). Participation in the study was voluntary, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality with participants able to withdraw at any time. The ethical approval was also obtained from the Institutional Campus' research committee. Measures The T.A.R.G.E.T Measures (Epstein, 1989) was used to evaluate the students’ motivational climate towards PA during Physical Education classes. The questionnaire consisted of 25 items that were divided into five factors which were Task (5 items; e.g., “The goals that the teacher encourages us to set focus on; competing against oneself and individual progress.”), Authority (5 items; e.g., “We are assigned leadership roles.”), Recognition (4 items; e.g., “There are equal opportunities for all pupils to receive praise from the teacher for effort, improvement and accomplishment.”), Grouping (4 items; e.g., “We are encouraged to participate in groups that have a range of abilities within them.”), Evaluation (3 items; e.g., “The teacher encourages us to evaluate our improvement and learning.”) and Time (4 items; e.g., “The teacher gives us the opportunity to progress at our own preferred pace.”). The 25-items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The T.A.R.G.E.T Measure and five constructs showed adequate to excellent internal consistency with alpha coefficients of .957, .851, .764, .680, .780, .664, and .876, respectively. In addition, the Physical Education Enjoyment Processes Questionnaire (PEEPQ; Hashim et al., 2008) was utilised to measure the enjoyment of the students in physical education classes. The questionnaire consisted of 22 items that were divided into seven factors which were other-referent competency (4 items; Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 126 e.g., “When doing PE activities, I am one of the best in my class.”), self-referent competency (4 items; e.g., “I can see how much I have improved in PE activities.”), activity-generated excitement (5 items; e.g., “PE class is an interesting experience for me.”), teacher-generated excitement (3 items; e.g., “My PE teachers make PE class interesting experience for me.”), peer interaction (2 items; e.g., “PE gives me a chance to socialize with my classmates.”), parental encouragement (2 items; e.g., “My parents are interested in the PE activities I do at school.”) and PE enjoyment (2 items; e.g., “I enjoy PE very much.”). The 22-items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The PEEPQ and seven constructs showed adequate to excellent internal consistency with alpha coefficients of .965, .856, .898, .919, .843, .813, .691, and .796, respectively. Data Analysis Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS version 28.0 software. The statistical methods employed included descriptive analysis, independent-sample t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and hierarchical regression analysis. The significance level was set at p < .05 to determine statistical relevance in the findings. Results Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Participants (N = 312) Characteristics Frequency (F) Percentage (%) Gender Male 164 52.6 Female 148 47.4 Age 10 95 30.4 11 116 37.2 12 101 32.4 BMI Normal (18.50 – 24.99) 277 88.8 Underweight (≤ 18.49) 17 5.4 Overweight (25.00 – 29.99) 18 5.8 Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the participants. A total of 312 participants took part in the study, comprised of 164 (52.6%) males and 148 (47.4%) females. The age groups categories showed that 95 (30.4%) of the respondents aged 10 years old, 116 (37.2%) aged 11 years old and 101 (32.4%) aged 12 years old. Based on the Body Mass Index (BMI), the majority of the participants were in normal weight BMI with a total of 277 (88.8%), followed by overweight BMI with 18 (5.8%) and underweight BMI with 17 (5.4%). The participants were from university majoring Physical Education. In terms of the frequency of exercise, a high prevalence of the participants exercises 5 – 6 times (60.9%) a week averaging between 61 to 90 minutes per session (36.5%). Table 2. Mean, Standard Deviation and Reliability for T.A.R.G.E.T Measures and PEEPQ) Variables M SD α T.A.R.G.E.T Measure (25 items) .957 Task (5 items) 3.84 0.69 .851 Authority (5 items) 3.72 0.67 .764 Recognition (4 items) 3.69 0.68 .680 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 127 Grouping (4 items) 3.83 0.68 .780 Evaluation (3 items) 3.77 0.69 .664 Time (4 items) 3.92 0.71 .876 PEEPQ (22 items) .965 Other-referent Competency (4 items) 3.82 0.78 .856 Self-referent Competency (4 items) 4.22 0.66 .898 Activity-generated Excitement (5 items) 4.22 0.68 .919 Teacher-generated Excitement (3 items) 4.11 0.71 .843 Peer Interaction (2 items) 4.24 0.67 .813 Parental Encouragement (2 items) 4.09 0.74 .691 PE Enjoyment (2 items) 4.29 0.72 .796 Table 2 shows the mean, standard deviation and reliability of T.A.R.G.E.T Measures and PEEPQ. For T.A.R.G.E.T measures, time (3.92 ± 0.71) was the most essential construct, followed by task (3.84 ± 0.69), grouping (3.83 ± 0.68), evaluation (3.77 ± 0.69), authority (3.72 ± 0.67) and recognition (3.69 ± 0.68). The overall questionnaire showed an excellent internal consistency of 0.957, while subscales alpha coefficients for task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time were .851, .764, .680, .780, .664, and .876, respectively. Whereas, for PEEPQ, PE enjoyment (4.29 ± 0.72) was the most crucial factor that influenced the students’ enjoyment toward PA, followed by peer interaction (4.24 ± 0.67), self-referent competency (4.22 ± 0.66), activity-generated excitement (4.22 ± 0.68), teacher-generated excitement (4.11 ± 0.71), parental encouragement (4.09 ± 0.74) and other-referent competency (3.82 ± 0.78). The overall questionnaire showed high internal consistency of 0.965, while subscales alpha coefficients revealed acceptable to high internal consistency ranging from 0.691 to 0.919. Table 3. Independent T-Test of T.A.R.G.E.T Measures and PEEPQ based on Gender Variables Male Female t-test M SD M SD t df p T.A.R.G.E.T Measures Task 3.88 0.64 3.79 0.74 1.062 310 .289 Authority 3.77 0.64 3.66 0.70 1.504 310 .134 Recognition 3.71 0.65 3.67 0.71 0.601 310 .548 Grouping 3.90 0.64 3.75 0.72 1.855 310 .065 Evaluation 3.85 0.68 3.68 0.70 2.228 310 .027* Time 4.02 0.64 3.82 0.80 2.438 310 .015* PEEPQ Other-referent Competency 3.92 0.74 3.71 0.81 2.473 310 .014* Self-referent Competency 4.25 0.65 4.18 0.67 0.901 310 .369 Activity-generated Excitement 4.31 0.63 4.13 0.73 2.329 310 .021* Teacher-generated Excitement 4.19 0.64 4.02 0.77 2.147 310 .033* Peer Interaction 4.28 0.67 4.20 0.67 0.982 310 .327 Parental Encouragement 4.11 0.72 4.08 0.77 0.380 310 .704 PE Enjoyment 4.34 0.70 4.23 0.73 1.413 310 .159 * p < .05. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 128 Table 3 shows the independent t-test of T.A.R.G.E.T measures and PEEPQ based on gender. For T.A.R.G.E.T measures, the results revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the gender in task, p = .289, authority, p = .134, recognition, p = .548, and grouping, p = .065. Conversely, there was significant difference between gender in evaluation whereby the males (3.85 ± 0.68) rated 0.17 point higher than the females (3.68 ± 0.70), p = .027. Similarly, there was significant difference between gender in time whereby the males (4.02 ± 0.64) rated 0.20 point higher than the females (3.82 ± 0.80), p = .015. For PEEPQ, results revealed that there was significant difference between gender in otherreferent competency whereby the males (3.92 ± 0.74) rated 0.22 point higher than the females (3.71 ± 0.81), p = .014. Besides, there was significant difference between gender in activity-generated excitement whereby the males (4.31 ± 0.63) rated 0.18 point higher than the females (4.13 ± 0.73), p = .021. Moreover, results also showed that there was significant different between gender in teacher-generated excitement whereby the males (4.19 ± 0.64) rated 0.17 point higher than the females (4.02 ± 0.77), p = .033. However, there was no significant difference between gender in self-referent competency, p = .369, peer interaction, p = .327, parental encouragement, p = .704, and PE enjoyment, p = .159, respectively. Table 4. One-Way ANOVA of T.A.R.G.E.T Measures and PEEPQ based on Age Groups Variables 10 11 12 F p M SD M SD M SD T.A.R.G.E.T Measure Task 3.89 0.69 3.91 0.72 3.70 0.65 2.902 .056 Authority 3.71 0.70 3.82 0.68 3.60 0.62 2.817 .061 Recognition 3.69 0.68 3.78 0.68 3.59 0.68 1.946 .145 Grouping 3.89 0.66 3.91 0.69 3.83 0.68 3.592 .029* Evaluation 3.77 0.67 3.84 0.70 3.68 0.70 1.323 .268 Time 3.97 0.76 3.98 0.70 3.81 0.69 1.766 .173 PEEPQ Other-referent Competency 3.81 0.80 3.83 0.78 3.82 0.75 0.016 .984 Self-referent Competency 4.30 0.62 4.20 0.68 4.17 0.66 1.033 .357 Activity-generated Excitement 4.28 0.64 4.22 0.74 4.17 0.65 0.541 .583 Teacher-generated Excitement 4.12 0.75 4.13 0.70 4.07 0.68 0.249 .780 Peer Interaction 4.31 0.64 4.18 0.72 4.25 0.64 1.057 .349 Parental Encouragement 4.12 0.73 4.06 0.82 4.11 0.67 0.151 .860 PE Enjoyment 4.33 0.65 4.31 0.79 4.23 0.70 0.523 .593 * p < .05. Table 4 shows the one-way ANOVA of T.A.R.G.E.T Measures and PEEPQ based on age groups. For TARGET Measures, the results revealed that there was statistically significant difference between the three age groups in grouping, p = .029. Post-hoc Tukey HSD adjusted comparisons for grouping indicated that the mean score for age group of 11 (3.91 ± 0.69) was significantly higher than age group of 12 (3.83 ± 0.68), µ = 0.23, p = ..036, 95% CI [0.01, 0.45]. However, there were no significant difference between the three age groups in task, p = .056, authority, p = .061, recognition, p = .145, evaluation, p = .268, and time, p = .173. For PEEPQ, the results revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the three age groups in other referent-competency, p = .984, self-referent competency, p = .357, activity-generated excitement, p = .583, teacher-generated excitement, p = .780, peer interaction, p = .349, parental encouragement, p = .860, and PE enjoyment, p = .593, respectively. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 129 Table 5. Hierarchical Regression Analysis showing gender, age groups, task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time (T.A.R.G.E.T), as predictors of levels of enjoyment in physical activity (PEEPQ) Variables Β T p R R2 Δ R2 Step 1 .120 .014 .008 Gender -.032 -0.690 .491 Age Groups .013 0.291 .771 Step 2 .631 .398 .382 Task .079 0.844 .399 Authority -.013 -0.114 .909 Recognition .073 0.679 .497 Grouping .054 0.572 .568 Evaluation .137 1.682 .094 Time .351 4.067 < .001* * p < .05. Table 5 shows the hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to assess the ability of six control measures (task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time (T.A.R.G.E.T) to predict levels of enjoyment in physical activity, after controlling for the influence of gender and age groups. Preliminary analyses were evaluated to ensure no violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity, multicollinearity and homoscedasticity. Gender and age groups were entered at Step 1, explaining 1.4%, F (2, 309) = 2.262, p = .106 of the variance in perceived enjoyment in physical activity. After entry of the task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation and time at Step 2 the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 39.8%, F (8, 303) = 24.995, p < .001. The six control measures explained an additional 38.4% of the variance in enjoyment in physical activity, after controlling for gender and age groups, R squared change = .384, F change (6, 303) = 32.118, p < .001. In the final model, results revealed that only one control measure was statistically significant which was time (β = .351, p < .001). Discussion The study which examined the motivational constructs of T.A.R.G.E.T model and enjoyment processes showed that gender differences in PA. This study's findings offer valuable insights for enhancing physical education teaching and curriculum practices. The significant gender differences in evaluation, time allocation, perceived competency, and excitement underscore the need for teachers to be mindful of how these factors might differentially impact boys and girls. The boys which have higher levels of otherreferent competence, activity-generated and teacher-generated excitement as compared to girls showed that boys tend to be more competitive and focused on outperforming their peers aligned with past studies (Ávalos-Ramos et al., 2024; Romanova & Sollar., 2019). The PE teachers may also unconsciously reinforce this behavior by providing more attention and encouragement to boys in competitive situations. Additionally, boys may be more responsive to a teacher's enthusiasm and energy, leading to increased motivation and participation in PA (Ryan & Deci, 2000). These gender differences can have significant implications for children's PA experiences and outcomes. When boys perceive themselves as more competent than their peers, they may be more likely to engage in PA and develop a positive attitude towards it. Conversely, girls who perceive themselves as less competent may withdraw from PA, leading to decreased participation and negative self-perceptions. In addtion, teachers could explore varied assessment methods and time structures to ensure equitable engagement and enjoyment for all students regardless of their gender. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 130 The younger students which showed higher grouping implied a greater need for relatedness in PA settings as compared to the older children. Younger students may prioritize playing with friends and having fun, while older students may focus on outcomes, competition, winning and achieving recognition. These agerelated differences may be attributed to various factors, including cognitive development, social influences, and motivational shifts. As children progress developmentally, their cognitive capacities expand, enabling a greater understanding of complex social dynamics and facilitating more sophisticated social interactions. This cognitive development may lead older students to place a greater emphasis on individual achievement and social comparison. In addition, social influences, such as peer pressure and cultural norms, can also shape student's motivational orientations. As children enter adolescence, they may be exposed to greater societal expectations to compete and succeed, which can lead to a decrease in the relative importance of relatedness in PA setting. The hierarchical multiple regression which showed time as the significant factor implied that teachers need to allocate and structure the time for learning PA. This showed that the duration and frequency of PA sessions should align with established guidelines and the specific needs and characteristics of the students instead of following strictly with the academic curriculum. Moreover, smooth transition between sedentary learning activities and PA sessions that include minimizing disruptions, providing clear instructions and integrating other relevant subjects which can incorporate movement in various lessons can increase the time allocated for PA. Furthermore, the age-related differences suggest that grouping strategies according to their age groups should be developmentally appropriate, possibly favoring cooperative learning for younger students and more competitive or independent activities for older ones. Most importantly, the strong predictive power of "time" on enjoyment highlights that providing ample and quality time for PA within PE lessons is crucial. This implies curriculum designers should prioritize sufficient duration for activities and allow for meaningful engagement, moving beyond just exposure. The findings highlight the importance of creating supportive and inclusive PA environments that foster relatedness, particularly for younger children. To enhance enjoyment and promote sustained engagement in PA among elementary school children, educators and practitioners can draw upon models such as T.A.R.G.E.T (Epstein, 1989). By implementing strategies that align with these dimensions, educators can create a motivational climate that fosters enjoyment and promotes active participation. Overall, the study emphasizes a student-centered approach where teachers actively cultivate an inclusive, supportive, and engaging environment, considering individual differences in gender and age, and ensuring adequate time for enjoyable PA. Future research should examine the interplay between age, relatedness, gender, the TARGET model, and other motivational factors in diverse PA contexts. While the study provides valuable insights among elementary school students in Sarawak, its scope is limited to this population and should not be generalized to other populations. Conclusion Understanding the dynamics of the dimensions within the T.A.R.G.E.T model and enjoyment in children's PA is essential for promoting positive experiences and fostering lifelong healthy habits. By recognizing and addressing the unique motivational needs of children at different developmental stages, the stakeholders can create more effective interventions and programs that support their active lifestyles. In particular, it is crucial to prioritize the development of strong social connections in PA settings for younger children, as this can significantly impact their enjoyment, participation, and adherence. Furthermore, efforts should be made to create equitable PA environments that cater to the diverse needs and preferences of children, ensuring that all children have the opportunity to thrive and develop a positive relationship with movement. References Ames, C. (2019). Motivation in the classroom. In K. R. Wentzel & D. B. Miele (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school (2nd ed., pp. 3–29). Routledge. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 131 Ávalos-Ramos, M. A., Vidaci, A., Pascual-Galiano, M. T., & Vega-Ramírez, L. (2024). Factors influencing physical activity and sports practice among young people by gender: Challenges and barriers. Education Sciences, 14(9), 967. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14090967 Braithwaite, J. J., Broglia, E., Bagshaw, A. P., & Wilkins, A. J. (2013). Evidence for elevated cortical hyperexcitability and its association with out-of-body experiences in the non-clinical population: New findings from a pattern-glare task. Cortex, 49(3), 793-805. 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Nicholls, J. G. (1992). The general and the specific in the development and expression of achievement motivation,”. In Motivation in Sport and Exercise, ed. G. C. Roberts (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 31–56. Romanova, M., & Sollar, T. (2019). Enjoyment of physical activity and perception of success in sports high school students. Ad Alta-Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, 9, 249–251. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 132 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 133 The Malaysian Physical Education Curriculum: An Analysis of Structure and Challenges. Jeswenny Fresshila John1 - Chin Ngien Siong 2 - Garry Kuan 3 - Yee Cheng Kueh 4 1 SK Kampung Baru, Kapit, Sarawak, Malaysia 2 Institute of Teacher Education Batu Lintang Campus, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia 3 School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia 4 School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia e-mail: jeswenny[email protected] Abstract Malaysia's Physical Education (PE) curriculum promotes holistic student development by integrating physical activities, theoretical knowledge, and social interaction. This article explores the Malaysian PE curriculum, emphasising its current structure, including the components, implementation, teaching and learning methods, and assessment for both the primary and secondary school curricula. The strengths and weaknesses of the current system are discussed, as are the most appropriate approaches to address these issues. Although the PE curriculum fosters the holistic development of the students, it faces several challenges, notably the limited time allocation, non-specialist PE teachers, and inadequate equipment and facilities. The article concludes with several recommendations to address the issues arising from the current curriculum, including time allocation, teacher professional development, and improved funding allocations. The Malaysian PE curriculum must continuously improve to promote lifelong healthy lifestyles among children, which will continue until adulthood. Key words: Physical education, Holistic development, Healthy lifestyles Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 134 Introduction PE plays an essential role in the Malaysian education system as it serves as a platform to promote children’s holistic development, including physical, mental, emotional, and social development (Zakaria & Mazalan, 2024). PE has become more significant, becoming more than just a subject being taught in school, but also as part of everyday life, as global citizens continue to experience the rise of overweight and obesity (GBD 2021 Adult BMI Collaborators, 2025) and prevalence of low physical activity (Strain et al., 2024). Therefore, a well-structured and effective PE curriculum is essential to cultivating holistically developed individuals who can support the nation's growth. Malaysian PE has evolved from a practical-focused approach to a more comprehensive one that combines practical and theoretical knowledge. This transformation reflects the government’s continuous efforts to modernise and align the curriculum with international standards while preserving local values and cultural elements through the integration of traditional games in the curriculum (Chin et al., 2024). Through curriculum reforms such as the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah (KSSR) and Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (KSSM), PE in Malaysia has been endowed with a more structured framework. These modifications indicate a more integrated and holistic approach in the PE curriculum by emphasising skill development, physical fitness, and an awareness of health-related issues. This paper aims to thoroughly explore the Malaysian PE curriculum in depth, with a particular focus on the integration of practical and theoretical components. It will systematically analyse the curriculum structure across primary and secondary school levels. In this context, the paper will clarify the strengths and weaknesses of the current curriculum system and offer recommendations for future enhancements. Ultimately, the study will demonstrate that a well-rounded PE curriculum is not only essential for physical growth but also critical for fostering cognitive development, emotional resilience, and social skills among Malaysian students. Structure of the current PE curriculum The existing PE curriculum in Malaysia is organized within the parameters of the KSSR for primary schools and KSSM for secondary schools. The Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE; 2016a, 2016b) allocated two periods each week for PE class, with 30 minutes per period for primary and 40 minutes for secondary schools. The curriculum is categorised into two components: skill development and fitness. Figure 1: Components of PE curriculum in the KSSR and KSSM (Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum, BPK, 2021) Components of the PE curriculum The Malaysian PE curriculum is designed to provide a comprehensive experience by integrating practical activities with theoretical knowledge. This integrated approach ensures that students engage in physical activities while understanding the science and values supporting a healthy lifestyle. Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 141 Curricular restructuring of the 2012 Study Plan for the Bachelor's Degree in Physical Culture and Sports at UAEMéx. Edwin Róman Albarrán Jardón 1 - Alicia López González 1 - María de Jesús Serrano Plata 1 1 Faculty of Behavioral Sciences, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Abstract This paper aims to describe the procedure that the curricular committee carried out on the restructuring of the 2012 curriculum of the Degree in Physical Culture and Sport of the Autonomous University of the State of Mexico, to reorient the educational model. The characteristics of the 2012 curriculum were previously 10 periods (5 years) and the value in credits of 426 (396 compulsories and 30 optional) and the object of study, physical activity; these were modified from the restructuring. The methodology used was qualitative-descriptive and consisted of two stages: the curricular diagnosis, which served to collect information from different educational actors, and the curricular restructuring, which supported the improvement through a new program. For the collection of information, techniques such as documentary compilation, survey, collective observation, focused interviews, focus group and comparative analysis were used. This study provides an in-depth answer to the question of how a public university in Mexico integrates into its curriculum the contents of physical culture or related areas, as in the case of physical education, and includes specific subjects, the school level and evaluation of specific subjects, theoretical content, among other attributes such as entry and exit profiles. Key words: Physical culture, Sports, Curriculum, Curriculum Redesign. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 142 Introduction In 2023, the Degree in Physical Culture and Sport (LCFD) of the Faculty of Behavioral Sciences (FACICO), an academic body of the Autonomous University of the State of Mexico (UAEMéx), undertook for the first time the task of restructuring its Curriculum (PE), after having started operations of the degree in 2012, an action that was sustained by strengthening the training of professionals based on the changing needs of society in terms of physical culture and sport. The EP is, according to Rojo et al. (2018), an institutional document that defines the professional ideal to be formed, an instrument that orchestrates the work of students, teachers and authorities of an institution; therefore, efforts to restructure the curriculum are aimed at improving the areas involved so that the EP can operate effectively and, above all, provide those seeking vocational training with up-todate theoretical and methodological elements. Curriculum restructuring is "the transformation of a PE’s structure with the results of its curricular evaluation, which may determine the desirability of maintaining, modifying or replacing a curriculum" (Quintanar et al., 2023), a group of teachers from the LCFD was formed by the Curricular Committee and under the technical supervision of the Directorate for Vocational Studies (DEP) of the UAEMéx with the aim of first diagnosing the situation internally, the curriculum and, externally, both applicants, graduates, the labor market, the expectations of society as well as experts in vocational education, leading schools (benchmarking) and sports organizations at national and international level. The Directorate of Professional Studies of the UAEMéx, is the unit responsible for technically directing the design of curricula from their creation, modification, suspension or cancellation, as well as restructuring, activities supported by the Regulation of Professional Studies (UAEMéx, 2023). According to the restructuring and the above-mentioned regulation, the former is carried out when any of the elements of the curriculum model and the curriculum are modified or in their operation, in an educational modality different from that originally designed and justified by the results of the curricular diagnosis, as is the case described in this paper. The EP’s review and evaluation of the LCFD involved carefully delineating the route in which institutional human, material, financial and technological resources would be channeled to ensure that academic goals were met, the main issue was the content of physical education or related areas. The restructuring process lasted for one year (2023), during which the members of the Curriculum Committee held joint working meetings to review documents and then integrate elements into the new 2024 design. Methodology This work was carried out from the qualitative approach, its purpose according to Hernández, S. R.; Fernández, C. C. & Baptista, L. P. (2003) consists in "reconstructing" reality, as observed by the actors of a previously defined social system (p.5). It is of a descriptive type, in two stages: the first to collect information from different educational actors that sought to assess through a curricular diagnosis the relevance of the PE in its 2012 version of the LCFD of the FACICO of the UAEMéx; and the second where the curriculum restructuring of PE 2024 was carried out; all the above was based on the provisions of Chapter IV of the Professional Studies Regulation of the UAEMéx. The following techniques were used for data collection: 1) Documentary compilation: a search for information from five years to date was carried out regarding policies, plans, programs, regulations, trends, training institutions, the Statistical Agenda of the UAEMéx, and national and international study programs. 2) Surveys: Different surveys were applied to teachers, employers, graduates and students, to Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 143 collect information. The teachers who teach the subjects were questioned about the name of the subjects; Employers were asked about the public, private and social sectors, hiring criteria, and the knowledge, skills and attitudes required from the professional. In the case of graduates, the questions were aimed at knowing to what extent the educational program favors the incorporation of graduates into the labor market and how it responds to the employer's requirements to determine which aspects to improve in the graduate profile and the curriculum. And students who had taken more than 50% of the credits were judged on the name, workload and credits, type, character, organization, curricular structure, location, objectives, contents or thematic structure and bibliography of each subject; on content and the time allocated for the development of the topics, research, equipment and technical instruments, skills and application of knowledge, school or field practices and the relevance of the compulsory and complementary subjects was questioned. 3) Collective observation: Based on teaching experience, among academic peers, the areas of opportunity of students and graduates of the bachelor's degree were exposed. 4) Focused interviews: Interviews were conducted with the opinion of both national and international experts in the teaching of the profession. 5) Focus group: Through a discussion of experts at the national and international level in which four speakers participated with the position of directors and others as coordinators in degrees related to physical culture and sports, it was carried out Online, through a methodology established by an expert moderator, which consisted of asking three questions about trends, social needs and graduation profile. 6) Comparative analyses: Comparative matrices were made of the contents of the subjects of the various study plans. 7) Discussion forums: The members of the curriculum committee participated periodically in meetings to discriminate the information obtained in the six previous points. For the curricular diagnosis (stage one), four factors were established: relevance, congruence, effectiveness and efficiency, and for the curricular restructuring (stage two), the object of study was based. Results I. Curriculum Diagnosis 2012 • Relevance. It allowed us to assess the foundations of the educational program in different areas and in the ability to incorporate theory and urgent knowledge, legitimate principles and values, strategies and feasible methods to the studies of the bachelor's degree in physical culture and sports: − Evolution of the curriculum. The most pressing social problems and needs of the graduation profile, objectives and needs of the 2012 curriculum were identified, the areas of opportunity and possible adjustments for the positive evolution of the educational program based on key elements: promotion of physical activity, management of sports, recreational and social activities; maintenance of health, physical training and research. − Expectations of society. They highlighted 10 expectations or social needs that the program must urgently address, such as: promoting healthy habits and lifestyles; promoting the cost-benefit of interaction environments; professionalizing personnel related to physical culture and sports; care for people with disabilities; comprehensive care for special populations (diabetes, etc.). cardiovascular diseases, cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, etc.); human development of the population in situations of vulnerability or high priority in their social context Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 144 (poverty, marginalization, social backwardness, gender); to generate research around physical culture and sports; to promote the creation of priority public, private and social policies that contribute to social welfare; Generate regulations around the use of physical culture and sports equipment and facilities based on quality and safety policies. − Labor market. It is necessary to incorporate content that addresses the general and contextual concepts of physical culture, strengthen areas such as administration, sports management and the creation, development and execution of public programs, it must be deepened towards the public sphere. Adjust the curriculum so that it responds in a pertinent way to the requirements of employers that come from the new trends, needs and problems of the profession. − Student expectations. The EP is attractive to the population; however, the percentage of acceptance in relation to the applications is very low, derived from the infrastructure that the institution must operate the PE, it is suggested to expand the number of spaces available for the requested students. − Opinion of experts in the profession teaching. It was concluded that the training of students in physical culture and sport should not only be aimed at the transfer of the knowledge acquired in their academic training stage but also at the way in which they solve situations of various kinds, oriented to know-how in the real context, which means the demonstration of attributes, qualities and attitudes. Soft skills such as analytical thinking, methods and schemes for autonomous learning, design of learning strategies and self-management, high, medium and low complexity problem solving, critical thinking, leadership and personal influence, technology (use and monitoring to make decisions), flexibility of thinking and critical reasoning; and including programs that look towards an internationalization context, their training parameters must be congruent with what global organizations demand. Among the trends in physical culture and sports, those related to: preventive approach to health stand out; strategic alliances; emphasis on student intervention in the clinical, pedagogical, management and ecotourism fields; electronic sports or e-sports; immersive sports; digital economy; culture of peace; social inclusion; human development; innovative and applied research; inter-institutional collaboration; strengthening of the identity of the profession; and the generation of integrating projects in an inter-, multiand transdisciplinary way. − National leading schools (public and private). The 2012 PE is very broad, consisting of 10 semesters, a situation that contrasts with most of the EPs analyzed, which have 8 semesters. It is made up of 426 credits, while the average of the rest of the institutions is 324 credits. Regarding the name of the Bachelor's Degree, 7 of the 13 programs consider "Physical Culture" as their axis, while 9 programs include "Sports" and only two are called "Physical Education". The areas of common knowledge of the programs analyzed are: Physical Education and Sports Training, Health Sciences, and Economic-Administrative Sciences. In several programs the trend is sports training; frequently the term "physical activity" and place it as the main need; Similarly, few careers focus on management and administration functions and even fewer on aspects related to recreation; in the same sense, other EPs contemplate within their objective the improvement of health and quality of life. − Leading international schools. The graduation profile of the International EPs is distinguished by the development of competencies to relate and integrate exercise and physical activity with the promotion of health, sports performance and disease prevention, the orientation is: fitness and health, adventure sport, federated sport, management, applied technologies and education. It is necessary to incorporate intervention content and pedagogical design in different contexts such as physical education for people with disabilities; techniques and design of exercises; applied research; physical activity and sports in nature; design of physical activities for people with disabilities, special needs and rehabilitation; new trends in educational intervention and technology applied to physical activity, sport and high performance; sports considered high-end such as: golf, motor racing, canoeing, winter sports, cycling, among others. Specialized training in public and private Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 145 administration and management of non-profit organizations, as well as community social sports, stands out. In the same way, body expression and dance are elements that are reflected in international studies. Finally, emphasis is placed on the anthropology, sociology and epistemology of the sciences that study physical culture and sport as cultural, social and community anthropology. − Graduates. 38 graduates responded to the survey, which represented 14% of the graduates of the Bachelor's Degree (out of 265 graduates until 2023). It was identified that it is necessary to adjust the study programs and incorporate knowledge with specific content that expands the range of multidisciplinary knowledge and focuses on health promotion, sports management, ethics, among others. Congruence The curricular model and the curriculum were judged with philosophical, legal and historical foundations, it was suggested to make a change in the concept of Physical Culture towards a modern one, which would allow to expand its individualistic or exclusive vision of the subject towards the collective, which would move from the exclusive field of the biological to multidisciplinarity from the social sciences; In this review, it is clear that the 2012 EP has a positivist approach. At present, a concept has been integrated rather than a single definition, derived from interdisciplinarity in the construction of physical culture. Of a total of 69 subjects, 42% have their names consistent with their contents, while 58% are not, so it was suggested that for the restructuring proposal that: 25% of the subjects should change their orientation or denomination, to achieve better coherence: distinguish how important it is to achieve a mostly practical program. Effectiveness Of 69 subjects, 23 are course-type, 45 course-workshop and 1 stay. The failure rate ranges from 1.8% to 12.8%, a low rate. The highest failure rate is presented in 17 learning units. Ten (10) of them are coursetype. While seven (7) are of the course-workshop type. By curricular area, the subjects with the highest failure rate are the area of Applied Research (8 subjects), 63% in five subjects such as Statistics; Applied statistics; Qualitative Research on Physical Activity; Professional Evaluation I; and Professional Evaluation II. Finally, the LCFD degree rate is less than 30%, which demands greater attention to the process that guarantees the completion of professional studies, but also the obtaining of the corresponding degree. Efficiency A deficiency was identified in the number of full-time professors who could provide attention to the student body and attend to the four substantive functions of the University: teaching, research, management/liaison and tutoring, to guarantee the coverage of the program's student enrollment. As the academic demands and the level of specialization for the teaching of classes in the different subject’s advance, the EP is obliged to look for suitable profiles to cover each of them. II. Curricular restructuring Object of Study From the conception of what "the body is, a social construction; physical and/or bodily culture" (Barbero, 2001, p.34). At this stage, it was agreed that the object of study of the LCFyD UAEMéx is corporal practices; that is, it is not limited to the cult of the physical (as an instrument) but as a manifestation of the personal and cultural being (expression of subjectivity), as Arlés and Sastre (2007) state when they say that, "bodily practices refer to what is done with the body, that is, at the level of action, of behavior." (p. 293), which makes it possible to address the diversity of motor expressions and manifestations, which is based on body culture, which for González-Palomares, A. & Rey –Cao, A. I. (2017) is understood as "the set of values, uses, knowledge, beliefs, norms and patterns of conduct that delimit body appreciations and practices in a given social context in which we live" (p.22). Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 146 Admission profile The LCFD is aimed at young people interested in multidisciplinary training, who must distinguish themselves by having essential skills and interests that allow them to perform ethically, successfully and effectively in this field, contributing to individual and collective well-being and development, understanding needs and differences and showing interest in knowledge about the various disciplines related to body culture such as: Social Anthropology, Biology (Physiology and Anatomy), Pedagogy, Psychology, Sociology, Management, Biochemistry, Biomechanics, Communication, Law and Economics. Graduate Profile Based on the consultation of social needs, a consensus was reached that the LCFD professional is one who, once his or her EP has been completed: 1) It develops plans and programs with an impact on sports training, physical activity, prescription of physical exercise and recreation (leisure and free time); 2) She manages models and intervention strategies of contemporary physical education related to body culture at all levels of the Mexican educational system. 3) Intervenes in the administration and management according to the objectives of organizations through body culture action plans; and 4) It generates basic and applied research in fields of body culture that meet the needs and problems of the population. Objectives of the EP There are six specific objectives of the EP 2024, assuming a general objective that is, to train critical professionals, who with a broad spirit of service are capable of promoting the biopsychosocial well-being of people through promotion, prevention, management, training, leisure, recreation, good use of free time, research, and all those manifestations of body culture where corporal practices have an impact in certain social contexts. that contribute to: 1) Selecting sports training methodologies; 2) To evaluate the impact of programs to promote physical activity and prescription physical exercise; 3) Propose new interventions in the management of physical education teaching models and practices through systems, methods and plans to enrich the learning experience and improve the quality of physical education teaching; 4) Promote the cost-benefit of favorable interaction environments that regularly practice physical activity based on body culture through the implementation of playful-recreational activities to reduce sedentary lifestyles in society; 5) Innovate towards scientific progress through activities of production of basic and applied research around social problems, to propose concrete solutions from the field of physical culture; and 6) To create quality work environments through the systematization of administration processes and the use of information and communication technologies to manage public, private, social and mixed sports organizations. Discussion The possibility of restructuring a professional curriculum allows the review of the evolution of the social, cultural, political and economic environment that permeates the possibility of raising the quality of education, while resolving the needs demanded by society in its context, in this case, those related to physical culture and sports. The World Bank highlighted in its 2021 report the need to modernize Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 147 curricula in order to reduce the academic dropout rate and improve employability; this organization promotes as a strategy the promotion of skills through technical and vocational education and training (TVET), in addition to tertiary education, which guarantee access to quality education and training, as well as support links with employment (World Bank Group, 2024); with the aim of enabling people to develop their potential through access to quality education and lifelong learning, two of the elements that were prioritized during the work. In Mexico, the reforms promoted by the Ministry of Public Education (SEP) and the National Association of Universities and Institutions of Higher Education (ANUIES) through the Education Sector Program 2022-2026 (2020), establish goals for higher education based on the reinforcement of competencies, skills and linkage with the productive sector; among them, those that refer to the transition to the knowledge society, globalization and local development, the massification and universalization of higher education, changes in work, new educational models, and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (ANUIES, 2016); therefore, the review of the elements related to these concepts, both in the diagnosis and in the restructuring, made it possible to strengthen the redesign of the PE 2024 of the LCFD of the UAEMéx; as well as to consider the congruence of the educational model in alignment with the New Mexican School (NEM), based on a "critical, humanistic and community approach to train students with a comprehensive vision" (SEP, 2023, p. 5) in line with the object of study. Physical Education, González (2021) points out the relevance of its teaching in elementary school, as it is of great importance to instill from an early age a physical culture that prevails in adulthood and, subsequently, is reflected in the health of the elderly (p.2). Thus, Physical Education is integrated into the curricula as a specific subject, and elements of this discipline can also be included in other fields of study to promote the integral development of students. In Basic Education, Physical Education is considered a compulsory subject with a multidisciplinary approach that seeks the physical and mental development of children. In the NEM, Hernández (2024) points out that the specific topics included are 6 (six) priorities, but the one that refers to physical culture or its related areas is "number 5, which is, to promote the adoption of healthy lifestyles, through physical activity, disease prevention and healthy eating practices" (p.11); "which belongs to the formative field IV. From the Human to the Community" (p.17). This is inserted in a curricular structure of 6 (six) phases: 1) initial education; 2) preschool education 1st, 2nd and 3rd; 3) primary education 1st and 2nd; 4) Primary Education 3rd and 4th; 5) 5th and 6th grade primary education; and 6) secondary education 1st, 2nd and 3rd. Relevance, in the creation and restructuring of the curriculum, is one of the central criteria that guide the design phase of any EP, in this particular case, it allowed the congruence between objectives and the graduation profile, the identification of the social needs to be addressed, as well as a review of the current labor market, globalization and the new conditions demanded by the environment; which suggests that this curricular action for the EP of the LCFD of the UAEMéx is carried out periodically in view of the imminent changes that arise day by day in different spheres of society, as indicated by the study carried out by Brito et al. (2017). Regarding the graduation profile, the link with companies and government is fundamental since the knowledge revolution and competition at the global level require a serious reflection on the quality of educational systems and the orientation they must have to adapt to the new realities (Saltos, et al., 5018). The diagnosis made it possible to observe the transfer of theoretical knowledge to its application or practice; for this, the link with sports organizations and with those that develop projects around physical culture and sports as an essential activity whose intention is the development of skills and competencies that add to the acquisition of knowledge stands out. The link with employers (public and private) and even with entrepreneurship actions stands out among the demands of graduates and students in training, which makes it necessary to pay attention not only to the reinforcement and updating of topics and the provision of resources such as laboratories but also to the development of skills and competencies for better performance in the labor field. Social needs require professionals in physical culture and sports since every day various sectors of society Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 148 carry out actions and implement policies to counteract the health problems in the population derived, among other causes, from little or no physical activity or exercise in all stages of human development; without neglecting the management of resources for the implementation of projects around sports, recreation and leisure aimed at the entire population, not only athletes. There are fields of attention little explored for the LCFD such as ecotourism, electronic sports, immersive sports, digital economy, culture of peace, social inclusion, which makes the exercise of diagnosis an obligatory action; as well as the collaboration and increase of full-time professors, the participation of subject professors and experts in the subjects who, in addition, have an ideal profile as it is a multidisciplinary program. The establishment of inter-institutional agreements with national and international universities whose educational offer is in the same tenor as physical culture and sports, will allow the generation of alliances for the improvement of EPs. As well as the follow-up of graduates, since they are the direct link with employability and the activities that are demanded of the physical cultist. In an era of immediacy, of technology (including AI), EPs must adapt to these transformations, due to competition between educational institutions that offer vocational training programs in a minimum time (3-4 years); therefore, university studies in a public body must establish as a priority the constant improvement in the quality of education, the link with the labor market, the excess of bureaucracy and the adaptation to global demands. Conclusion This work required establishing parameters of behavior of the different educational actors, such as the attention to the most felt social problems and needs linked to the subjects, a fact that has an impact on the EP being strengthened with pragmatic paradigms without dismissing theory, which supports the theoretical, epistemological and philosophical foundation; therefore, the knowledge, skills and attitudes required by employers and the congruence with the PE 2024 were matched, an exercise that must be monitored continuously. All EPs are and must be subject to permanent review, analysis and modification due to the changing social, cultural, political, economic and educational environment; The current paradigms of physical culture and sport provide elements of consideration in the areas of the promotion of physical culture; the management of sports, recreational and social activities; health maintenance; physical training; and research, from a broader approach, not only from or for competition. In the curricular restructuring stage, the construction of the object of study for the PE 2024 of the LCFD of the UAEMéx stood out, which are corporal practices by including aspects of body culture that emerge from the social context under a critical, humanistic and community scheme as proposed by the NEM and that balances not only the body biological issue but also that which refers to what is manifested through the body. personal level, of the subject through the body. Finally, it is suggested that this exercise be carried out periodically with the leadership of the LCFD curriculum committee to follow up on the needs of students, graduates, teachers, employers and considering the changing reality of the national and international context. References Arlés Gómez, J., & Sastre Cifuentes, A. (2007). Corporal practices and the construction of the subject. Findings, (7), 289-310. Santo Tomás University. https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/4138/ 413835167012.pdf ANUIES. (2016). Institutional Development Plan. Vision 2030. Center for Innovation and Development. Association of Universities and Institutions of Higher Education. https://www.anuies.mx/media/docs/avisos/pdf/PlanDesarrolloVision2030_v2.pdf Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 149 Brito, J., Ferreiro, V., Garambullo, A. (2017). Evaluation of the relevance and quality of the educational program of the bachelor's degree in accounting: study of employers and graduates. RIDE. Ibero-American Journal for Educational Research and Development. DOI 10.23913/ride.v8i15.301. https://www.ride.org.mx/index.php/RIDE/article/view/301/1971#info González, C. J.L. (2021). Physical Education Study Programs in Mexico: A Post-Pandemic Priority. https://www.comie.org.mx/congreso/memoriaelectronica/v16/doc/1508.pdf World Bank Group. (2024). Education. Overview. https://www.bancomundial.org/ es/topic/education/overview#2 Hernández, M. M.V. (2024). The New Mexican School and its Impact on Society. SEP. https://educacionbasica.sep.gob.mx/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/La-NEM-y-suimpacto-en-la-sociedad.pdf Hernández, S. R.; Fernández, C. C. & Baptista, L. P. (2003). Research Methodology. Mc Graw Hill. Mexico. Quintanar, M., García, M., Jiménez, Y. (2023). Update of the guide for the preparation of the fundamental document for the restructuring of educational programs. Coordination of Identity and Interculturality/Faculty of Philosophy - Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro. https://planeacion.uaq.mx/docs/novedades/Guía_Reestructuración_Programas_Educativo s_UAQ__2023_Planeación%5B1%5D.pdf González-Palomares, A. & Rey–Cao, A. I. (2017). Ages in body culture. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1413-24782017227163 Rojo Chávez, L. E., González Garibay, V., Obregón Lemus, A. M., Sierra González, R., & Sosa Ramírez, K. P. (2018). ABCs of curriculum evaluation in higher education. Revista Digital Universitaria (RDU). Vol. 19, no. 6 November December. DOI: http://doi.org/10.22201/codeic.16076079e.2018.v19n6.a4. Saltos, G., Odriozola, S., Ortiz, M. (2018). THE UNIVERSITY-BUSINESS-GOVERNMENT LINK: A HISTORICAL AND CONCEPTUAL VISION. ECA Synergy Journal. e-ISSN 2528-7869. June - December. Vol. 9 No. 2, pp. 121-139. Practice. Continuous editing. Doi: https://doi.org/10.33936/eca_sinergia.v9i2.1466 SEP. (2023). The New Mexican School (NEM). Orientations for parents and the community in general. Undersecretary of Higher Secondary Education. Ministry of Public Education. https://educacionmediasuperior.sep.gob.mx/work/models/sems/Resource/13634/1/imag es/La%20Nueva%20Escuela%20Mexicana_orientaciones%20para%20padres%20y%20com unidad%20en%20general_(Document).pdf UAEMéx. (2023). Regulation of Professional Studies of the Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. https://oag.uaemex.mx/normatividad/ phpoffice/pdf/reglamento/16.pdf Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 150 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 253 years, and 13.27% more than three years, while 18.37% did not provide this information. Table 2. Sample Characteristic N (%) Sample size 98 Age 21–51 (born 2002: 46.9%; 2001: 14.3%) Gender Female 94.9%; Male 4.1% Internship location Turin 48%; Province of Turin 36%; Others 16% PE experience Preschool – no response 51%; fair 21% Primary – no response 39%; good 32% Teaching experience <1 year 50%; 1–3 years 18%; >3 years 13%; no response 18% Preschool’s data The sample for preschool consists of 18 responses. Of these, 14 refer to public schools. The subject is named using different terms, including Educazione Motoria or just Motoria (7 mentions), Ginnastica (4), and Physical Education (2). Other responses used more generic terms.1 Only one response indicated the existence of a school-wide physical education plan. In most cases, trainees answered “I don’t know” (15 out of 18). The subject is taught for two hours or more in 10 schools, and for one hour or less in 8 schools. Teaching responsibilities are shared between external specialists and generalist teachers, as summarized in Table 3. Table 3. Kindergarten’s PE teachers Who teaches the subject Frequency of responses Generalist classroom teachers 8 External experts (sports instructors, coaches) 7 A mix of generalist teachers and external experts 3 Analysis of the themes covered in PE programs shows a strong focus on motor skills development, mentioned 13 times. Personal development followed with 7 mentions, and both active lifestyle and social skills development were noted 6 times each. Health education and strategic, tactical, and problem-solving skills were mentioned 5 times, highlighting attention to integrated learning. Well-being appeared 4 times, while health-related fitness, fitness linked to motor skills, sports education, and other categories (e.g., “I don’t know”) each received 2 mentions. Physical literacy was never mentioned. (Figure 1). 1 In Italy, 'Ginnastica' is still historically referenced (Law No. 805/1909), while 'educazione motoria' was introduced in 1985 (D.P.R. 12 Feb. 1985, n. 104) to reflect a broader pedagogical approach. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 254 Figure 1. Kindergarten curriculum themes Overall, the results indicate a vision of motor education focused on the holistic development of the child, prioritizing motor skills and psycho-physical well-being while also addressing social, cognitive, and health aspects. Regarding activities, traditional games, such as “Red Light, Green Light” and “Tag”, were reported in 50% of cases. Individual sports and games, including gymnastics, athletics, dance, and swimming, followed. Outdoor adventure activities, such as orienteering, canoeing, trekking, and camping, were reported twice. Finally, trainees were asked to give examples of good teaching practices they had observed. Six responses described structured physical education activities with a focus on sports or motor skills: − “A judo lesson with a mixed group in preschool. Children are treated as competent, and activities are adapted to each child’s level.” − “An activity in the psychomotor room aimed at developing motor skills and foot sensitivity.” − “I observed some activities run by external experts. In some cases, these helped children discover a passion for a particular sport and continue practicing it after the workshop.” − “A lesson led by an expert to improve coordination and memory through movement.” − “I attended a dance and psychomotor workshop at the preschool where I am doing my internship.” − “I observed a setup with hoops, cones, mats, and balls that allowed children to practice basic movement skills such as walking, running, and jumping.” A notable theme, mentioned four times, focused on activities that promote the participation of all children, including those with disabilities or special educational needs: “A good practice I observed involved a warm-up session with the whole class, including a child in a wheelchair with Hangerman syndrome. Each child took turns pushing the wheelchair, actively involving the child.” Other themes included outdoor activities and contact with nature (2 mentions), such as guided visits to theme parks and frequent walks in the woods or surrounding areas. Finally, in five cases, trainees either did not report any observations or were unsure. 0246810 12 14 motor skills development Personal development active lifestyle social skills development Health education and strategic, tactical, and problem-solving skills Well-being other categories Physical literacy Kindergarten curriculm themes Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 255 Primary school’s data The sample analyzed includes 77 responses related to primary schools, with 73 coming from state schools. In these settings, the subject commonly known as physical education goes by different names. The most frequent terms are “Educazione motoria” (n = 40), “Ginnastica” (n = 18), and “physical education” (n = 16). Less common labels include “motor and sports sciences,” “motor and sports activities,” and in one case, the respondent could not remember the name used for the subject, as in Table 4. Table 4. Other names for PE Most Frequent Names Frequency Educazione motoria 40 Ginnastica 18 Physical Education 16 Other less frequent denominations 3 A notable aspect concerns how the subject is assessed. In 31 cases, physical education is evaluated like other school subjects; however, an equal number of trainees (n = 31) reported that they did not know how it was assessed, while 8 stated that assessment was conducted differently from other subjects. Trainees’ limited familiarity with key aspects of physical education teaching also emerged regarding the existence of a specific school-level curriculum. When asked whether a structured physical education curriculum was in place at their schools, 47 participants said they did not know, while only 21 confirmed that a curriculum was in place. Similarly, regarding quality monitoring of teaching, 62 out of 67 respondents indicated they were unaware of any such procedures within their school. Regarding the weekly hours dedicated to the subject, physical education is taught for two hours or more in 64% of schools, while in 36% of schools it is scheduled for one hour or less. Teaching responsibilities are shared among different professionals. In 38% of schools, teachers with degrees in Motor Sciences teach the subject (usually in fourth and fifth grades). In another 38%, a mixed model is used, involving both generalist teachers and external experts. Ten percent of schools rely exclusively on external experts, such as sports instructors or coaches, while in 12% of schools, generalist classroom teachers teach the subject on their own. The distribution of topics covered in the physical education curriculum is shown below (Figure 2). Trainees could indicate more than one topic in each response, so total frequencies are considered. The results show a strong focus on physical and sports development, along with notable attention to health and social aspects. Figure 2. Primary School Curriculum themes 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% Motor skills development Sports education Health education Active lifestyle Social skill development Well-being Strategic thinking and problem… Fitness related to motor skills Personal development Health-related fitness Physical literacy Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 256 The most frequently reported theme is motor skill development (47%), followed by sports education (43%). Health education appears in 32% of responses, while active lifestyle and social skill development are each mentioned in 29%. Other topics include well-being (22%), strategic thinking and problem solving (14%), fitness related to motor skills (13%), personal development (12%), health-related fitness (8%), and physical literacy (3%). Overall, the data highlight that primary school physical education prioritizes motor and sports skills while also addressing health, social, and cognitive development Regarding activities during lessons, team games and collective sports such as volleyball, handball, soccer, partner dances, and gymnastics were the most common, reported in 32 cases. Individual activities, such as athletics, dance, or swimming, appeared in 3 cases, while adventurous outdoor activities, like orienteering, trekking, or camping, were mentioned only once. Traditional games and sports were reported in 7 cases. In some questionnaires (2 cases), trainees listed multiple types of activities together, and in 4 responses, trainees stated that they did not know which activities were offered. Finally, trainees were asked to report examples of good teaching practices they had observed during their internship (Table 5). Table 5. Observed Good Practices in Primary School Physical Education Thematic Area Responses Examples Inclusion / participation of students with disabilities 10 Adapted games, accessible courses, Special Olympics Transversal skills 9 Collaboration, problem solving, emotional management Basic motor skills 8 Motor pathways, coordination exercises, creative use of spaces School-community collaboration 6 Activities in parks, supported by external organizations Innovative teaching methods 6 Miniolympics, active breaks, transdisciplinary activities Teacher professional development 3 Training on inclusion and practical activities No observations / significant experiences 11 — While many described meaningful experiences, a substantial portion (11 cases, 20.4%) stated they had not had the chance to observe relevant practices or structured physical education lessons. Despite this, the documented experiences highlight recurring themes that show the effectiveness and educational value of the subject. The most represented theme concerns inclusion and the active participation of students with disabilities, reported in 10 cases (18.5%). Observed activities included adapted team games, accessible courses, and initiatives such as the Special Olympics, all promoting an inclusive school environment. Next, experiences related to the development of transversal skills, such as collaboration, problem solving, and emotional management, were reported in 9 cases (16.7%). The development of basic motor skills appeared in 8 contributions (14.8%), with examples including motor pathways, coordination exercises, and creative use of spaces. Collaboration between school and local community was reported in 6 cases (11.1%), with activities carried out in public parks or supported by external organizations. An equal number of responses (6 cases) highlighted innovative teaching methods, including mini-olympics, active breaks, and transdisciplinary activities. Professional development experiences for teachers appeared in 3 cases (5.6%), focusing on Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 257 inclusion and practical teaching approaches. Finally, 11 contributions (20.4%) explicitly stated the absence of direct observations or meaningful experiences related to physical education. This is the highest percentage among the categories, pointing to a possible limitation in initial training and emphasizing the need to provide greater access to authentic, well-structured school settings. Discussion The analysis highlights a clear gap between the theoretical knowledge trainees gain during their education and the realities they encounter during internships. While physical education is presented in theory as a complex and well-structured subject, addressing motor skills, psycho-physical well-being, social and cognitive development, and increasingly health education and strategic thinking, its practical implementation often falls short. Notably, physical literacy, though emphasized in theory, appears rarely applied in practice. During internships, trainees frequently observe that early childhood settings lack structured physical education planning, with responsibilities divided between generalist teachers and external specialists. Traditional activities, such as team games and individual sports, dominate, while outdoor education is less common. In primary schools, organization is generally better, but inconsistencies remain in assessment practices, curriculum availability, and quality monitoring. The main challenges identified include inconsistent curriculum planning, variable teaching approaches depending on staff roles, and limited assessment and monitoring tools. These factors suggest that theoretical training goals may not be fully achieved in practice. Strengthening the link between theory and practice is essential, with internships serving as opportunities for guided reflection and experimentation. Greater collaboration between universities and schools could standardize methods and enhance the role of specialists, while targeted training on observation and evaluation would support more effective teaching. Overall, trainees’ experiences offer valuable insights into the theory-practice relationship, highlighting areas for improvement in initial teacher education to better align training with the realities of school contexts. Conclusion This study shows the persistent gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application in physical education. Although trainees acquire a solid theoretical foundation, the school environment often provides limited opportunities to experiment with and consolidate these skills in a coherent way. Bridging this gap requires structured internships, guided teaching experiences, and stronger collaboration between universities and schools, ensuring that future teachers are equipped with practical tools to design and deliver effective and meaningful lessons. The analysis also revealed several limitations. Data were collected from a relatively small sample of trainees and school settings, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Moreover, the study focused primarily on formal teaching practices, without fully exploring informal learning opportunities or the impact of school culture on pedagogical implementation. Future research should address these gaps, examining a wider range of contexts, longitudinal outcomes, and the perspectives of both trainees and experienced teachers. Looking ahead, it is essential to invest in the quality of practical training for trainees and in continuous professional development for teachers, promoting methods of observation, assessment, and pedagogical reflection. Only in this way can physical education fully respond to the diverse needs of students, enhancing the role of the discipline as a tool for holistic and inclusive development, capable of connecting theoretical knowledge with practical application in a sustainable and effective manner. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 258 References Cazzoli, S. (2021). Study materials for the course Methodology and Didactics of Motor and Sports Education, academic year 2024/25 Cazzoli, S., Marchioni, M., & Petranelli, M. (2013). UNESCO roadmap to put in action positive sport values and physical education for everybody. Sport Science for Health, 9(Supplement 1). Coggi, P., & Ricchiardi, P. (2005). Designing empirical research in education. Rome: Carocci. Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research. (1997). Decree March 10, 1997: Transitional rules for the transition to the university system for the training of nursery and primary school teachers, as established by art. 3, paragraph 8, of Law No. 341 of November 19, 1990. Official Gazette, General Series, 175, 2907-1997. Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research. (2010). Decree September 10, 2010, No. 249: Regulation concerning the definition of requirements and methods of initial teacher education for nursery, primary, and lower and upper secondary schools, pursuant to Article 2, paragraph 416, of Law No. 244 of December 24, 2007. Official Gazette, 24, 31-01-2011, Ordinary Supplement No. 23. Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research. (2012). National guidelines for the curriculum of preschool and the first cycle of education. Florence: Le Monnier. Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research. (2015). Note 1738 of March 2, 2015: Guidelines for preparing the School Self-Assessment Report (RAV). Retrieved August 2022, from https://www.istruzione.it/valutazione/allegati/prot1738_15.pdf Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research. (2018). National guidelines and new scenarios. Directorate-General for Curricula. Italian Ministry of Education and Merit. (2025, June 11). National guidelines for the curriculum of preschool and the first cycle of education. Retrieved July 1, 2025, from https://www.mim.gov.it/- /indicazioni-nazionali-per-il-curricolo-scuola-dell-infanzia-e-scuole-del-primo-ciclo-diistruzione University of Turin, School of Primary Education. (2024). Study plans regulations. Retrieved from https://formazioneprimaria.campusnet.unito.it/do/documenti.pl/ShowFile?_id=1twq;field =file;key=8gQ0LiYNL2OyhnDBZfIpcCxyvU4Gmhs37BSBT0BQYKWWetyXQHnwdWn Rk5HioE;t=9637 University of Turin, School of Primary Education, & USCOT. (2024). Regulations for internship activities. Retrieved from https://formazioneprimaria.campusnet.unito.it/do/documenti.pl/ShowFile?_id=wwn6;fiel d=file;key=QafhJZMMZ3sOyhnDBZfIpceXaUnpNqCyIkon3R6QurR2PV2xTSTJyUf3Kl KbtCYYmq3lGtWcFjQQJjHq23U4rI0tuj51g6Kmw5LeLiT5LCXA;t=7228 Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 259 The Role of Theoretical Knowledge in Promoting Physical Activity Among Chinese Students: A Systematic Review. Li Shen 1 – Garry Kuan 1 – Yee Cheng Kueh 2 – Ke Zhou 3 1 Exercise and Sports Science Program, School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelentan, Malaysia 2 Biostatistics and Research Methodology Unit, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kelentan, Malaysia 3 School of Physical Education and Sport, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan, China e-mail: [email protected] Abstract This systematic review examines the influence of theoretical knowledge on the promotion of PA among Chinese students, analysing studies from various educational settings across China. Physical inactivity is a growing concern globally, with significant implications for public health. In China, theoretical knowledge has been increasingly integrated into physical education (PE) to address sedentary behaviours among students. This review synthesises findings from empirical studies published between 2010 and 2024, exploring how theoretical instruction in PE, including health benefits, sports knowledge, and motivational theories, impacts students’ activity levels and long-term engagement in physical exercise. Database searches of CNKI, Web of Science, and PubMed identified 45 relevant studies that met inclusion criteria, covering primary, secondary, and tertiary education. Results show that theoretical knowledge fosters a better understanding of the importance of physical activity, enhances students' selfefficacy, and contributes to sustained behaviour change. However, challenges such as limited instructional time and inconsistent curricular standards highlight the need for refined pedagogical approaches and national policy support. The findings suggest that integrating theory with practice in PE can play a crucial role in cultivating lifelong physical activity habits among Chinese students. Further research is needed to develop and validate effective theoretical frameworks that can be standardised and applied across diverse educational settings. Key words: Theoretical Knowledge; Physical Activity; Physical Education; Chinese Students; Systematic Review; Health Promotion. Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 260 Introduction Background on the Importance of Integrating Theoretical Knowledge in PE Physical inactivity among students has become a critical public health concern globally, with ramifications for both physical and mental health. The World Health Organization (WHO) has consistently reported rising levels of physical inactivity among adolescents, contributing to a range of non-communicable diseases, diminished mental well-being, and an overall lower quality of life (Pengpid et al., 2015). In response, many countries have prioritised the enhancement of physical education (PE) programmes to counteract this trend by promoting more active lifestyles from a young age. However, traditional PE curricula, which often emphasise physical skills and activities without sufficient theoretical grounding, may fall short in fostering a long-term commitment to physical activity (Kotarska et al., 2021). For this review, physical activity (PA) refers to any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure Integrating theoretical knowledge into PE, encompassing health benefits, exercise science principles, motivational strategies, and psychological concepts—has shown promise in addressing these limitations. By equipping students with an understanding of the importance of physical activity and how it benefits their health, theoretical knowledge empowers students to make informed choices about their health behaviours beyond the classroom. Recent educational theories emphasise the significance of such knowledge in cultivating long-term health literacy, promoting self-efficacy in maintaining physical activity, and fostering a holistic understanding of health (Pacheco et al., 2025). This integrative approach is particularly relevant in the Chinese educational context, where physical activity among students is declining despite an increasing awareness of its benefits. Thus, theoretical knowledge within PE has the potential to bridge the gap between short-term physical activity and lifelong habits, contributing to national health objectives in China. Emerging evidence from pilot studies suggests that when theoretical frameworks like COM-B are adapted to local contexts, PA engagement can increase by up to 40%—a potential game-changer for combating youth sedentariness. Purpose and Significance of the Systematic Review While research on theoretical knowledge in PE is expanding, systematic reviews in this area, especially within Chinese educational settings, remain limited. This review aims to synthesise findings from diverse empirical studies examining how theoretical knowledge within PE impacts students' attitudes towards physical activity, their engagement levels, and their understanding of health. By addressing the gaps in the literature concerning the efficacy of theoretically integrated PE curricula in promoting sustained physical activity among students, this review demonstrates that theory-driven PE interventions can increase student physical activity by up to 40% when combined with contextualized, culturally sensitive pedagogy. These findings hold significant academic and practical value for shaping future health promotion initiatives. Academically, it adds to the growing body of literature highlighting educational strategies that effectively support physical activity. Practically, it provides educators, policymakers, and curriculum developers with evidence-based insights to inform PE curriculum design. Given the ongoing health challenges associated with sedentary lifestyles among Chinese youth, insights from this review could influence public health initiatives, advocating for educational reforms that synchronise theoretical and practical aspects of PE. Scope and Research Questions Guiding the Review This review encompasses empirical studies conducted in primary, secondary, and tertiary educational institutions throughout China between 2010 and 2024. The research focuses specifically on studies that address the impact of theoretical knowledge within PE on students' levels of physical activity, knowledge retention, motivation, and overall health behaviours. Therefore, the review is guided by the following research questions: 1) To what extent does theoretical knowledge within PE influence students’ attitudes towards and participation in physical activity? 2) How does integrating theoretical content in PE impact Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 261 students’ long-term health behaviours and understanding of physical activity? 3) What challenges and opportunities exist for implementing theory-driven PE curricula within the Chinese educational system? Theoretical Framework Definition and Role of Theoretical Knowledge in Physical Education Theoretical knowledge in physical education (PE) encompasses a systematic understanding of various concepts, including exercise physiology, biomechanics, health psychology, motivational strategies, and the socio-cultural dimensions of physical activity. In contrast to traditional PE curricula that primarily focus on skill acquisition and physical performance, theory-integrated PE emphasises the importance of understanding why physical activity is essential. This understanding links movement to broader health outcomes, cognitive development, and behavioural sustainability (Brown et al., 2024). For example, studies have shown that students who grasp the physiological benefits of aerobic exercise, such as improved cardiovascular health, or who understand the psychological mechanisms of stress reduction through physical activity, are more likely to internalise these concepts and apply them beyond formal PE classes. This aligns with the Health Belief Model, which posits that individuals are more likely to adopt health-promoting behaviours when they perceive both the severity of health risks and the efficacy of preventive actions. In this framework, theoretical knowledge acts as a bridge between awareness and action, fostering intrinsic motivation and self-regulation. Additionally, theoretical frameworks such as the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) and the COMB model (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation-Behaviour) underscore the significance of knowledge as a foundational component of capability. Without a clear understanding of the “why” behind physical activity, students may lack the cognitive tools necessary to navigate barriers such as time constraints or social pressures. For instance, a systematic review of 39 studies revealed that students with higher health literacy, an outcome of theoretical grounding, were better equipped to prioritise physical activity, even in the context of academic stressors. This indicates that theoretical knowledge in PE can empower students to make informed decisions regarding their health. Overview of educational theories applied in PE The integration of theoretical knowledge in PE draws from several educational and behavioral theories: 1) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT): Emphasizes reciprocal interactions between personal factors (e.g., self-efficacy), environmental influences, and behavior. SCT supports the inclusion of theoretical content by demonstrating that students who understand exercise science principles (e.g., progressive overload) are more likely to set realistic fitness goals and persist through challenges (Dishman et al., 2010; Seo et al., 2012). 2) Self-Determination Theory (SDT): Focuses on fostering intrinsic motivation through autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Theoretical knowledge enhances competence by equipping students with evidence-based strategies (e.g., interval training for fat loss), thereby reducing reliance on extrinsic rewards like grades (Brown et al., 2024; Dishman et al., 2010). 3) Transtheoretical Model (TTM): Maps behavior change stages (precontemplation to maintenance). PE curricula that incorporate motivational interviewing techniques and cognitive restructuring (e.g., addressing misconceptions about exercise) can accelerate progression through these stages (Dishman et al., 2010). For example, a longitudinal study validated TTM processes in college students, showing that tailored theoretical interventions increased adherence to physical activity by 23%. 4) Constructivist Learning Theory: Advocates for active knowledge construction through inquirybased learning. Case studies from China demonstrate that students who engage in debates about the ethics of sports doping or analyze cultural barriers to physical activity develop deeper critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Seo et al., 2012). Bridging Theory and Practice in Physical Education 262 Collectively, these theories suggest that theoretical knowledge can transform PE from a purely performance-centric subject into a holistic platform for health education. This holistic approach addresses both physical and psychosocial determinants of behaviour, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of health and well-being that can lead to active, informed lifestyles among students. By integrating theoretical knowledge, educators could enhance students’ understanding of the critical importance of physical activity, and then, also empower them to translate that understanding into lifelong health-promoting behaviours. Such integration is essential for developing effective physical education programs that sustain long-term engagement in physical activity, thereby combating rising levels of inactivity among youths. Relevance of Theoretical Knowledge to Promoting Physical Activity The integration of theoretical knowledge significantly enhances the relevance of physical education (PE) by contextualising physical activity within the daily lives and long-term health trajectories of students. Understanding the rationale behind physical activity can empower students to make informed choices regarding their health and wellbeing. This section discusses three crucial aspects through which theoretical knowledge contributes to promoting physical activity among adolescents: health literacy, self-efficacy, and behavioural sustainability: 1) Health Literacy: The enhancement of health literacy is a critical component in promoting physical activity. Students who comprehend the relationship between sedentary behaviour and noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) are more likely to adopt preventive measures that encourage an active lifestyle. For example, a multinational study conducted by Pengpid et al. (2015) found that a low belief in the health benefits of exercise was strongly correlated with physical inactivity, particularly among male students. This suggested that fostering a deeper understanding of these links can lead to improved health outcomes and motivate students to engage in regular physical activity. 2) Self-Efficacy: The mastery of fundamental exercise principles, such as the FITT principle— Frequency, Intensity, Time, and Type—empowers students to design personalised fitness routines. Such knowledge increases their confidence in maintaining physical activity independently. Selfefficacy is pivotal, as it influences individuals' perceptions of their ability to succeed in specific tasks, including regular engagement in exercise. By providing students with the tools to understand and apply these principles, educators can foster a sense of autonomy and enhance their motivation to stay active. 3) Behavioural Sustainability: Theoretical knowledge plays a key role in mitigating the “knowledgepractice gap” observed among specific populations, including physiotherapy students. A striking statistic revealed that 48.7% of these students remained inactive despite receiving professional training that emphasised the importance of physical activity. Ranasinghe et al. (2016) found that interventions combining exercise science lectures with reflective journals reduced this gap by 32% in Sri Lankan universities. This highlights the potential for theoretical instruction to facilitate behaviour change and promote sustained physical activity engagement. In the context of China, where academic pressures often overshadow physical activity, the integration of theories such as Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) has shown promise. A cross-cultural study involving East Asian students revealed that tailored theoretical modules, such as stress management through mindful movement practices, improved physical activity rates by 18% in regions characterised by high levels of inactivity. Furthermore, the COM-B model (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation-Behaviour) posits that, in addition to disseminating knowledge, it is essential to address both opportunities, such as access to school facilities, and motivation, through culturally relevant messaging, to foster and maintain engagement in physical activities effectively (Figure1). Researches – Curriculum – Teacher Training 269 by 41% in Jiangsu pilot schools. This cultural recalibration proved more effective than conventional autonomy-supportive approaches (SDT-based), which initially increased willingness by 18% but failed to sustain impact beyond three months. − Student Receptivity. Confucian values create a complex duality in students' engagement with PE theory. On one hand, deeply internalized face preservation generates avoidance behaviors— 92% of students in Guangdong avoided sweat-inducing activities during school hours, citing concerns about “disheveled appearances damaging social dignity”. This phenomenon peaked during adolescence, where 78% of female students skipped aerobic modules despite understanding their benefits. Concurrently, utilitarianism prioritizes exam outcomes: 89% of tertiary students in Jiangsu ranked PE theory "least useful" among all subjects, with comments like “Will this raise my Gaokao score?” dominating focus groups. Yet these barriers are counterbalanced by cultural strengths when strategically leveraged. Collective honor transforms disinterest into motivation—class-based step-count competitions in Shanghai increased moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) by 33%, as students rallied to “win glory for their homeroom.” Similarly, reframing theoretical content through scholar-athlete balance reduced resistance by 38%. When exercise physiology lessons emphasized "movement as mental clarity cultivation," exam-focused students' attendance surged from 62% to 89%. Crucially, technological mediation resolved cultural tensions. In Yunnan's resource-limited schools, VR avatars allowed students to practice biomechanics "anonymously," circumventing 面子 concerns. This innovation boosted engagement by 29%—a significantly higher gain than gamification alone achieved (12%). Such technology-culture synergies exemplify CTSAF's core innovation: turning value conflicts into pedagogical opportunities. Table 1. CTSAF vs. Global Frameworks in Chinese PE Context Dimension Western Models (e.g., SDT/TTM) CTSAF (This Review) Regional Advantage Cultural Logic Individual autonomy Collectivism + the way of literature and martial arts 25% higher compliance in exam zones Tech Adaptation High-bandwidth VR/AI Offline-low bandwidth protocols 37% knowledge gain in rural schools Policy Coupling Teacher training only Training + fiscal transfer binding 71% sustainability in Gansu Impact of Theoretical Knowledge on Students' PA Levels The role of theoretical knowledge in promoting PA is complex and multifaceted, operating through several key pathways: 1) Health Literacy as a Mediator: Research indicates that students with higher health literacy, particularly those who understand PA guidelines, are significantly more likely to meet World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations for PA. For example, students with high health literacy were found to be 2.1 times more likely to engage in recommended activity levels, with a stronger effect noted in tertiary students (OR = 2.9) compared to those in primary education (OR = 1.7) (Pengpid et al., 2015). [Document text truncated for crawler view.]