Creating a Digital Twin of the Early Helladic Cemetery of Asteria Glyfadas: Challenges and Innovations in Field Documentation

A 3D Digital Documentation Framework for the Early Helladic Cemetery of Asteria, Glyfada: Challenges and Innovations Konstantakis Markos1* , Kaza - Papageorgiou Konstantina2, Antonopoulou Vasiliki3 , Daskalaki Galini3, Gourtzioumi Ioanna3, Larentzakis Emmanouil3, Eleftheria Iakovaki4 1 Department of Cultural Technology and Communication, Aegean University, 81100 Mytilene, Greece, [email protected] 2 Archaeological Society of Athens, Panepistimioy 22, 10672 Athens, Greece, [email protected] 3 Ministry of Culture, Mpoumpoulinas 20-22 Str, 10682 Athens, Greece, [email protected], [email protected], igour[email protected], manos.lar[email protected] 4 University of West Attica, Aigaleo, 12243 Athens, Greece, elefi[email protected] *Corresponding author Correspondence: [email protected] ABSTRACT The Early Helladic cemetery at Asteria in Glyfada presents a key archaeological locus for understanding prehistoric Attica, combining evidence of metallurgical activities with a complex, multi-phase burial ground. This paper presents the creation of a 3D digital model of the cemetery, integrating advanced photogrammetry, terrestrial laser scanning, and GIS-based documentation with legacy excavation records. The resulting model enabled new spatial and analytical discoveries, including the identification of previously undetected clustering in burial orientation, artifact-specific distribution patterns (notably of Cycladic figurines and obsidian tools), and modeling of diachronic landscape transformation. Detailed comparative statistics demonstrate the respective advantages of CRP and TLS for archaeological surveying. These advances go beyond traditional documentation, supporting robust research analysis as well as educational and public outreach, with models made openly accessible via Sketchfab. By situating our work within current international practices in 3D digital heritage, this case study provides a replicable, high-resolution workflow for managing, analyzing, and disseminating complex archaeological datasets. Keywords: 3D Digital Model; Cultural Heritage; Archaeological Documentation; Early Helladic; Asteria Glyfada; Photogrammetry; Laser Scanning; GIS Introduction The archaeological evidence from both the workshop installation and the cemetery at Asteria highlights the site’s diachronic significance, where industrial activities and funerary practices were interwoven within the Early Helladic landscape. While traditional excavation and documentation methods have revealed essential aspects of these contexts, the complexity of the remains and the need to integrate heterogeneous data demand new digital approaches. In this framework, the creation of a 3D digital model of the Asteria cemetery was conceived as a means to unify spatial, material, and interpretive records into a coherent, interoperable system. By combining advanced 3D recording techniques with legacy documentation, the project aims not only to preserve the archaeological evidence but also to enhance analytical capacity, foster interdisciplinary research, and provide new pathways for cultural dissemination (Konstantakis, 2023; Konstantakis, 2024). Recent advances in archaeological documentation have extended beyond basic 3D modeling toward fully integrated analytical environments and public engagement platforms (Marín-Buzon et al., 2021; Leon-Bonillo et al., 2022). Techniques such as structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry, dense TLS acquisition, and their hybridization are now being widely adopted for heritage sites of varied complexity and scale (González-Quiñones et al., 2022; Wojciech Ostrowski et al., 2024). Our work builds upon these trends, tailoring them to the unique demands of the Early Helladic cemetery at Asteria. Based on these considerations, the present study seeks to address the following research questions: - How do modern 3D digital documentation methods contribute to the enhanced recording and analysis of the Early Helladic cemetery at Asteria, Glyfada? - What methodological challenges and solutions emerge from the integration of legacy excavation records and new digital datasets? - In what ways does the application of international semantic standards facilitate data interoperability, sustainability, and broader accessibility for archaeological research? By addressing these questions, this study aims to demonstrate how an integrated 3D digital documentation framework can serve as an effective tool for the comprehensive management, analysis, and dissemination of complex archaeological data. Asteria Glyfadas The site of Asteria at Glyfada covers approximately the northern half of the Pounda peninsula, located on the west coast of Attica, south of the promontory of Aghios Kosmas (Mylonas 1959) and north of Vouliagmeni, where Final Neolithic and Early Helladic finds are known (Yiamalidi et al. 2020). A large extend of the Pounta peninsula preserves its original form, as described by Plato (Kritias 111 a-d), because it has remained relatively undisturbed. From 1998-2003 the Archaeological Service of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture, under the direction of Konstantina Kaza, undertook rescue excavations at Asteria with significant results. Because of these results, the Ministry designated two excavated sectors at Asteria (1A and 1B) as official archaeological sites. Since 2012, work has resumed in the form of research excavations, under the aegis of the Athens Archaeological Society (Kaza-Papageorgiou 2006, 45–60; 2009, 437–439; 2019; 2020; 2024, 128-134. Kaza-Papageorgiou et al. 2024, 227-230). The goal of this investigation has been the discovery of vital information about the physical and human-made prehistoric environment at Asteria, which in the future will be protected and made accessible to scholars and other visitors. More specific, Sector 1A is located at the area of the northern cove, and at a distance of 90 m. from the coastline, there was discovered a large rectangular peribolos, 44m. in length and enclosing an area 24 m. wide. Noted on the rocky surface within the peribolos were pits cut into the bedrock and other human-made features which, judging from the finds associated with them, were related to metallurgical activities ca. the end of the 3rd - early 2nd millennium B.C. (see Kaza-Papageorgiou 2006, 47-51). Parts of the peribolos were likely disturbed by the presence of a Late Roman cemetery, from which archaeologists have recovered 42 burials. This cemetery is thought to have served a coastal settlement connected with the Early Christian basilica at Glyfada, whose remains are still preserved on the northern boundary of the Asteria site. (Orlandos 1930, 258; Kaza-Papageorgiou 2015, 44-45; Kaza-Papageorgiou 2024, 140-142). Furthermore, Sector 1Β is located on a low hill, ca. 70000 square m. in extent, which is situated on the south edge of the site of Asteria. This hill ends to the west in a small, closed cove (Fig. 1), while to the east it extends gently to a plateau, as far as the passing coastal road. On the other side of the road lies the Mycenaean cemetery of Alyki Glyfada-Voula, where an EH grave has also been found (Polychronakou-Sgouritsa 1988, 19). Theocharis (AM 1956, 1) mentions an EH grave at Asteria, and traces of a ‘Neolithic settlement’ in his report to the relevant Ephorate of Antiquities. The area of sector 1B appears to have had two periods of use. First in the Early Helladic I period for workshop activities, probably metal working and during the second period of use for an extensive cemetery dated to Transitional Early Helladic I/II period. Seven rock piles have been related to the workshop installation during the first use of the hill. Figure 1 - The Sector 1B nearby the small cove Workshop Installation The workshop installation consists of a system of water management on the rock surface of the area, through some water courses, trenches and pits, which have been dug into the rock (Fig. 2). The water courses and the pits communicate between them and transferring the water end in the sea. It appears that the water courses, the trenches and the pits were planned as a unified system of water management, presumably in the context of a metallurgical washing station. Via reduction and absurdum the system’s purpose was the enrichment of the ore through the flow of the water. This hydraulic installation covering a broad area, suggests activity of major importance. All over the hill there are many rock piles which consist of broken stones, stone tools, sherds and shells. At first glance it appears that all the piles are of discarded materials from the clearing out of the nearby workshop area, probably used for metal working. Similar piles, scattered along the coast west of Hymettos, from Argyroupoli and Elliniko as far as Voula, have been published in the maps of E. Curtius, J.A. Kaupert (Karten von Attica, bl. VIII, 1885). Figure 2 - Sector 1B. Water courses, pits and chamber tombs. Cemetery An extensive Early Helladic cemetery (thirty three graves have come to light until October 2024), enclosed by a peribolos 61 m. long, was found at a distance of 39 m. from the coastline (for the use of the term ‘cemetery’ in cases of EH burial grounds, see Weiberg 2007, 242; for the selection of suitable burial grounds, see Weiberg 2007, 264-266; for Cycladic cemeteries in general, see Dοumas 1977, 29-36). The cemetery appears to have been laid out on raised areas, which were natural topographical features of the site (Kaza-Papageorgiou et al. 2024, 227). It also appears that nearby all tombs at Asteria were built in preexisting workshop pits (Kaza-Papageorgiou et al. 2024, 229). Each grave was enclosed by a three-sided peribolos; the fourth side was furnished with a small opening functioning as entrance to the chamber. The Asteria burial structures have parallels at the two Attic EH cemeteries of Tsepi (Pantelidou Gofa 2005, 287288) and Aghios Kosmas (Μylonas 1959, 66; Weiberg 2007, 308-311). The subterranean chambers were generally circular, with an approximate diameter and depth of one meter, and were hewn directly into the bedrock. Most of them were sealed with a single large stone slab. Above these slabs, builders often placed small, carefully selected stones, arranged into structures of various forms. These constructions were most likely associated with burial rituals (Barber 1994, 84–85). Nevertheless, it is also plausible that they served as markers indicating the location of the graves (Weiberg 2007, 378–379). The entrance (stomion) of each chamber was blocked with two or three standing slabs, and the threshold was cut at a level higher than the chamber floor.(Pantelidou-Gofa 2005, 292). The graves under investigation had been used for multiple burials. The in situ burial in front of the entrance was accompanied by bone heaps, clearly the remains of earlier burials, which had been pushed towards the back of the chambers (Fig. 3). The material accompanying the dead was not numerous when compared to the number of the deceased (Weiberg 2007, 202). The amount of material found in the Tsepi graves was small, while large numbers were found in the separate deposits, as at Asteria (for similar cases, see Kaza-Papageorgiou 2006, 57 note 28). They mostly consist of small or medium-sized vases such as frying pans, beads, stone grinders, Cycladic-type figurines (Kaza-Papageorgiou 2019), sea shells (Weiberg 2007, 294), obsidian blades and other material. Two grinders from Asteria have parallels at Tsepi (Pantelidou Gofa 2005, 140). For obsidian blades in graves, see Pantelidou Gofa (2005, 321-323; Weiberg 2007, 292-293, 344-348 and Syrigou M. 262-263 in Kaza-Papageorgiou et al. 2024). For the movement of obsidian in the Aegean, see Renfrew et al. (1965). Figure 3 - The in situ burial and the bone heap behind it. The rest of the paper is structured as follows: Section 2 reviews related work on 3D digital models of paleontological exhibits. Section 3 presents the materials and methods used; Section 4 presents the results. Finally, the discussion, conclusions, and future research points are given in Section 5. State of the Art in 3D Digital Models The integration of advanced imaging and computer vision methodologies has transformed cultural heritage documentation, with photogrammetry and laser scanning emerging as the two dominant approaches. Photogrammetry, based on high-resolution photographic capture and computational reconstruction, excels in rendering detailed textures and color information, while terrestrial laser scanning produces highly accurate point clouds, prioritizing geometric precision. Both methods, however, exhibit limitations when applied in isolation—photogrammetry struggles with lighting variations and alignment errors, whereas laser scanning may overlook finer details or face difficulties with reflective surfaces. As a result, recent studies have emphasized hybrid workflows that exploit the complementary strengths of the two techniques, thereby ensuring both geometric accuracy and visual fidelity in the production of cultural heritage 3D digital models. This shift toward integrated methodologies is evidenced across diverse case studies worldwide. Hassan et al. (2019) developed enriched geo-referenced digital models for ecclesiastical monuments in Portugal and Spain, demonstrating the role of combined workflows in preventive conservation planning. Liang et al. (2018) adopted UAV photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning for the complex landscape of Huanxiu Shanzhuang in China, achieving detailed reconstructions despite spatial heterogeneity. Similar approaches have been applied to archaeological and architectural contexts: Fawzy (2019) tested hybrid close-range photogrammetry for mosque documentation in Egypt; Monterisi (2023) demonstrated low-cost workflows using smartphone imagery for the Ognissanti Church in Italy; and Marinov (2023) illustrated the potential of 3D digital models for informed management of the “Holy Transfiguration” Church in Bulgaria. Collectively, these works highlight the increasing reliance on multi-source data acquisition, standardized processing pipelines, and semantic alignment as prerequisites for accurate and sustainable digital heritage documentation. At the same time, large-scale 3D digital model initiatives underscore the transformative potential of these technologies for both research and public engagement. Projects such as the “Notre-Dame de Paris” reconstruction (Guillem, 2023), the Venice Time Machine (Kaplan, 2015), and CyArk’s global archive (Underhill, 2018) have showcased how 3D digital models can function as long-term repositories, interactive educational resources, and blueprints for conservation. In these cases, 3D data is not only used for metric documentation but also linked with historical, environmental, and social datasets to create comprehensive, evolving models. This trend reflects a broader paradigm shift: 3D digital models are increasingly conceived not merely as geometric surrogates but as dynamic, interoperable systems that integrate tangible and intangible dimensions of heritage, paving the way for immersive storytelling, conservation planning, and participatory cultural experiences. Methods and Materials The development of the 3D digital model of the Early Helladic cemetery at Asteria Glyfada was grounded in a multi-layered methodology that combined advanced three-dimensional documentation, archival research, and semantic data modeling. The central aim was to achieve a highly accurate and interoperable representation of the site that could support both scholarly analysis and broader dissemination. 3D Data Acquisition Data acquisition followed a hybrid approach, bringing together photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning. A DJI Mavic 2 Pro drone was deployed to capture aerial images of the cemetery and its surrounding topography. Multiple circular flights were performed at different altitudes, producing hundreds of high-resolution images with more than 80% overlap. Careful attention was given to lighting conditions, with cloudy or evenly lit environments preferred in order to minimize the impact of shadows on reconstruction quality. Complementary ground-based photogrammetry was undertaken using both DSLR cameras (Sony FDR-AX53) and smartphone devices (iPhone XS), which allowed for the detailed recording of textures, surface features, and the micro-topography of the periboloi and chamber tombs. Exposure parameters for ground shots typically ranged from f/2.8–f/8, ISO 100–400, and shutter speeds of 1/250–1/1000 sec, adjusted automatically or manually based on field conditions. All images were taken in overcast or diffused light to minimize shadows. At the same time, terrestrial laser scanning was carried out using a FARO Focus M70 scanner. Approximately fifteen scans per area were conducted, each lasting between six and ten minutes, and registration was ensured through the use of reference spheres strategically placed across the site. This combined strategy capitalized on the strengths of each method: the laser scanner guaranteed millimetric geometric accuracy, while photogrammetry offered highly detailed textural fidelity (Konstantakis, 2023; Konstantakis, 2024; Marin-Buzon, 2021; Leon-Bonillo, 2022; González-Quiñones, 2022). The choice to supplement standard cameras with a video camera and smartphone was motivated by field constraints—specifically, the need for rapid, adaptable coverage of complex micro-topography and confined zones, and to ensure the documentation of ephemeral features during rescue excavations. As noted by Leon-Bonillo et al. (2022) and González-Quiñones et al. (2022), the integration of non-traditional imaging devices can provide sufficient accuracy and robust results in building archaeology and open-area digs, particularly when logistical challenges preclude optimal static photography. Terrestrial Laser Scanning Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS), via FARO Focus M70, was employed specifically due to the presence of highly variable micro-topography and rock-cut features within the cemetery, including irregular periboloi and chamber tombs, as well as the need for precise volumetric measurements and monitoring potential geological changes. The dense point clouds (accuracy: 2–3 mm) generated by TLS allowed for robust geometric validation and integration with photogrammetric meshes, effectively overcoming shadow zones, reflective surfaces, and areas with limited image coverage. The adoption of TLS was not intended as a replacement for photogrammetry but as a complementary solution for selected contexts where centimeter accuracy and geometric completeness were essential for scientific documentation and future conservation assessment. The decision aligns with recent standards in sites where vertical or highly occluded features complicate standard photogrammetric approaches (e.g., Fawzy 2019; Marinov 2023; Ostrowski, 2024). Legacy data, tools and heritage standards In addition to the fieldwork, legacy data were systematically incorporated. Excavation diaries, hand-drawn maps, and archival photographs from earlier campaigns were digitized, georeferenced, and cross-validated against the new datasets. This integration facilitated the reconciliation of multi-temporal documentation and provided a more comprehensive account of the site’s diachronic use (Kaza, 2006; Kaza, 2009). The processing and integration phase employed a series of specialized software tools. Photogrammetric datasets were processed in Agisoft Metashape and Polycam Pro, while point clouds generated from the laser scanner were cleaned, registered, and merged using FARO Scene and CloudCompare. The resulting meshes were textured, optimized, and prepared for use across different platforms. To contextualize these datasets, they were imported into a Geographic Information System (GIS), which served as the backbone for spatial queries and the linkage of archaeological attributes with their spatial coordinates (Konstantakis, 2024). To ensure interoperability and sustainability, the project adopted international heritage standards. Semantic enrichment was carried out using the CIDOC Conceptual Reference Model (CIDOC-CRM) and its extension CRMdig, allowing the integration of heterogeneous data types such as 3D scans, artefact descriptions, excavation events, and spatial relations. This step established a semantic layer that facilitated cross-referencing, comparison, and long-term reusability of the data (Moraitou, 2022; Moraitou, 2023). The final 3D digital model was designed as a modular system that combined geometric models, semantic databases, and interpretive metadata within a unified architecture. This structure enabled advanced analyses, such as the spatial correlation of burial typologies with artefact distributions, and supported a variety of applications. For research purposes, it offered new insights into Early Helladic funerary practices and exchange networks. For heritage management, it provided a framework for conservation planning and condition monitoring. Finally, for educational and outreach purposes, the system allowed immersive exploration through virtual and augmented reality environments, thereby bridging the gap between professional documentation and public engagement (Konstantakis, 2018; Aliprantis, 2018). 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