Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawaiʻi: Status Report

Prepared by the Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: Status Report Here and cover: North coast of east Moloka‘i. Photo: Dave Harrington and Wendy Miles Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: Status Report www.hawaiiconservation.org doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17644390 Prepared by the Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 11-26-25 ʻIlima and Hinahina at Ka‘ena, O‘ahu. Photo: Jim Jacobi, USGS. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report C Table of Contents Table of Contents Foreword .....................................................................................................................................................................................1 Preface .........................................................................................................................................................................................3 Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance partners ..............................................................................................................................4 Why we care ...............................................................................................................................................................................5 Conservation indicators we are tracking .............................................................................................................................7 Biological information....................................................................................................................................................... 7 Native species ............................................................................................................................................................. 7 Introduced and invasive species ............................................................................................................................. 7 Status of ecosystems ................................................................................................................................................. 7 Protection status ................................................................................................................................................................ 8 Conservation management ............................................................................................................................................. 9 Management metrics ................................................................................................................................................ 9 Cultural values as the foundation for community management ............................................................................ 10 Cultural and community metrics ........................................................................................................................... 10 Assessing effective conservation ................................................................................................................................. 11 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources ............................................................................................................ 13 Summary of plant and animal species in Hawai‘i ...................................................................................................... 13 Preventing extinction of very rare species ................................................................................................................. 14 Plants ........................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Birds ............................................................................................................................................................................ 15 Snails ........................................................................................................................................................................... 16 Arthropods ................................................................................................................................................................ 17 Wildlife rehabilitation .............................................................................................................................................. 17 Status of terrestrial ecosystems .................................................................................................................................... 19 Status of native forest birds and Hawaiian bat .................................................................................................. 21 Protection of terrestrial systems ........................................................................................................................... 24 Invasive species impacts and management ...................................................................................................... 28 Wildfire impacts ...................................................................................................................................................... 37 Species and habitat restoration efforts .............................................................................................................. 39 Status of streams and watersheds ....................................................................................................................... 40 Status of wetlands ................................................................................................................................................... 43 Status of coastal vegetation .................................................................................................................................. 45 Status of seabirds ..................................................................................................................................................... 47 Impacts and implications of climate change ..................................................................................................... 50 Effective conservation status in terrestrial ecosystems .................................................................................. 53 Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance D Fourspot butterflyfish. Photo: Christopher Teague. Table of Contents Nearshore marine ecosystems and species ............................................................................................................. 54 Status of coral reefs around the main Hawaiian Islands .................................................................................. 54 Status of reef fish populations .............................................................................................................................. 55 Marine protection status........................................................................................................................................ 56 Community-led conservation efforts .................................................................................................................. 59 Outreach and education ........................................................................................................................................ 61 Local conservation capacity ................................................................................................................................. 62 Call to Action: Conservation Over the Next Decade .................................................................................................... 64 Critical conservation needs .......................................................................................................................................... 65 Providing adequate resources for conservation................................................................................................ 65 Protecting rare species .......................................................................................................................................... 65 Controlling invasive species ................................................................................................................................. 66 Increasing habitat protection and management .............................................................................................. 66 Adapting to changing climate ............................................................................................................................... 67 Increasing public connection with conservation ............................................................................................... 67 Expanding community-led conservation ........................................................................................................... 68 Integrating biocultural values into conservation .............................................................................................. 69 Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 1 Foreward Foreword When our ancestors’ canoes landed in the islands 1,000 years ago, they found a remarkable archipelago in the middle of the Pacific, the single most isolated high island archipelago on the planet. And they created a unique and rich culture and established a entirely self sustained footprint in these islands. Two hundred years ago, other voyagers arrived, and brought many things, including diseases we had no previous experience with; and within 50 years, 75% of Hawaiians had died. One hundred years ago Hawaiian language and culture was under active suppression, and disappeared from education in Hawaï‘i. The “black road of extinction” — cultural extinction — was being wellpaved and it nearly succeeded in erasing the culture and beauty and amazing things about this extraordinary people who had so much to offer the Earth. So when I graduated from high school in the 1960s, the process of Hawaiian cultural extinction was so nearly complete that I had no idea who my ancestors were, where they came from, or how they got here. They were the greatest explorers on the face of the earth, but the “black road of extinction” had erased them from our collective awareness. But a series of miracles created a Hawaiian cultural renaissance, including resurrection of language and culture, and the “spaceship of our ancestors” Hōkūle‘a, a voyaging canoe of ancient design seeking to show what most had rejected: that our ancestors, through knowledge and great skill, navigated without any instruments but what nature gave them, across the vast open ocean, across the daunting collision of the World’s tropical wind belts, to get from Tahiti to Hawai‘i. The first crew of Hōkūle‘a set out from Hawai‘i in 1976, and when they arrived in Papeete Harbor, to throngs of thousands, they changed the World that day. They gave us reason to be proud, to learn, to teach. They helped light the spark of a powerful cultural renaissance, instilling pride and hope in Hawaiians, and setting them on a course to recapture the traditional knowledge and skills that created both ecological sustainability and a remarkably rich society. How do we measure when we’ve stopped extinction? On the cultural axis, it is when our children grow up grounded in knowing that they are the descendants of the great navigators. But there are so many metrics that arise from that — in 1976 there were less than 1,000 Hawaiian speakers. Today there are over 22,000. Other movements besides voyaging arose: recapture of Kaho‘olawe, the re-emergence of hula, of language, and the cultural practices in healing, agriculture, art, and many others. We are never going back down that black road. Hōkūle‘a image ®Polynesian Voyaging Society. Photo ©‘Ōiwi TV. Photographer: Nā‘ālehu Anthony. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 2 But our recovery is a never-ending process, and for all that we have achieved, we have so much more to learn, to do, and to teach. The road of extinction in Hawaiian culture is paralleled by the extinction of the remarkable biocultural legacy in the native plants, animals, and ecosystems that comprised the foundation of what Hawaiian culture had achieved — the heritage and genealogy of 1,000 years of the genius of native Hawaiians who learned how to live on these islands sustainably. The same forces that nearly destroyed Hawaiian culture wrought great havoc on our island ecosystems, making Hawai‘i to be called the “Extinction Capital of the World,” a status that none of us are proud of. But Hawai‘i is a microcosm of the planet, and the solution to the World’s problems lies in what we do here as a people to value our place and to express our love for Hawai‘i in our action. Our lives are dependent on our islands, our planet, and we can either fall into black despair over the pathway of humanity and its relationship to the Earth, or we can take action, and combine the best tools in modern conservation practice within the context of the loving familial relationship that our ancestors had for their place. Hawai‘i is the solution. Hawai‘i is the school for the Earth. The most important thing that Hawai‘i has to offer is that it’s people and culture are still kind; that aloha lives here, and still has the power to direct how we behave toward each other, and to all the living elements of these islands. This report on the many efforts to protect and care for the living elements of our remarkable islands is testimony of that aloha, that feeds the devotion of the many who devote their lives to Hawai‘i. It documents the great strides we have made to take our living ancestors — our native plants and animals — off of the black road of extinction, and it shows how much further we need to go to truly succeed. Not only for the sake of Hawai‘i and its people, but for the same challenges we face here in Hawai‘i that threaten the future of our children, to take across the face of the planet. The key is our young ones. We need to teach, and this report is part of the foundation of knowledge and history of effort upon which a new generation of kahu, caretakers, will stand and continue. We have kuleana — the responsibility and the privilege — to teach how to make the choices that yield true global sustainability, and that Hawai‘i not only can, but must be the model for the World. How we care for our biocultural legacy here can make people all over the World believe that we can collectively make that change and win the race between those who are essentially hurting the Earth, and those who work to heal it. Here is the report of some of those healers, who know that nature is the core of our future. Let it be a guiding star for all of us. Nainoa Thompson Pwo Master Navigator CEO, Polynesian Voyaging Society Foreward Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 3 Preface Preface This report has been produced by the Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance (HCA), which is a partnership of organizations, agencies, and landowners working together to provide unified leadership, and collaborative action to conserve and restore native ecosystems and the unique biodiversity of our islands. The information contained in this document represents the most current data available from HCA partners and other organizations on the status of conservation resources, protection, and management for the Hawaiian Islands, spanning ma uka1 (upland) to ma kai (to the ocean) across terrestrial, aquatic, and nearshore marine ecosystems. This report synergizes with a number of related efforts in Hawai‘i conservation and sustainability planning including, but not limited to, the Hawai‘i Green Growth Aloha+ Challenge, and the Sustainable Hawai‘i Initiative, which includes both terrestrial and marine (Holomua Marine Initiative) goals. Given the diverse expertise and experience of the Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance member organizations, this report is also intended to complement efforts led and supported by HCA’s member organizations, including NOAA’s 2020 State of Papanahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, NOAA’s Coral reef condition: A status report for the Hawaiian Archipelago, The Nature Conservancy Hawai‘i 2020 Impact Report, The Laukahi Network, and many others. HCA member contributions to this report guide and ground our efforts to characterize the status of conservation in Hawai‘i in a way that draws from, builds upon, honors, and respects the numerous related conservation efforts across our islands over time Although the main focus of this report is on the southern eight Hawaiian Islands, we also include some information on conservation status in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands to provide a comparison with resource, protection status, and management conditions in the nearshore marine systems of the younger islands. The information in this report can be used as a source for education and outreach, and to support efforts to plan and evaluate conservation actions. This report is intended to serve as a baseline for future Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance status reports that will compile and assess updated conservation information and document trajectories, positive and negative. The preparation of this report was made possible through the collaboration of many people from the HCA Effective Conservation subcommittee and the HCA partners; as well as data, images, and related resources provided by The Laukahi Network and partners, Hawai‘i Wildlife Center, San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Pūlama Lāna‘i, Pacific Rim Conservation, Sam Aruch, Greg Asner, Reuben Wolff, Jack Jeffrey, Alan Friedlander, © Keoki Stender, Hi‘ilei Kawelo, Will Weaver, Seana Walsh, Ruby Pap, Jeff Stallman, Rick Warshauer, Forest and Kim Starr, and many others. And special thanks to Stephanie Tom (TNCH) and Dwight Matsuwaki (DOFAW) for data and GIS support. Herbivorous reef fish off of Ka’upulehu, Hawai’i Island. These fish keep dead reef surfaces clean so corals can grow, and so are the focus of statewide conservation efforts. Photo: Bryce Groark. 1 Information on the correct spelling and definitions of Hawaiian words can be found at wehewehe.org Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 10 Among the main terrestrial ecosystem threats are hoofed animals such as cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, and deer which destroy forest vegetation through grazing, trampling, and rooting for food, leaving grounds bare and soils exposed; invasive weed species that can take over a once-native forest and impact its efficacy in water collection; wildfire; and forest pests and disease — all of which impact forest ecosystem health, functionality, and diversity. Additionally, predators such as rats, cats, and mongoose threaten birds, snails and plants with extinction, and avian diseases threaten the continued existence of native forest birds. Nearshore marine resource threats include over-exploitation, land-based sedimentation, pollution, invasive species, disease, and changing climate. Across the State, large reforestation projects have begun and are expanding with the potential for generating carbon offset credits which can help to partially fund forest restoration. As of 2020, approximately 17% of the remaining wet and mesic native forests in Hawaiʻi were protected by fences to reduce impacts from hoofed animals. During the 2016 IUCN World Conservation Congress, then Hawaiʻi Governor David Ige announced a Sustainable Hawaiʻi Initiative goal with the Aloha+ Challenge to protect at least 30% of priority watersheds and nearshore marine ecosystems by 2030. Although management is more difficult in the marine environment, restoration of Hawaiian fishponds is occurring in many sites, such as He‘eia on O‘ahu, as well as programs to control invasive seaweed on coral reefs. Protection designations of the nearshore waters along selected coastlines help to reduce disturbance by human activity. Cultural values as the foundation for community management ² Community and stakeholder involvement and support are critical to achieving effective conservation of our natural biocultural resources. Hawaiian cultural values and practices that are strongly protective of natural resources provide a solid foundation to help navigate the challenges of conservation today and into the future. Cultural and community metrics • Efforts to integrate Hawaiian cultural values with biodiversity management • Community-based collaborative conservation efforts • Conservation capacity to engage in management • Conservation knowledge sharing, education, and outreach programs In a Kanaka ‘Ōiwi (Native Hawaiian) worldview, kānaka (humans) are descendants of ‘āina (land, sea, and sky), inclusive of the plants, animals, and ecological processes therein. Kānaka ‘Ōiwi know ‘āina as the shared ancestor that provides the foundations upon which all life in Hawaiʻi is maintained. The health of ‘āina is inherently and reciprocally related to the well-being of its people, and therefore ʻŌiwi knowledge, practice, and identity are rooted in a reciprocal caring relationship with land and ocean. Indigenous resource management (IRM), is the millennia-old foundation upon which community-based management in Hawaiʻi is built and applied. Applications of IRM in Hawaiʻi take the form of decentralized, but carefully organized, management built around ahupuaʻa — a Hawaiian conceptualization of community that extends ² Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance Position Paper: Hawaiian Culture and Conservation in Hawai‘i. Community volunteers at Kahanahāiki. Photo: ANRPO. Conservation indicators we are tracking Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 11 from the uplands into the sea, and that perceives humanity as a part of that living community. Within this context, resources were managed for abundance (ʻāina momona) for the benefit of ahupuaʻa residents. This was achieved by collaboratively managing species connectivity and population dynamics between ahupuaʻa in the context of their moku (larger island district). The mechanisms for governing human behaviors and actions was a system of kapu (sacred restrictions) and kānāwai (regulations to access scaredness), which had many forms, but ultimately served the function of maintaining stability and abundance in the system. The konohiki (person in charge of an ahupuaʻa) played a keystone function in Hawaiian IRM. It was their role to have intimate understanding of the population dynamics of all resource species from the mountains to the sea. To function in their role, they needed to possess an ability to invite cooperation to connect the will of the aliʻi (regional chief) with the capacity of the makaʻāinana (general population). These traditional practices and perspectives of resource management profoundly inform contemporary community-based conservation efforts. Within the context of co-management efforts, contemporary community organizations fulfill the role of konohiki, and connect government agencies with the Native Hawaiian and local communities around the State to restore and maintain biocultural resource abundance. Assessing effective conservation Effective conservation is recognized as a combination of conditions that, when enacted together, ensure that native ecosystems and species have the highest likelihood of being sustained and viable into the future. The main conditions contributing to effective conservation are: 1) presence of diverse conservation resources, typically native ecosystems and/or species; 2) protective designation applied to an area with the intent to limit incompatible land uses and enable or facilitate conservation management; 3) active management to prevent or offset resource threats, and enhance viability of Conceptual diagram showing moku and ahupua‘a divisions on an island in Hawai‘i. Credit: National Geographic. Conceptual diagram showing the key components of effective conservation. Source: Jim Jacobi. Conservation indicators we are tracking Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 12 ecosystems and species; and 4) all of these elements within the context of knowledgeagle and supportive communities that are actively involved with co-management of the biocultural resources. Effective conservation can be considered successful when an important conservation area receives protective designation that enables active management that controls threats and leads to sustaining the conservation targets in the area. The long-term success of such management depends strongly on community and public involvement and support, which in turn feeds back into long-term management of the area, maintaining protected status designation, and continuing active care of the conservation targets. Put another way, effective conservation is achieved when long-term, protective designation and threat management, supported by stakeholders and the community, results in an established record of stable or expanding native biodiversity and ecological processes in an area of conservation significance. The photo to the left shows a pristine native wet forest that is protected and managed for threats in the Pu‘u Ali‘i Natural Area Reserve on the island of Moloka‘i. This area is an important part of Moloka‘i’s watershed and provides managed and protected habitat for 37 rare plants and 7 rare animals. A major goal of the Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance’s status assesment is to map areas on land and in the nearshore ocean to determine where resource value, protection status, conservation management, and community support occur and overlap. This information can then be used to identify other important resource areas that need additional protection or management to maintain the viability of the native species and habitats found there. Native ‘ōhi‘a wet forest in the Pu‘u Ali‘i Natural Area Reserve, Moloka‘i. Photo: Jim Jacobi, USGS. Conservation indicators we are tracking Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 13 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Summary of plant and animal species in Hawaiʻi A summary of native and established introduced species in Hawaiʻi has been compiled by the Bishop Museum’s Hawaii Biological Survey since 1994. This list is regularly updated to locate, identify, and evaluate native and non-native fauna and flora found throughout the state. The current list identifies a total of 15,266 native species, 61% of which are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, and an additional 6,014 introduced species that are now established in the wild. Unfortunately, over 200 native species of Hawaiian plants and animals are believed to have gone extinct during the past 200 years and 546 are listed as either Endangered or Threatened by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the State of Hawaii. Equally concerning is the fact that over 10,000 species have been introduced, either on purpose or accidentally, into these Islands since human occupation, and this number increases every year. While many of these introduced species have not yet escaped into the wild, there is a growing number of both plants and animals that have become established (naturalized), and many are considered to be highly invasive with the ability to cause major impacts on the native ecosystems. Data from Hawaii Biological Survey, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, HI; Threatened or Endangered status from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Taxon Endemic Percent Endemic Native Total Native Threatened or Endangered New Native Species (2000–2020) Naturalized Non-native Species Total Species Flowering plants 956 90% 101 1,057 402 33 1,624 2,681 Bryophytes, leucophytes & ferns 326 54% 281 607 23 8 67 674 Cnidarians (corals, jellyfish, etc.) 118 32% 253 371 — 15 47 418 Mollusks — terrestrial and fresh water 769 98% 17 786 45 8 84 870 Mollusks — marine 338 27% 929 1,267 — 23 53 1,320 Annelids 112 28% 283 395 — 16 33 428 Crustaceans 57 4% 1,241 1,298 3 39 109 1,407 Echinoderms 153 49% 159 312 — 3 — 312 Other invertebrates 441 27% 1,192 1,633 — 1 61 1,694 Insects 5,501 98% 107 5,608 27 358 3,103 8,711 Other arthropods (spiders, mites, etc.) 356 85% 61 417 1 22 625 1,042 Fishes 59 5% 1,170 1,229 — 33 104 1,333 Amphibians — 0% — — — — 7 7 Reptiles — 0% 4 4 4 — 26 30 Forest birds 54 100% — 54 25 — — 54 Waterbirds 3 9% 30 33 4 — — 33 Shorebirds — 0% 34 34 — — — 34 Seabirds 2 3% 59 61 5 — — 61 Other birds 4 36% 7 11 5 — 53 64 Mammals — terrestrial 1 100% — 1 1 — 18 19 Mammals — marine 1 4% 25 26 1 — —– 26 TOTAL 9,251 61% 5,953 15,204 546 559 6,014 21,218 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 14 One group not included in this summary table are the fungi which comprises a large, diverse group of organisms that are extremely abundant and widespread globally, including in Hawaiʻi. Although often overlooked, they are vitally important to ecosystems for their roles in nutrient cycling and range of symbioses with other organisms. Due to their usually microscopic size and cryptic life histories, inventories of fungi are incomplete globally, and the same is true for Hawaiʻi. One of the best-studied groups is the Agaricomycetes, a class of mushroom-forming fungi. Estimates of native Hawaiian Agaricomycetes species find endemism rates of 80–88%, including the endemic species Hygrocybe noelokelani (photo at left), listed by IUCN as endangered and found only in wet montane forests on the islands of Hawaiʻi and Kauaʻi. Preventing extinction of very rare species There are several very important programs actively working to prevent the extinction of species that have populations so small they cannot be maintained in their natural habitats without extraordinary management. These efforts include: • Collecting seeds and cuttings, eggs, and individuals for propagation • Intensive local management in the field • Reintroducing them back into the wild Plants Of the 1,664 native plant taxa (species, subspecies, and varieties) known from Hawaiʻi, 425 are listed as Endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and another nine are considered Threatened. However, over half (868) of native Hawaiian plants are considered to be “species of conservation importance”. This is a broad category that includes not only rare species, listed or not, that are vulnerable to extinction, but also keystone species that are critical to the maintaining the structure and function of ecosystems and species that are important because of their cultural significance (Laukahi Network). The Plant Extinction Prevention Program (PEPP) works to save the rarest of the rare native Hawaiian plants, focusing on over 270 taxa with 50 or fewer individuals remaining in the wild, another 78 that appear to have declining populations, and 45 more that may be more common on one island but rare on another. These species appear to be in imminent risk of extinction with a heightened need to protect all remaining plants. PEPP botanists on each island find and manage these species by collecting propagules, protecting their Photo: Amy Durham Hawaiian snail propagation. Photo: Hawai‘i Snail Extinction Prevention Program. Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources A: Cyanea grimesiana subsp. grimesiana. Photo: Tim Kroessig. B: Hibiscadelphus woodii. Photo: Ken Wood, NTBG. A B Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 15 habitats, outplanting plants grown in partner greenhouse facilities, monitoring extant populations, and surveying for new populations. The advancement of climbing technology in recent years, aided by the use of drones, has allowed for the re-discovery of previously presumed extinct species, like Hibiscadelphus woodii (photo on page 14) in a very remote location on the island of Kaua‘i. Propagation in greenhouse facilities is a very important step in the process of maintaining the genetic diversity of rare plant populations, especially when the number of wild mature individuals has severely declined. As natural resource managers can effectively protect a vulnerable species’ habitat, stored seeds and greenhouse-grown plants can then be reintroduced into the wild. A coalition of botanical gardens, coordinated through the Laukahi Network, has been instrumental in helping to save Hawaiian plant species from extinction through ex-situ propagation. Additionally, greenhouse culture of more common native plants provides seeds and seedlings that can be outplanted into managed habitats to help restore the native plant communities. As of 2021, thousands of seedlings from 581 plant taxa that were propagated in cultivation, have been planted in various sites in the wild. Birds The Hawaiʻi Endangered Bird Conservation Program (HEBCP) works to prevent extinctions and promote recovery of wild bird populations using intensive techniques such as conservation breeding, reintroductions, and post-release support and monitoring. Since its inception in 1993, the HEBCP has cared for 16 different Hawaiian bird species and been involved in the hatching of over 1,420 eggs, rearing of over 1,150 nestlings, and releasing of over 840 birds into the wild. Currently, the HEBCP focuses on rearing and supporting ‘Alalā, which was saved from extinction by increasing the population from fewer than 20 individuals alive in the 1990s, to a peak of over 140 alive a few years ago. The HEBCP also currently focuses on ‘Akikiki, which were successfully collected from the wild from 2015–2018 to initiate a conservation breeding program. The parent organization of the HEBCP is the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, and activities are conducted throughout Hawaiʻi in close collaboration with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife, and many partners throughout the community. Nine species of forest birds, including the ‘Alalā (“A” at right), Puaiohi (“B” at right), ‘Akiapola‘au (“C” at right), as well as the Nēnē (Hawaiian goose, “D” at right), and Koloa (Hawaiian duck) have been successfully bred in captivity and released back into Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Growing native plants for restoration. Photo: Tim Kroessig. A: ʻAlalā (Hawaiian Crow). Photo: © JackJeffreyPhoto.com. B: Puaiohi. Photo: © JackJeffreyPhoto.com. C: ‘Akiapola‘au. Photo: © JackJeffreyPhoto.com. D: Nēnē (Hawaiian Goose). Photo: J. Wei, National Park Service. C B D A Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 16 the wild. Maintaining genetically viable populations in captivity and releasing birds back into wild habitats that are being managed to control threats are key components of conservation programs to save these declining species. The Nēnē was once found on most of the larger Hawaiian Islands including Kauai, Moloka‘i, Maui, and Hawaiʻi Island and may have numbered in the 20,000s prior to European settlement. Nēnē populations declined sharply due to a combination of hunting by humans and predation by introduced cats and mongoose, and by 1951, only 30 birds remained in Hawaiʻi. Starting in the 1950s, captive breeding programs were initiated in Hawaiʻi and zoos elsewhere to bolster the declining population. Nēnē were listed as Endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife in 1967 and propagation efforts were increased by both the State and National Park Service with releases of birds on Maui and Hawaiʻi. The combination of captive breeding, habitat restoration, and active management have resulted in a current population of Nēnē estimated at 2,800 birds, leading to the downlisting of this species to Threatened status in 2019. Snails Over 750 species of terrestrial snails have been described and many were previously found commonly in the Hawaiian Islands, representing one of the most stunning examples of species radiations in the world. Sadly, it is estimated that over 90% of this diversity has been lost. Introduced ungulates such as pigs, goats, and deer degrade forest vegetation and fragment snail populations. In addition, predators such as rats, the rosy wolf snail (Euglandina rosea), and Jackson’s chameleons all attack and kill Hawaiʻi’s native snails. To meet this dramatic decline in Hawaiian biodiversity, the Snail Extinction Prevention Program (SEPP) was created by the Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife to protect Hawaiʻi’s imperiled snail fauna. The SEPP Program, along with researchers at Bishop Museum, University of Hawaiʻi, and other organizations, serves to monitor, provide predator control, and habitat protection for snail species currently facing extinction. This program has been able to maintain and propagate 36 species of Hawaiian snails and successfully reintroduce seven species back into managed habitat in the wild. Currently, Hawaiian snails that are reared in captivity can only be reintroduced into suitable forest habitat that has been protected by secure fences that exclude introduced animals including rats, cannibal snails, and other predators that feed on these spectacular jewels of the Hawaiian forest. An example of one of the intensively managed reintroduction sites is shown on the right. Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Several spectacular species of Hawaiian tree snails. Photos: Hawai‘i Snail Extinction and Extinction Program. Hawaiian tree snail management area. Photo: Dave Sischo. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 17 Arthropods Hawaiʻi is home to over 5,000 described native terrestrial and aquatic arthropods, including insects, spiders, and several other related groups, and it is believed that there are perhaps thousands more that await discovery. Native arthropods provide essential ecological services: Hawaiian plant species could not exist without the pollination services and nutrient cycling which native arthropod communities provide, and Hawaiian birds and bats have evolved to depend on these diverse native arthropods for food resources. Habitat loss and alteration, the introduction of non-native species, direct human uses, and climate change are current and expanding threats to Hawaiian invertebrates. The Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources’ Hawaii Invertebrate Program (HIP) conducts research and management in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and researchers at the University of Hawaiʻi that focuses on Threatened or Endangered or otherwise rare native arthropod species with the goal of increasing populations of target species in habitat currently suitable for survival, as well as stabilizing and restoring habitat to support species reintroductions. HIP has worked in partnership with researchers and managers from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the University of Hawaiʻi to conduct captive propagation and translocation projects with Kamehameha butterfly, orange-black damselfly, and yellow-faced bees, and is expanding to work with additional damselflies, leafroller months, and picture-wing flies. Wildlife rehabilitation The Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife permits and regulates wildlife rehabilitation in the State of Hawaii in combination with United States Fish and Wildlife Service Migratory Bird Treaty Act. There are currently two permitted rehabilitation facilities in the state of Hawaiʻi for birds, Save our Shearwaters (SOS) in Kapa‘a, Kaua‘i, and the Hawaiʻi Wildlife Center (HWC) in Kapaʻau, Hawaiʻi Island and both focus on caring for injured native Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources A: Native yellow-faced bee. Photo: Will Haines/ Cynthia King. B: Kamehameha butterfly. Photo: Will Haines/Cynthia King. C: Native damselfly (Megalagrion blackburni). Reuben Wolff image. B C A Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 18 Hawaiian species of birds and the Hawaiian hoary bat. Additionally, the Marine Mammal Center: Ke Kai Ola on Hawaiʻi Island is permitted for Hawaiian Monk Seal rehabilitation. In addition, DOFAW and USFWS permit other individuals or organizations for rehabilitation of specific species or short-term stabilization. Save our Shearwaters (SOS) has been in operation since 1979 and has been integral for the response to downed and injured endangered ‘A‘o (Newells Shearwater) and ‘Ua‘u (Hawaiian Petrel) on Kauaʻi. In addition, SOS has done substantial work with ‘Ua‘u kani (Wedge-tailed Shearwater), Nēnē (Hawaiian Goose) and Mōlī (Laysan Albatross). They regularly care for over 400 birds per year, with most of them taken in during seabird fallout season in the fall. Since opening in 2012, the Hawaiʻi Wildlife Center has partnered with local veterinarians and conservation organizations, including the SOS program on Kaua‘i, to respond to wildlife care needs on throughout the state. Care of HWC patients is centralized at the main wildlife hospital in Kapaʻau on Hawaiʻi Island, in conjunction with partners and volunteers throughout the state. The HWC cares for all native Hawaiian bird species as well as the ʻōpe‘apeʻa (Hawaiian hoary bat). Since its inception HWC has overseen the care of over 1,800 native birds representing over 40 different species, with 820 of those 1,800 patients seen in 2020 alone. The Marine Mammal Center: Ke Kai Ola which opened in 2014 is the only hospital dedicated to treating and rehabilitating Hawaiian monk seals in Hawaiʻi. They provide veterinary care and long-term rehabilitation on injured or orphaned seals. They collaborate with state and federal agencies and other organization to take care of seals throughout the main Hawaiian islands and the Northwest. Wildlife rehabilitation programs provide much needed medical care to native Hawaiian species and provide a resource of expertise in captive care of these species. They also involve the public in following the care of patients, which helps to improve awareness of native Hawaiian species and the challenges they face. The programs also provide educational opportunities to the local community through community events, volunteer opportunities and internship programs. In addition, they provide critical support and quick response capacity for emergency events such as oil spills and disease outbreaks. Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Bonin petrel at Midway. Photo: Alex Wang. Injured ʻōpe‘apeʻa (Hawaiian hoary bat) being examined. Photo: DLNR. ‘A‘o (Newell’s Shearwater) getting cleaned. Photo: Hawai‘i Wildlife Center. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 19 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Status of terrestrial ecosystems While the Hawaiian Islands may often be thought of as being covered by wet forests, only 26% of the landscape has been mapped as wet habitat while most (45%) is considered to be dry habitat. The rest of the area (29%) lies within the moist habitat zone. Before humans first came to Hawaiʻi, it is estimated that nearly 85% of these islands were covered with vegetation — ranging from lush mossy rainforests to coastal shrublands. The remaining lands were another unique ecosystem of barren lava, alive with pioneering insects and young plants. Today, less than half of the natural vegetated lands of Hawaiʻi remain, with most of this change in the lowlands. Most striking has been the loss of the native dry forests, which have been almost completely destroyed by wildfires, invasive plants, or hooved animals. These systems have been largely replaced by development, agriculture, or large areas of fire-prone non-native vegetation. The remaining third of our islands that still is dominated by native vegetation is almost entirely in upland rainforests. On Maui and Hawaiʻi, large tracts of subalpine shrublands also remain. Although large areas on the main Hawaiian Islands are identified as degraded ecosystems, many of these habitats still have remnant populations of native plants and animals. Habitats in this category may be important sites where plant community restoration may be needed to protect native species that are only found in this zone. The status of biodiversity habitats was evaluated in 2010 as part of the Hawaiʻi Statewide Assessment of Forest Conditions and Trends. Five condition categories were mapped: • Intact native ecosystems with highest diversity • Intact native ecosystems with lower diversity • Rapidly degrading ecosystems with high diversity • Degraded ecosystems with limited diversity • Areas where native ecosystems no longer exist These maps will help focus attention on key conservation actions needed in high biodiversity areas that need added protection and management Status of habitats on the main Hawaiian Islands. Source: Jacobi et al. 2017. Major land cover across Hawaiʻi. Source: Jacobi et al. 2017. Moisture zones for the main Hawaiian Islands. Source: Price et al. 2012. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 26 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Protection designation status Hawaiʻi has seen a history of growth of protective designations, from the times of precontact Hawaiʻi, where the upland wao akua was mostly restricted from human access, and from any but a small set of limited extractive uses. The first major protective designation of modern times was the Forest Reserve system which was established by the Territorial Government of Hawaii in 1903. Creation of the NW Hawaiian Island Seabird Sanctuary followed in 1909 which would eventually be greatly expanded as Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument; and Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, which eventually would be separated into Haleakalā National Park on Maui, and Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park on Hawaiʻi Island in 1916. Since that time, additional protection designations have been added including: the State Conservation District in 1961, the first of Hawaiʻi’s Natural Area Reserves in the 1970s, the first Preserves of The Nature Conservancy in Hawaiʻi and the first US Fish and Wildlife Service Forest Bird Refuge in the 1980s, the first Watershed Partnerships in the 1990s, USFWS Critical Habitat for listed endangered species, and the first Community-based Subsistence Fishing Area in the 21st Century at Hā‘ena, Kaua‘i. Tracking the growth of protective designations is one important way to gauge progress in conservation of our biocultural resources. For this report we have recognized three protection classes for terrestrial habitats: • Strong protection areas with permanent mandates for biocultural resource conservation (e.g., National Parks and Wildlife Refuges, State Natural Area Reserves and Wildlife Preserves) • Moderate protection areas with short-term protection designation and mandates for multiple use including conservation (e.g., State Forest Reserves, private conservation areas) • Watershed partnerships which have strong commitments for conservation management but may include areas with limited or no long-term commitment for conservation protection Each of these categories of protection designation on both land and in the ocean over the past century reflects both an appreciation of the value of our irreplaceable native species and ecosystems, as well as a growing recognition of the great threats that face them. To date, 35 percent of Hawaiʻi’s land area and numerous important marine areas have been assigned some kind of protective designation. This section provides a comprehensive overview of management and conservation efforts in these designated and focus areas, moving from terrestrial to marine habitats. Change in protection status on the island of Maui Over the past 50 years we have seen a steady increase in the amount of land that is protected for conservation. This trend is well illustrated by following the expansion of legal protection on the island of Maui from 1970 to 2020. Overall, these efforts by both state and federal agencies, as well as by private landowners has resulted in greater than a five-fold increase in protection areas on Maui, from 5,455 ha to 30,192 ha (13,480–74,606 acres) during this time. Additionally, three watershed partnerships were established on Maui since 1970 adding dedicated conservation management to an additional 56,000 ha (138,380 acres) of land Clouds moving up the outer slopes of Haleakalā, Maui. Photo: Hank Oppenheimer. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 27 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Status of areas with terrestrial conservation protection designation on the main Hawaiian Islands. Data source: Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance. Size of areas with terrestrial conservation protection designation on the main Hawaiian Islands. Data source: Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance. Protection designation status Hectares Acres Percent of state Strong conservation protection mandate 288,113 711,942 17% Moderate conservation protection mandate 292,055 721,683 18% Strong and Moderate combined 580,168 1,433,625 35% Additional lands in WP 236,304 583,919 14% All status types combined 816,471 2,017,544 49% Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 28 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources beyond strong protection status. Similar trends in expansion of conservation protection status have also been seen for important terrestrial ecosystems on the other main Hawaiian Islands. While legal designation of lands and waters for protection is a critical step in conservation, this process needs to be coupled with effective management of these areas to achieve the goal of maintaining biocultural resources. Invasive species impacts and management Non-native invasive species of plants, animals, and diseases are among the greatest threats to conservation of Hawaiʻi’s biocultural resources and can be seen in both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Once established, invasive species can become extremely challenging to control or eradicate. Conservation actions used to control invasive species include biosecurity (preventing new introduced species from entering into Hawaiʻi); early detection (preventing new species from establishing); exclusion of large grazing and browsing mammals (ungulates) and predators from native ecosystems; direct mechanical or chemical control of weeds and disease vectors; and identifying and distributing biological control agents. While this report focuses on invasive species that threaten natural biodiversity resources, there is a great deal of overlap in impacts and control strategies for invasive species that also impact agriculture and human health in Hawaiʻi. Biosecurity The State of Hawaiʻi, with a broad coalition of stakeholders led by the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Land and Natural Resources, has adopted the State’s first interagency and comprehensive biosecurity plan to protect Hawaiʻi’s agriculture, environment, economy and health. This was developed in collaboration with groups including the Hawaiʻi Coordinating Group on Alien Plant Species (CGAPS), the federal Biosecurity Task Force, and the Pacific Basin Biosecurity working group. The scope of the Hawaii Interagency Biosecurity Plan addresses three biosecurity components including pre-border (for example, agreements on handling and treatment of products before they enter the state), border (for example, inspection authorities and technologies), and post-border (for example, tools and capacity for response after invasive species have become established) actions. The benefit of a comprehensive interagency plan is that it facilitates policies and actions across a wide range of agencies and partners. The plan includes 147 specific actions assigned to various agencies and stakeholders, with details on how and when to best implement each action. Change in areas with conservation protection status for the island of Maui 1970–2020. Source: The Nature Conservancy of Hawai‘i. Snapshot of the status of actions in the Hawai‘i Interagency Biosecurity Plan. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 29 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources There are many challenges involved with developing and implementing an effective biosecurity program. These include funding, capacity building and coordination, public engagement and support, and identifying pathways that invasive species can enter Hawaiʻi. However, important progress has been made through this program to reduce potential impacts from new species that can be introduced into the State. The most recent accomplishments and recognized remaining needs are summarized in this graphic. More details can be found on the plan and action items in the 2023 Hawaiʻi Interagency Biosecurity Plan January Progress Report. Predator impacts and management Many native bird, invertebrate, and some plant species cannot recover without targeted control of cats, mongoose, dogs, pigs, rats, and mice. All types of birds are being impacted by predators, especially seabirds and waterbirds, which nest on the ground. In addition to the rodents that threaten birds, rare snails are also hunted by carnivorous, non-native snails and the introduced Jackson’s Chameleons, which have been released into the wild from the pet trade. In the last few years, populations of Hawaiʻi’s beautiful Kāhuli snails have plummeted and many species have gone extinct as these predators penetrate into the last remaining native snail habitat. Intensively managed predator proof fences are currently the only feasible way these species can remain safe in the wild. An intensive captive rearing program led by the Hawaiʻi Snail Extinction Prevention Program (SEPP) is breeding and rearing the few remaining Kāhuli individuals that are collected from the wild, and then released back into the small fenced areas. In these eleven small sites, the legacy of these “jewels of the forest” may survive and can be experienced as these colorful and delicate creatures adorn the trees in abundance. Hawaiʻi’s first large area predator proof fence was built at the Ka‘ena Point Natural Area Reserve on the northwestern coast of O‘ahu. This six-foot tall fence of wire mesh prevents all mammalian predators from entering. Even cats are blocked by a curved hood at the top of the fence. Each year brings record-breaking success as thousands of wedge-tailed shearwaters nest at Ka‘ena, their population more than tripling since the fence was built. Also, increasing numbers of the majestic Laysan albatross now return to this protected area to mate and nest. This once barren area that had been badly damaged by vehicle tracks has now been converted to a vibrant native coastal shrubland alive with soaring seabirds and sleeping monk seals. Native plants and insects within predator-proof areas are also showing strong recovery from the pervious levels of damage. Since the establishment of this first predatorproof fence at Ka‘ena, similar fences have been constructed in fourteen other sites across the state including a fence enclosing 6.5 hectares (16 acres) on the James Campbell National Wildlife Refuge on O‘ahu designed to protect nesting albatross and other seabirds and shorebirds from predators. Introduced rat preying on ‘ua‘u (Hawaiian petrel) eggs. Photo: Archipelago Research and Conservation. Pūpū kuahiwi (Achatinella mustelina) endangered Hawaiian tree snails. Photo: ANRPO. Snail protection fence at Poamoho O‘ahu. Photo: David Sischo. Laysan Albatross decoys attract wild birds. Photo: Jordan Akiyama, USFWS. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 30 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Map showing areas where invasive plants and animals are being controlled by the Invasive Species Committees. Invasive plant management Five Invasive Species Committees (ISCs) and the Hawaiʻi Invasive Species Council were created in Hawaiʻi to facilitate and expand invasive species control work that existing state and federal agencies had difficulties addressing due to gaps in jurisdiction, resources, or staffing. Serving as informal, inter-agency partnerships, the ISCs fill many of these gaps as they work to identify and eradicate some of Hawaiʻi’s most threatening incipient pests. Additionally, many organizations and agencies across the state are actively controlling established invasive species using mechanical, chemical, and biocontrol methods. Ko‘olau Mountains Watershed Partnership staff controlling Mule’s foot fern. Photo: Will Weaver. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 31 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources The ISC Structure consists of a committee of interested parties, primarily natural resource managers, biosecurity experts, and scientists from federal, state, and county agencies, as well as from private organizations, landowners, or business associations. Each ISC develops action plans focused on their areas and carries out priority survey and control work, as needed. The ISCs also have a robust outreach program to educate and engage the public to report and participate in managing invasive species. Species targeted for control include plants, vertebrates, arthropods, and pathogens that impact Hawaii’s ecosystems, economy, agriculture, human health, or way of life. Objectives on each island are diverse depending on what invasive species are found there, but all of the ISC programs include the detection and eradication of incipient species and community-based management of many widespread, established invasive species of plants and animals. Biocontrol Biological control (biocontrol) is the selection and introduction of a natural enemy of an invasive plant or insect pest which suppresses that pest in its home range, and the “reuniting” of this natural enemy with the invasive pest to provide long-term, cost-effective, and sustainable pest management. In modern biocontrol, extensive testing is done to ensure the natural enemy is specific to its host prior to release and will not cause impacts to native or agricultural species. Biocontrol projects in Hawaiʻi are cooperative efforts between multiple agencies and organizations, including the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources Division of Forestry and Wildlife, Hawaii Department of Agriculture, USDA Forest Service, University of Hawaiʻi, and international partners to plan, research, implement, and monitor projects. Biological control has a long and active history in Hawaiʻi, with several hundred introductions made from 1890 to the present. Unfortunately, mistakes were made with early biocontrol efforts leading to the introduction of species that are now considered to be highly invasive including the mongoose and rosy BIISC's staff teaching a group of neighbors how to properly mix up gel bait to control little fire ants. Photo: Big Island Invasive Species Committee. Inset: Little fire ants attracted to peanut butter bait. Photo: Zach Pezzillo. A: Wiliwili flowers. Photo: Emily Grave. B: Wiliwili gall wasps. Photos: Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture. A B A: Miconia calvescens detection. Photo: Kaua‘i Invasive Species Committee. B: Control of Miconia. Photo: O‘ahu Invasive Species Committee. A B Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 32 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources wolfsnail. Although most of the early activity targeted agricultural pests, many important invaders of natural areas have received attention in the last 50 years. Results of biocontrol in support of conservation have been mixed, with cases of natural enemies failing to establish, or often having relatively minor impacts, but also some instances of substantial suppression of weeds and insect pests. Beginning in the 1970s, increased emphasis was placed on selecting natural enemies that feed only on a narrow range of hosts which has led to a greatly improved control success and safety record. Cases of non-target impacts on native species, a significant problem from earlier biocontrol introductions, have been avoided completely in recent decades. Examples of recent biocontrol successes include the halt of statewide extinction of native wiliwili trees by the Erythrina gall wasp following importation of a highly effective specialist parasite in 2008, and significant reduction of invasive banana poka vines over large areas of native wet forests due to a host-specific fungus introduced in 1996. Other invasive species that would continue to threaten natural and cultivated landscapes in Hawaii without recent biocontrol efforts include the Acacia psyllid, spiraling whitefly, nettle caterpillar, Hamakua pamakani and ivy gourd. However, other invasives including gorse, Clidemia and faya tree persist as major environmental weeds despite concerted efforts at biocontrol. These and other weeds, such as strawberry guava, miconia, albizzia, devil weed, and Himalayan ginger, are being focused on with currrent biocontrol research. Pending Not established Ineffective Partial Substantial Total agents Insect pests Acacia psyllid 1 1 2 Erythrina gall wasp 1 1 Nettle caterpillar 1 1 Spiraling whitefly 2 2 4 Weeds Banana poka 1 1 1 3 Clidemia 4 2 6 Firetree 2 2 Fireweed 1 1 Gorse 3 1 2 6 Hamakua pamakani 2 1 3 Ivy gourd 1 1 1 3 Lantana 1 1 2 Miconia 1 1 Russian thistle 2 2 Strawberry guava 1 1 Summary of recent biocontrol efforts and indication of their effectiveness or status. Data compiled by Hawaiʻi Dept. of Agriculture and U.S. Forest Service. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 33 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Rapid ‘Ōhi‘a Death and canopy dieback ʻŌhiʻa (Metrosideros polymorpha), the most abundant native tree in the state of Hawaiʻi, are being killed by a new fungal disease caused by two introduced pathogens, Ceratocystis lukuohia and Ceratocystis huliohia. On Hawaiʻi Island, hundreds of thousands of ʻōhiʻa have already died from this fungus. Healthy trees appear to die within a few days to a few weeks from being infected, which is how the disease came to be called Rapid ʻŌhiʻa Death (ROD). Based on recent aerial surveys, more than 73,000 hectares (~180,000 acres) of forest contain ʻōhiʻa trees showing symptoms of ROD disease on the Island of Hawaiʻi. ROD has been confirmed in all districts of Hawaiʻi Island, although areas of Hāmākua, Kohala, and North Kona remain priorities for early detection and rapid response efforts due to the low occurrence of the disease in those locations4. Both C. lukuohia and C. huliohia have also been detected on Hawaiʻi Island and Kauaʻi. The more aggressive species of fungus causing ROD is C. lukuohia, which accounts for roughly 90% of detected infections on Hawaiʻi Island. The less aggressive species, though still fatal fungus C. huliohia has also been detected on both Maui and Oʻahu. The ROD working group, in close coordination with the Invasive Species Committees on all islands and the Division of Forestry and Wildlife are continuing with surveys for ROD and follow-up management actions, as needed. Rapid ʻŌhiʻa Death remains a priority for natural resource management agencies in Hawaiʻi. This disease continues to kill ʻōhiʻa trees and is now widely established on Hawaiʻi island and in several areas on Kaua‘i. Resource managers across the state continue to respond to ROD detections to protect healthy forests, and researchers are tackling a wide array of topics to inform managers on the best strategies for controlling the disease. Community outreach is also an integral part of this effort to provide consistent messaging on the importance of ʻōhiʻa forests and how residents and visitors can help protect them. 4 Perroy, R.L., T. Sullivan, D. Benitez, R.F. Hughes, L.M. Keith, E. Brill, K. Kissinger and D. Duda. 2021. Spatial patterns of ‘ōhi‘a mortality associated with Rapid ‘Ōhi‘a Death and ungulate presence. Forests, 12, 1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081035. Fortini, L.B., L.R. Kaiser, L.M. Keith, J. Price, R.F. Hughes, J.D. Jacobi, and J.B. Friday. The evolving threat of Rapid ‘Ōhi‘a Death (ROD) to Hawai‘i's native ecosystems and rare plant species. 2019. Forest Ecology and Management 448: 376-385. ʻŌhiʻa tree recently killed by Ceratocystis lukuohia. Photo: J.B. Friday. Sites where either species associated with Rapid ‘Ōhi‘a Death have been detected. Source: ROD Working Group. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 34 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Current ROD research and management highlights • In 2018 researchers determined that two non-native, microscopic fungi new to science, Ceratocystis lukuohia and C. huliohia, are the primary cause of ROD. • C. lukuohia a “wilt disease”, quickly spreads throughout the trunks of trees, clogging the flow of water and causing the tree to die within months. In contrast, C. huliohia is characterized as a “canker disease”, which affects trees more slowly and requires multiple infections to kill trees. There is some evidence that C. huliohia has been present in the islands longer that C. lukuohia. • On Hawaiʻi Island, where these fungi were first detected in 2014, approximately 73,000 hectares (~180,000 acres) of ‘ōhi‘a forest have some level of ROD, ranging from 95% mortality to less than 1%. ROD is now found in all districts of Hawaiʻi Island, and management has shifted to focus on reducing impacts to high-value forests. • On Kaua‘i, ROD was initially detected in a few trees in 2018. Since then, additional surveys have confirmed approximately 250 ROD trees, some with C. huliohia and some with the more aggressive C. lukuohia, and crews are working to contain the disease. On Maui, one tree with C. huliohia was discovered via public report in 2019 and subsequently destroyed. On O‘ahu, nine trees with C. huliohia have been detected, all in the Ko‘olau Mountains, resulting in the felling and tarping of trees where feasible. • Landscape-level studies are finding significantly fewer dead 'Ōhi'a trees in areas fenced from hooved animals in ROD hotspots. Suspected ROD tree densities in neighboring unfenced areas were up to 69 times greater than those found in fenced, protected areas. (Perroy et al. 2021) • The multi-agency framework of active surveillance, sampling, management, research, and outreach is ongoing with existing staff from agencies and non-government organizations, supplemented by over 20 positions funded through grants to the ROD Strategic Response. More details can be found at cms.ctahr.hawaii.edu/rod Another widespread defoliation and death of many thousands of ʻōhiʻa trees occurred on the windward side of Hawaiʻi Island in the 1960s–1970s. Although it was concluded that this dieback was primarily due to natural conditions resulting from nutrient limitations for maintaining the large canopy trees as they matured over time (Mueller-Dombois 1985), it resulted in the death or defoliation of the tree canopy over approximately 49,000 hectares (~120,000 acres) of native forest. Fortunately, recent studies have shown that in most of these areas ʻōhiʻa is recovering as young trees have recolonized the sites and are now developing back into a new forest (Mertelmeyer et al. 2019). Changes in forest dieback status from 1977 to 2015. Mertelmeyer, L., Jacobi, J. D., Mueller-Dombois, D., Brinck, K., & Boehmer, H. J. (2019). Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 35 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Ungulate impacts and management Feral ungulates (hoofed animals including cattle, pigs, goats, sheep, and deer) are among the greatest threats to native ecosystems as they destroy vegetation leaving ground ground bare and soils exposed. Exposed soils then become spots where invasive plant species can easily become established. These changes can reduce water collection and infiltration, increase potential for wildfires, and promote forest pests and disease, all of which impact forest health and function. Approximately 17% of the remaining wet and mesic native forests in Hawaiʻi are currently protected by fences to exclude hoofed animals. We used these fenced areas as a proxy for effective management. During the 2016 International Union for the Conservation of Nature World Conservation Congress held in Honolulu, then Hawaiʻi Governor David Ige announced a Sustainable Hawaii Initiative goal to protect at least 30% of priority watersheds by 2030. To reach this goal, continued funding is needed to control damaging invasive species and diseases, plant native species, prevent wildfires, and educate the community about the importance of our forests. To date only 5% of the total land area in the main Hawaiian Islands are fenced to prevent entry of ungulates. While hooved animals may be incrementally removed from portions of the remaining forests, damage from invasive weeds and wildfires can continue to escalate even in these managed areas over time. Similarly, the new threat of Rapid ‘Ōhi‘a Death (ROD), a fungal disease, is causing catastrophic losses of Hawaiʻi’s dominant native tree. Damage to the trees by ungulates facilitates the spread of this disease. Fortunately, fencing and ungulate removal, or effective ungulate suppression, is likely to be among the most effective and practical means to reduce the spread of ROD at meaningful landscape scales. Feral goats. Photo: National Park Service. Wild mouflon sheep. Photo: Dan Dzurisin, USGS. Feral pig in native forest. Photo: © JackJeffreyPhoto.com Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 42 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources These maps (page 41) indicate catchments in which flow restorations have occurred, and some indication of the amount of renewed base flow represented by such actions. • Catchments indicated as “Never Diverted” represent those which have not been impacted by modern networks of ditches and intakes • Catchments indicated as “Restoration Pending” are those where there are active negotiations or draft plans to develop instream flow standards • Connectivity flows, which are up to 20 percent of the original base flow • Habitat Restoration flows, which are more than 20 percent and up to 60 percent of original base flow • Full Restoration flows, in which 100 percent of the original base flow now passes without being diverted The majority of Hawaiian perennial streams do not currently lie within protected areas. Notable exceptions are Kalalau, Hanakoa and Hanakaipiai Streams on Kaua‘i, in the Nā Pali Coast State Park; Kaluanui Stream on O‘ahu in the Sacred Falls State Park and Kaluanui Natural Area Reserve; Pelekunu Stream on Moloka‘i, in the TNCH Pelekunu Preserve; and ‘Ohe‘o Gulch on Maui, in the Haleakalā National Park. Several species of ʻOʻopu fish on rocks in a Hawaiian stream. Photo: Reuben Wolff. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 43 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Status of wetlands Due to their topography and locally high rainfall, the Hawaiian islands harbor a diverse set of wetland types, ranging from a hypersaline lake on Laysan Atoll in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, to acidic upland bogs such as found at Pepeopae on Moloka‘i or in the Alakaʻi Plateau on Kaua‘i, to large freshwater marshes such as Kawainui on Oʻahu, and also small coastal anchialine pools, primarily found on Hawaiʻi Island. Wetland habitats help regulate water flow and infiltration and provide habitat for a wide variety of wildlife species. Prior to Western contact the Native Hawaiians also created or modified coastal wetlands for kalo (taro) cultivation. However, these habitats continued to provide both ecological functions and wildlife habitat, as well as cultivation of a staple food element. The spatial extent of these Hawaiian wetland ecosystem classes has been mapped using the most recent National Wetland Inventory (NWI) data available through the U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service. The NWI considers wetlands to be “Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water.” As such, the NWI layers tend to over-represent coastal systems because features such as beaches, mudlflats, estuaries are included. In the uplands, areas with permanently waterlogged soils are also classified as wetlands, which includes broad areas along the middle elevation slopes of Haleakalā and Mauna Kea, where the lifting condensation level associated with the trade wind inversion causes clouds to preferentially bank against these mountainsides. These large extents of upland wetlands are very evident on the map included in this section, although their extent is generally under-appreciated because they lie in remote and rarely visited areas. In addition, because many coastal wetlands, stream mouth habitats, and anchialine pool systems are quite small, they do not resolve at the scale of spatial analysis used on the maps and are therefore mapped secondarily using symbols. Recent assessments estimated that between 44–50% of the archipelago’s wetlands lying below 300 m were destroyed during the past 200 years, largely due to agricultural conversion, resort or residential development, or land reclamation. Upland wetlands above 300 m fared somewhat better, but there is still a 3% rate of estimated loss in these systems over the same time due to drying climate trends. In total, approximately 15% of the original wetlands have been lost, although most of this loss comes from lowland systems. Loʻi kalo (taro terraces) at Limahuli, Kauaʻi. Photo: Kim Rogers. Anchialine pool in the ʻĀhihi-Kīnaʻu Natural Area Reserve, Maui. Photo: Dan Polhemus. Dense understory in forested upland wetland on Mt. Kaʻala, Oʻahu. Photo: Dan Polhemus. Montane bog and pool in the Alakaʻi region near Mt. Waiʻaleʻale, Kauaʻi. Photo: Dan Polhemus. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 44 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Looking forward, lowland wetlands in Hawaii will be impacted by sea-level rise in a number of ways. Initially, SLR will change the size, shape, and possibly the location of wetlands. Additionally, more frequent seawater infiltration during storms and high tides will alter water chemistry and habitats and may threaten some bird nesting areas and native plants. Sea-level rise will also lead to the upward displacement of the coastal groundwater table, creating new wetlands in places where they do not currently exist, while also subjecting these freshwater resources to loss in quality with increasing saltwater intrusion. Adaptation to such migrating wetland footprints will be a challenge for both managers and wildlife going forward. Distribution of wetland habitats on the main Hawaiian Islands. Data from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory 2019. Ae‘o (Hawaiian stilt) at Kanahā Pond, Maui. Photo: Fern Duvall. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 45 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Status of coastal vegetation Hawaiian coastal vegetation is composed of plant species that are adapted to growing in extremely harsh conditions found in this habitat zone. These plant communities are both diverse and vulnerable with approximately 58 percent of the 44 native plant species that are endemic to Hawaiʻi. Prior to humans coming to these islands, Hawaiian coastal vegetation extended as a continuous ring around each of the islands, broken only by stretches of recent lava flows or unstable cliff faces. However, many areas that originally supported native coastal plant communities have been highly altered or the natural vegetation removed due to land use practices, use of fire, degraded by competition from invasive plants, or eaten by introduced ungulates. A recent survey of coastal vegetation foun d 61 % of the coastline vegetation in the main Hawaiian Islands was highly disturbed poor quality status, 19 % in the moderate-status category, 9 % of the coastline was considered to be in high-quality status, and 12 % as very-high-quality status. However, Hawaiian coastal plant communities exhibit inherent resilience to disturbance since these communities and the species that comprise them have evolved to survive under the extremely harsh and changing conditions found along the coastline. If the coastal landscape is not actively disturbed by development and the most invasive plant and animal species are controlled or kept out of an area, the native Hawaiian coastal plants appear to be able to remain established or be restored following control of the threats. Hunakai (Ipomoea imperati) growing at Polihale, Kaua‘i. Photo: Seana Walsh Huelo islet off the north coast of Molokaʻi. Photo: Rick Warshauer, USGS/HCSU. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 46 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Current status of Hawaiian coastal vegetation. Source: Jacobi and Warshauer (2017). Coastal vegetation at Kalani, Molokaʻi. Photo: Rick Warshauer, USGS. ʻIlima and hinahina at Ka‘ena, O‘ahu. Photo: Jim Jacobi, USGS. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 47 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Status of seabirds The Hawaiian Islands are globally important for seabirds, with tens of millions of individuals of at least 24 species breeding in two geographic regions: the Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI), including the larger islands and associated offshore islets from Hawaiʻi west to Ni‘ihau, and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) from Nihoa west to Kure Atoll. Collectively, the Hawaiian archipelago supports some of the largest tropical seabird colonies in the world. The seabirds of Hawaiʻi can be categorized into four taxonomic groups. Seabird breeding habitat within Hawaiʻi is variable, ranging from low-lying atolls most vulnerable to sea level rise in Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, to remote, high-elevation montane areas on Maui and Hawaiʻi. The nesting seabird species vary in their distribution, with some species widespread and occurring on most islands in all regions (e.g., Wedge-tailed Shearwater [Ardenna pacifica], Red-tailed Tropicbird [Phaethon rubricauda], Black Noddy [Anous minutus]), and other species restricted to just one or a few islands in one region (e.g., Newell’s Shearwaters [Puffinus newelli]). While most seabird species within Hawaiʻi are declining in at least part of their range, three species (Newell’s Shearwater, Hawaiian Petrel [Pterodroma sandwichensis] and Band-rumped Storm-petrel [Oceanodroma castro]) are listed under the US Endangered Species Act, and only two (Newell’s Shearwater and Hawaiian Petrel) are endemic to Hawaiʻi. The latter are the focus of large-scale conservation projects on multiple Hawaiian Islands. Within these taxonomic groups, several nesting habitats and foraging modes exist. Spatially, seabird nesting habitat can be broadly defined as surface, burrow, tree/vegetation, cliff, and rock piles/crevices. In this way, multispecies colonies can be vertically stratified. For example, a typical Hawaiian seabird colony may support Manu-o-Kū (White tern, Gygis alba). Photo: Koa Matsuoka, USFWS. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 48 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Order Group Species Procellariiformes Albatrosses Black-footed, Laysan, Short-tailed Petrels Bonin, Bulwer’s, Hawaiian Shearwaters Wedge-tailed, Newell's, Christmas Storm-petrels Band-rumped, Tristram’s Phaethontiformes Tropicbirds Red-tailed, White-tailed Suliformes Boobies Brown, Masked, Red-footed Frigatebirds Great Charadriformes Terns and Noddies Least, White, Sooty, Grey-backed Terns; Black, Brown and Blue-grey Noddies Above: Groups of seabird species with documented breeding colonies in the Hawaiian Islands. Right: Booby and chick. Photo: Koa Matsuoka. Seabird species richness in the Main Hawaiian Islands, represented as the minimum number of confirmed seabird species. Additional seabird colonies are suspected to exist, especially in the hard to reach and montane areas of the islands. Polygons in this map were derived from the Hawaiian Aha Moku System and used to summarize nesting seabird richness at the landscape scale, with elevational boundaries at 1-km inland to 3-km offshore (coastal), 1-km inland to 550-m elevation (inland), 550-m to 2000-m elevation (upland), and >2000-m elevation (alpine). Moku boundaries were dissolved within the highest elevation category on each island (e.g., “upland” for Kaua‘i, O‘ahu, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, and “alpine” for Hawai‘i and Maui). Additional boundaries were placed around the islands of Ka‘ula, Ni‘ihau, and Lehua, making them three separate polygons within one moku zone. Data are from the comprehensive Atlas and Registry of Breeding Seabirds in the Main Hawaiian Islands (USGS and others, Unpublished Data). Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 49 Wedge-tailed Shearwaters and Bonin petrels in burrows, surface nesting Laysan and Black-footed Albatrosses, storm-petrels nesting in adjacent rock piles, and Red-footed Boobies, Brown Noddies and Great Frigatebirds in trees or shrubs. Thus, a mere 2×2-m area can support 8 nesting species. As with seabirds across the World, species in Hawaiʻi have been dramatically impacted by human activities. In Hawaiʻi, predation by invasive predators (such as cats, rats, dogs, pigs and Barn Owls) can have a devastating impact to breeding colonies, which is compounded by the spread of invasive plants and subsequent loss of habitat. In forested montane colonies, habitat loss is exacerbated by introduced ungulates like pigs and goats, and the increasing threat of Rapid ‘Ohi‘a Death. Habitat loss for coastal seabird species is further threatened by global warming and sea level rise, a particular concern for the low-lying islands of Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Human infrastructure also impacts many seabird species including collisions with powerlines (and other structures), light attraction especially among shearwater and petrel fledglings, and increasing coastal development. Lastly, seabirds are impacted by multiple threats at sea, including over-fishing, by-catch, plastic pollution (most well-known among albatross), and shifting prey availability due to climate change. Due to the importance of the Hawaiian Islands for seabirds, there are many conservation organizations undertaking projects on a range of species. These projects include those focused on predator control (either ongoing predator control in open management areas or predator eradications within predator proof fences or on entire islets), translocation and social attraction projects aimed at protecting species impacted by climate change and predation, communication campaigns and legislation focused on reducing light in urban areas, seabird rescue and rehabilitation projects, and multiple Habitat Conservation Plans focused on endangered seabirds. To ensure that seabirds persist into the future, additional conservation science and effective resource management will be critical in the coming decades. For more information: Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife; US Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center; Pacific Rim Conservation; Archipelago Research and Conservation. Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources A: ‘Ua‘u, Hawaiian Petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis). Photo: Brett Nainoa Mossman. B: Nesting habitats of Hawaiian seabirds. Source: Pacific Rim Conservation. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 50 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Impacts and implications of climate change Hawaiʻi’s climate is changing rapidly, and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future, as human-caused heating affects the entire planet. Because the rate of change is unprecedented and ecological interactions are extremely complex, responses of ecosystems to global heating and associated atmospheric and ocean trends cannot be predicted exactly. However, major climate change related losses are already being observed on Hawaiʻi’s coral reefs and with our endemic forest birds. The narrow climatic tolerances of many tropical species suggest further losses as global temperatures climb to levels not seen for millions of years. New weather extremes will have strong ecosystem impacts, and may appear well before they are projected to become normal. Conservation managers can no longer assume ecosystem stability or predictability, but can expect, and prepare for, ongoing change. Impacts on pelagic and coastal marine systems Global heating is causing expansion of the tropics (Polovina et al. 2011) which, together with ocean acidification, has implications for pelagic food webs and oceanic fauna (Karl and Church 2017), including changes in their distribution and abundance near Hawaiʻi (Woodworth-Jefcoats et al. 2019). Higher water temperatures increase metabolic rates and decrease dissolved oxygen. Mobile species may respond by moving poleward in latitude or deeper in the water column (Lenoir and Svenning 2014), but some sessile organisms like corals will experience stress or mortality. This will alter benthic species interactions and ecosystem composition. Current episodes of heat-induced coral bleaching are projected to become more frequent and lead to annual bleaching events in Hawaiʻi by mid-century (van Hooidonk, et al. 2016). Loss of reef-building corals due to these marine heatwaves is expected to reduce the structural complexity of reef environments and the number and species of fish and invertebrates found there. Unlike continental coastlines, isolated archipelagos such as Hawaiʻi may see sharp declines in marine biodiversity, as local extirpations and extinctions might not be balanced by an influx of species from warmer locations. Long-term change in global average surface temperature. Graphic by Ed Hawkins, Climate Lab Book. Pocillopora meandrina: a dominant Hawaiian reef coral. Photo: Mark Sullivan, USFWS. Increased coastal wave surge resulting from sea level rise. Photo: Ruby Pap. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 51 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Impacts on shorelines and coastal ecosystems Shorelines currently buffered from storm waves by offshore reefs are projected to experience rapid increases in wave impact and runup as reefs degrade (Cornwall, et al. 2021) and are submerged by sea level rise (Storlazzi, et al. 2015), which will continue for centuries. Features such as dunes and beaches, and native species associated with them, will be unable to move inland as seas rise where their paths are blocked by steep slopes, alien vegetation, or human infrastructure (Jacobi and Warshauer 2017). Low islands will likely experience overwash events that impact nesting and resident species long before the islands are actually submerged by sea level rise (Storlazzi, et al. 2015). Rising water tables on flat coastal lands are expected to create new wetland areas and increase salinity of existing coastal freshwater wetlands (Rotzoll and Fletcher 2013), while those wetlands nearest sea level, including anchialine pools, will be lost as they become connected to the sea (Marrack, et al. 2021). Impacts on stream habitats Observed decreases in precipitation and streamflow on most islands may continue (Huang, et al. 2021), but current downscaled models differ in the distribution and amount of future precipitation, with some projecting wetter windward conditions. Hawaiian stream ecosystems are sensitive to reductions in flow, which affect stream temperature (Strauch, et al. 2015), connectivity, ecosystem function (Frauendorf, et al. 2019), and parasitism (Gagné and Blum 2015). Impacts on upland habitats Global heating is projected to shift existing island temperature gradients uphill and create novel, hotter climates near sea level. With no higher, cooler habitat available, species restricted to peaks and ridges by current climatic conditions will decline or be extirpated (Fortini, et al. 2013; Fortini, et al. 2015). Spatial patterns of rainfall differ among downscaled models, making it difficult to determine where current combinations of temperature and precipitation will be in the future. Native species may need to move across the landscape to track their climate niche (Fortini, et al. 2013), although many now lack the reproductive and dispersal mechanisms to do so. Conditions suitable for most Hawaiian vegetation types are expected to shift in extent and location (Fortini and Jacobi 2018). Transitions to new species assemblages may be triggered by extreme climate events such as drought, or by climate-related disturbances such as fire. Fire risk to ecosystems may shift to higher elevations and formerly wetter sites (Trauernicht 2019). Avian malaria constrains many remaining Hawaiian forest bird species to high elevations where temperatures are too cool for the malaria parasite and its principal mosquito vector. Under a mid-range heating scenario, projections of climatic ranges linked to disease show that six forest bird species would lose all their range by the end of the century, three others would lose >90% of their range, and 10 more species would lose over half of their range (Fortini, et al. 2015). Mosquito biting an ‘Apapane. Photo: © JackJeffreyPhoto.com. Pristine stream community on Kaua‘i. Photo: Jim Jacobi, USGS. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 58 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Northwestern Hawaiian Islands The largest contiguous marine reserve in the United States, and one of the largest in the world, is the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, which was created in 2006 and is managed jointly by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs. This marine reserve encompasses 1,508,870 square kilometers (582,578 square miles) of the Pacific Ocean surrounding the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, stretching approximately 1,350 miles northwest from beyond Ni‘ihau to Kure Atoll. In addition to its diverse and intact marine ecosystems and biodiversity, the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument is extremely rich in cultural sites and resources which has led to it being recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site based on its significant combination of biological and cultural resources. The entire Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument is considered to be in full protection status. A recent report describes the current status and trends of natural and cultural resources within the Monument (NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries). Map of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands and the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument. Credit: NOAA. N o r t h w e s t e r n H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s N o r t h w e s t e r n H a w a i i a n I s l a n d s Salmon Bank Ladd Seamount Neva Shoal North Hampton Seamounts Raita Bank St. Rogatien & Brooks Banks Twin Banks Middle Bank Kure Atoll Midway Atoll Pearl & Hermes Atoll Lisianski Island Laysan Island Maro Reef Gardner Pinnacles Mokumanamana French Frigate Shoals Nihoa Kaua‘i Ni‘ihau Ka‘ula Lehua Rock O‘ahu Moloka‘i Lana‘i Kaho‘olawe Hawai‘i Maui Unnamed Seamount TRO PI C O F CA NCE R 25 °N 20 °N Mokupāpapa Pihemanu Holoikauaua Papa‘āpoho Kauō Ko‘anako‘a Pūhāhonu Kānemiloha‘i Necker Island 30 °N 180 °W 175 °W 170 °W 165 °W 160 °W 155 °W 25 °N 20 °N 30 °N HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO Kilometers Miles 0 100 200 0 100 200 Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument Boundary Laysan albatross. Photo: © Keoki Stender. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 59 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Community-led conservation efforts The values and ethics of aloha ʻāina and the practice of mālama ʻāina are lauded in principle among Hawaiʻiʻs conservation agencies and organizations, but are still greatly underappreciated in practice. However, this situation is changing. Actions and interests in collaborative communitybased terrestrial and marine conservation in Hawaiʻi are growing in ways that elevate the care of Hawaiʻi once again as a cultural imperative. For example, the Ahupuaʻa Accelerator Initiative is a priority program of the Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance and is one of several local efforts to support community and culturally-centered stewardship by appropriately accelerating both the enabling conditions and desired outcomes of ahupuaʻa restoration and conservation in present day. Indeed, there is a growing global movement for Iindigenous people and local community empowerment in conservation. Today nation-states, including the U.S.A. are awakening to Other Effective Conservation Measures (OECM) and Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCA) which lie outside of conventional “fortress conservation” models. Initially, in Hawaiʻi, most community-led conservation efforts were focused on managing coastal resources. However, in recent years emphasis has been expanded to include upland sites, such as at Pu‘uwa‘awa‘a on Hawaiʻi Island Agency is the ability and capacity to act in one’s own self interests. Forms of Native Hawaiian agency are not only constitutionally protected but persist and are still held in many communities around the state. In many instances, specific manifestations of and practices relating to these forms of Indigenous agency are reaffirmed in case law. Hawaiʻi’s Indigenous traditional pre-western history demonstrates that building a culture where communities work together with governing institutions that have the right leadership and processes is necessary for achieving abundance and conservation outcomes. The movement for community-led natural resource management has grown over the last decade by group, region and subject matter as the map below demonstrates. An ethic of caring for Hawaiʻi in its rural and Native Hawaiian communities is becoming more sophisticated with time, and these opportunities, if built upon with supporting policy, resources and education, can shift our broader culture toward one that increases community driven and supported conservation. Volunteers at Heʻeia Fishpond helping to fill in a restored section of kuapā (fishpond wall). Photo: Mark Lee. Ahupuaʻa Accelerator Initiative Volunteers in the field at Puʻuwaʻawaʻa, Hawaiʻi Island. Photo: Puʻuwaʻawaa Communitybased Subsistence Forest Area. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 60 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Some highlights of recent community-led conservation efforts include: • The emergence of a movement for community-based fishery management, for example the communitybased subsistence fishing area (CBSFA) law HRS §188-22.6 led to the first officially adopted CBSFA at Hāʻēna, Kaua'i. Around the same time, the first community-driven 10 year rest area was also established at Ka'ūpūlehu, Hawaiʻi Island. • These accomplishments are a part of a broader push for CBSFA initiatives at Moʻomomi (Molokaʻi), Miloliʻi (Hawaiʻi island), Kīpahulu CBSFA (Maui), and fisheries management areas in Maunalua and other emerging initiative areas. • A streamlined permitting process for restoring loko iʻa (fishponds), was established by the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources to aid in a future vision of loko iʻa contributing to the replenishment of nearshore fisheries through restorative aquaculture. • Establishment of the He‘eia National Estuarine Research Reserve in 2017, its 560 hectares (1,385 acres) including the He‘eia fishpond in Kāne‘ohe Bay, conserved by the Native Hawaiian NGO Paepae o He‘eia. General locations of community-led biocultural conservation efforts across the state. Data primarily from Kuaʻāina Ulu ʻAuamo with additional sites provided by other HCA partners. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 61 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources • The State of Hawaii’s leadership’s Holomua Marine Initiative for nearshore fishery management cannot be accomplished without significant community collaboration. • The State of Hawaii DLNR has developed positions in DOCARE and DAR with explicit roles toward development of stronger community collaboration in natural resource management and governance. • The recent pandemic highlights the need for green career pathways, policies and practices that link environment, food, community and governance, recent legislation currently recognizes greater need to generate resources for conservation, as well as a conservation workforce. • There is also growing interest to expand terrestrial community-based stewardship areas. For example the Puʻuwaʻawaʻa Community Based Subsistence Forest Area is working to formalize a community based stewardship plan for the restoration of an 34 hectare (84 acre) unit in the dryland forests on leeward Hawaiʻi Island. Outreach and education People are integral to ‘āina and are a vital part of Hawaiʻi’s landscapes and seascapes; our interactions and relationships with ‘āina are critical to its care and growth. Access to and exposure to ‘āina through outreach and educational opportunities are essential for building meaningful pilina (association, connection) with the natural and cultural resources of Hawaiʻi. Outreach and education serve as powerful vehicles for developing and enhancing perspectives regarding the state of our environment, help to enact positive change and support for conservation efforts, and contribute to the environmental and cultural vitality of Hawaiʻi. Conservation organizations can utilize ‘āina as a platform to teach across multiple disciplines and ultimately help people of all backgrounds to connect to place, culture, and each other fostering a character of aloha. Programs that integrate education with capacity building foster a clearer understanding and appreciation of the value of our biocultural resources and also help communities to make more informed decisions about the resources in their ahupua‘a/home. The health of our people and our 'āina go hand in hand so developing reciprocal relationships with our place is key in our efforts to perpetuate the legacy of Hawaiʻi’s ancestors and to shape a future rooted in love of land. Outreach and education are critical to help bridge the physical and mental distance between people and place that have negatively impacted Hawaiʻi’s environment. By providing a wide range of opportunities for residents and visitors of all ages, abilities, and time availability, to see, learn about, and engage with ‘āina and kai (land and sea), we can help to invoke wonder and, hopefully, appreciation for all of the unique species and landscapes of Hawaiʻi while emphasizing key messages and needs. Outreach and education, whether they take place in classrooms, learning centers, field trips, or work days, help to build awareness of our biocultural resources, as well as the threats to those resources. Without this awareness, there is limited understanding or appreciation of their value. Students at 2016 World Fish Migration Day at Papahana Kuaola learning about Hawaiʻi's migratory ʻoʻopu, native Hawaiian goby (see page 42). Photo: Tina Lee, Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance. The next generation of land and ocean stewards. Photo: DAR. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 62 Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Local conservation capacity Investments in emerging conservation professionals and programs (short, medium and long range) are critical to integrate our past, present and future to support our next generation of leaders, managers, practitioners and educators, who play key roles in the sustainability of biocultural resources. To accomplish these goals, organizations throughout Hawaiʻi and across the Pacific have developed and invested in programs and projects that provide multi-generational place-based opportunities along with world-class resource management strategies that integrate knowledge from multiple sources, including traditional and local knowledge and contemporary science. These activities and pathways cross both terrestrial and marine environments, from ma uka to ma kai. This convergence of academic and hands-on experiences developed in culturally competent, respectful programs and projects allow for place-based learning that supports and encourages long-range workforce and community investments in biocultural resources management and ultimately ʻāina momona. The most successful workforce development and engagement programs in Hawaiʻi involve partnerships between federal, state, county, and community organizations. In addition, programs that incorporate cultural understanding in resource management and practices provide opportunities for growing the next generation of managers with the ability to work across programs and interests. Collaboration and cultural competency are extremely vital skills for the future of effective conservation management. The Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance recognizes the importance of nurturing and empowering Hawaiʻi’s youth to fill conservation management roles and positions in Hawaiʻi as they enter adulthood. Homegrown Hawaiʻi youth typically have a deeper connection to Hawaiʻi’s natural resources and feel a sense of kuleana to protect its resources and biodiversity. Through the Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance’s Nāhululeihiwakuipapa (Next Generation) Subcommittee, and the Conservation Career Compass, the Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance provides programming to develop support among Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance partners for Hawaiʻi’s youth to develop the necessary leadership skills and opportunities to become the next generation of conservation leaders. Source: Burnett, K. and C. Wada (2019). Characterizing Hawai‘i's Natural Resource Management Sector: Jobs, Education, Salaries, and Expenditures. Honolulu, HI, The Economic Research Organization at the University of Hawai‘i (UHERO). Mentor and Mentee Next Generation Panel at the Hawai‘i Conservation Conference 2024. Photo: Hawai'i Conservation Alliance. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 63 There are many diverse and growing efforts across the state of Hawaiʻi working to nurture Hawaiʻi’s next generation of conservation leaders. In addition, there are many stakeholders who fund and support this important work of growing a local and capable workforce dedicated to Hawaiʻi’s biodiversity. The Nāhululeihiwakuipapa Subcommittee has developed a digital appendix of programs and conservation partnerships to reflect the growing opportunities dedicated to Hawaiʻi’s youth. Over the past 25 years with the development of ʻāina career pathways and strategies to encourage more resource management positions and training, there has been noticeable growth with local Hawaiʻi representation in all areas of Hawaiʻi’s conservation and biocultural resources management efforts. As the staffing changes, there are additional methods and approaches, cultural awareness, and sensitivity, as well as collaborations and relationships that have become increasingly intertwined and advanced with community efforts as described in the Community-based Management section of this report. Rewardingly, many of Hawaiʻi’s youth have had the opportunity to fulfill their kuleana [responsibility] to the environment and the sustainability of our island communities and incorporate that commitment into career pathways and positions that serve their communities. Status of biodiversity and biocultural resources Winners of the 2023 Hawaiʻi Conservation Conference Student Presenter Awards. Photo: Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 64 Call to Action: Conservation Over the Next Decade Now is the time for practitioners, resource managers, researchers, and all of Hawaiʻi to come together, and ensure that our biocultural treasures are passed intact to future generations. I ola nā kini — that the multitudes thrive. Working together, diverse partners from government, civil society, communities, landowners and more have made significant progress in protecting biocultural resources in Hawaiʻi over the past 50 years. Yet we still are losing Hawaii’s native species and ecosystems to local and global impacts and threats. To manage these threats and ensure thriving lands and seas for future generations, we must scale up conservation actions across the archipelago. Hawaiʻi has collectively recognized the importance of our natural resources with leaders in all sectors signing commitments such as the Aloha+ Challenge, Promise to Pae‘aina, and the Hawaiʻi Commitments. In order to continue this work, there are critical actions needed to restore and conserve our biocultural resources. The pū (shell trumpet) sounds a call to action. Photo: Megan Nagel, USFWS. Conceptual diagram showing the key components identified by the Hawaiʻi Conservation Alliance needed to achieve effective conservation. Call to Action: Conservation Over the Next Decade Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 65 Call to Action: Conservation Over the Next Decade Critical conservation needs We recognize the following critical issues that need to be adequately addressed to effectively conserve Hawaiʻi’s rich biocultural heritage: • Providing adequate resources for conservation • Protecting rare species • Controlling invasive species • Increasing habitat protection and management • Adapting to changing climate • Increasing public connection with conservation • Expanding community-led conservation • Integrating biocultural values into conservation Providing adequate resources for conservation Reliable, long-term funding is critical for achieving effective conservation. Just one gap year can reverse decades of progress, as fences fail and new invasive pests get established. In Hawaiʻi, many conservation funding sources are short-term and subject to annual fluctuation, making planning and progress very difficult. Conservation work also requires a strong source of committed conservation professionals who bring place-based values and the best-available knowledge and training to their work. • Secure a diverse set of funding streams to support biocultural resource conservation efforts in Hawaiʻi. • Support and increase green career pathways for Hawaiʻi's youth to increase our conservation workforce, particularly as we address climate change and many other challenges facing our islands. • Integrate conservation education and values in diverse career fields. Protecting rare species As a hotspot for endemism and extinction, Hawaiʻi requires continued support for existing rare species programs that research, protect, and reintroduce rare and endangered species. The multitude of endemic species in Hawaiʻi are the foundation of our ecosystems, yet many of them are rare, threatened, or extinct due to many threats. • Expand funding for existing programs that conserve and restore rare native plants and animals and their habitats to prevent extinctions. • Invest in technology and workforce development for recovery of rare species, including control and/or eradication of non-native species, distribution modeling and genetic analysis of rare species, plant storage and propagation techniques, captive propagation, habitat fencing, and remote monitoring. • Identify, protect, and restore important areas of native habitat within each ecoregion to protect all species of conservation importance. • Provide sufficient funding, facilities, and capacity to support injured native wildlife rehabilitation. Mauna Loa silversword (ʻāhinahina). Photo: Jim Jacobi, USGS. Ōhiʻa mamo flowers. Photo: Will Weaver. Hawai‘i Conservation Alliance 66 Call to Action: Conservation Over the Next Decade Controlling invasive species Effective conservation requires both control of established invasive species and prevention of new introductions. Prevention is always much more effective and cheaper than remediation. Hawaiʻi needs more staff, funding, partnerships and policy tools to detect and prevent new invasive pests from coming to our islands. For established invasive pests, we need to scale up proven management tools, such as ungulate and weed control, and develop new technologies such as biocontrol for mosquitos and eradication of introduced algae. • Enhance biosecurity capacity and effectiveness to prevent and control invasive pest species statewide to protect agriculture, health, economy and biocultural resources through the full implementation of Hawaiʻi Interagency Biosecurity Plan. • Expand the use of proven invasive species management efforts in native habitats, especially increasing ungulate control in priority native forests and shrublands ma uka to ma kai. • Expand invasive species management using existing or new tools to control the most invasive pests that threaten Hawaiʻi’s biocultural diversity. • Increases support for the partners leading invasive species management actions statewide, especially the island Invasive Species Committees (ISCs), Hawaii Invasive Species Council (HISC), and Coordinating Group for Alien Pest Species (CGAPS). Increasing habitat protection and management Preserving Hawaiʻi’s natural and cultural heritage requires legal protection of important natural areas coupled with active management. Thanks to collaboration among public and private partners, effective conservation of our native forests and upland habitats has significantly improved in recent years. Maintaining this momentum is important as we face impacts of climate change and the introduction of new invasive species. Unfortunately, lowland, coastal, and nearshore habitats have less legal protection or active management, and are heavily impacted by human activity. • Complete and maintain fencing and ungulate control for priority watersheds and upland habitats. • Increase conservation of lowland, coastal, and wetland habitats on all islands. • Identify new opportunities for conservation in areas such as unencumbered State lands, agricultural lands, and private lands that include important biocultural resources. • Expand protection and management of nearshore marine areas to meet 30 by 30 goals. • Identify additional stream and riparian habitats in need of restored stream flow and active management. • Expand strategies and support capacity to effectively respond to increased risk of wildfire impacts associated with new invasive species introductions and changing global climate. Brown tree snake introduced to Guam; this is a priority biosecurity prevention species for Hawaiʻi. Photo: Lori Oberhofer, USDA. Pristine native forest around Lake Waiʻānapanapa, Maui. Photo: Jim Jacobi, USGS. Conservation of Our Native Biocultural Legacy in Hawai‘i: 2022 Status Report 67 Call to Action: Conservation Over the Next Decade Adapting to changing climate Climate change will alter every Hawaiian ecosystem. Transforming the practice of conservation to cope with the reality of accelerating ecological upheaval is an urgent undertaking for everyone in the field. Actions to restore past conditions are likely to become more difficult and expensive over time. Guiding the ecosystem changes underway through strategic interventions might create better outcomes, but will require long-term planning, experimentation, and collaboration. • Build an expanded vision of what futures are possible in a changing climate. Enhanced climate impact models, vulnerability assessments, scenario planning, and the RAD (Resist-Accept-Direct) framework are all useful for elucidating the drivers of ecosystem change, and can support conservation managers’ ability to intentionally manage for change. • Include biocultural resource needs and metrics in State, County, and private climate change mitigation planning. • Incorporate ecological values into planned responses to sea level rise. • Develop collaborative processes to prioritize, plan, and implement movement of species within and among islands to avoid climatically-driven extinction. • Foster peer-to-peer learning in Hawaiʻi and the larger Pacific to accelerate the innovation and uptake of climate resiliency efforts. • Incorporate climate change adaptation (resilience-building) and mitigation (GHG emissions reductions) across management plans and actions. Increasing public connection with conservation Hawaiʻi enjoys general public support for conservation. However, the connections between our biocultural resources, our economy, disaster preparedness, and other public priorities are not always well-understood or supported. While there are currently many conservation-based outreach and education programs in place, closer integration of those efforts and adding new components will help expand public knowledge and support of conservation actions more efficiently and effectively. • Expand, coordinate and increase the knowledge and respect for Hawaiʻi’s biocultural resources through education curricula and outreach efforts by government, schools, and other partners. • Connect people more effectively and easily to Hawaiʻi’s wonderful wild places and conservation action through increased media coverage, expanded outdoor activities for both residents and visitors, and fostering bioculturally sensitive ecotourism. • Highlight conservation success stories and the urgent need for community support and action through media releases and public forums. Porites coral bleaching offshore of Waimānalo, O‘ahu. Photo Dan A. Polhemu. Ecotour group viewing native forest birds. Photo: Rob Pacheco, Hawaiʻi Forest & Trail.