Educational interventions to promote self-regulated learning in vocational schools: A systematic review

Mejeh, Mathias; Grieder, Corinne Article Educational interventions to promote self-regulated learning in vocational schools: A systematic review International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training (IJRVET) Provided in Cooperation with: European Research Network in Vocational Education and Training (VETNET), European Educational Research Association Suggested Citation: Mejeh, Mathias; Grieder, Corinne (2025) : Educational interventions to promote self-regulated learning in vocational schools: A systematic review, International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training (IJRVET), ISSN 2197-8646, European Research Network in Vocational Education and Training (VETNET), European Educational Research Association, Bremen, Vol. 12, Iss. 2, pp. 192-235, https://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.12.2.3 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/331543 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ International Journal for Research in Vocational Education and Training (IJRVET) 2025, Vol. 12, Issue 2, 192–235 https://doi.org/10.13152/IJRVET.12.2.3 ISSN: 2197-8646 https://www.ijrvet.net Educational Interventions to Promote Self-Regulated Learning in Vocational Schools - A Systematic Review Mathias Mejeh1,2, Corinne Grieder2 1Zurich University of Teacher Education, Department for Research on Teaching Professions and Education Systems, Centre for School Improvement, Lagerstrasse 2, 8090 Zurich, Switzerland 2University of Bern, Institute of Educational Science, Department of Research in School and Instruction, Fabrikstrasse 8, 3012 Bern, Switzerland Received: 25 February 2024, Accepted: 21 November 2024 Abstract Purpose: In the evolving landscape of the 21st century, characterized by dynamic global challenges such as health crises, climate change, and rapid technological advancements, the imperative of lifelong learning has become more pronounced than ever. Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) plays a pivotal role in lifelong learning, involving independent, self-directed behaviors to enhance knowledge and skills. While the significance of SRL is widely acknowledged in the broader context of lifelong learning, its specific role in vocational schools is a critical aspect that requires careful investigation. In these specialized educational settings, effective SRL practices are not only integral to individual academic success but are also crucial for fostering the competencies essential for a thriving professional career. However, there is a need for a systematic analysis of how SRL is fostered within vocational schools. Despite its importance, the current best practices for promoting successful SRL in vocational schools remain underexplored. Therefore, this study aimed to systematically review intervention studies focused on changing educational practices related to SRL in vocational schools. Specifically, we addressed two key research questions: (1) What are the characteristics of intervention studies aimed at fostering SRL in vocational schools? and (2) What is the quality of these interventions in terms of their impact on promoting SRL? *Corresponding author: [email protected] 193 Mejeh, Grieder Methods: To address these questions, we conducted a systematic review of intervention studies focused on fostering SRL in the context of vocational education. Our review includes 11 studies, with 10 reporting positive effects of interventions promoting SRL. Findings: The findings highlight that collaborative and problem-solving approaches, along with learning environments emphasizing student autonomy, are effective methods for enhancing SRL. Additionally, the review underscores the importance of distinguishing between direct and indirect interventions to promote SRL in the classroom. The effectiveness of each approach is contingent on the specific context and student population. Conclusion: However, comparing and drawing conclusions from these studies presented challenges due to the limited similarity in outcome measures and variations in the quality of evidence. Future research should consider methodological adjustments to address the heterogeneity of intervention studies on SRL at the vocational school level, including the development of standardized assessment tools and more rigorous experimental designs to better evaluate the impact of SRL interventions. These adjustments are crucial for ensuring that vocational schools can effectively integrate SRL practices that not only align with academic goals but also prepare students for the demands of their professional careers. Keywords: Self-Regulated Learning, Vocational Schools, Intervention Studies, VET, Vocational Education and Training, Systematic Review 1 Introduction Vocational Education and Training (VET) has increasingly been recognized as a critical tool for addressing socio-economic challenges and integrating young individuals into the labor force as skilled professionals (Forster et al., 2016; Oswald-Egg & Renold, 2021; Powell & Solga, 2010). Unlike general education, which broadly cultivates learners' knowledge and skills in preparation for tertiary education (UNESCO, 2012), VET is more complex and varies widely across different forms, such as school-based programs, apprenticeships, and continuing education (Evans, 2020). Among the various approaches, the dual system is recognized as particularly effective, as it integrates general education with hands-on vocational training. This combination not only enhances lifelong learning but also promotes social integration and participation among young people (Aarkrog, 2005; Hoeckel & Schwartz, 2010; Hoffman & Schwartz, 2015; OECD, 2022). Since 2015, several European Union countries have transitioned their VET systems to the dual model, inspired by the successful examples set by Germany, Austria, and Switzerland (Cedefop, 2021; Deissinger & Gonon, 2021). The dual VET system has been credited with driving economic success, lowering youth unemployment rates, and facilitating smooth 194 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review transitions into the labor market through its structured, industry-aligned curriculum (Frey et al., 2012; Gonon, 2013; Hoeckel et al., 2009; Hoeckel & Schwartz, 2010; Hoffman & Schwartz, 2015; OECD, 2010; Strahm, 2014). Although attempts to establish similar systems globally have seen varying degrees of success (Christopoulou & Ryan, 2009; Pilz & Wiemann, 2021), the concept of a "dual apprenticeship"—linking formal education with workplace training— has gained recognition as a key component of effective vocational education (Valiente & Scandurra, 2017). This definition allows for a broader analysis beyond the traditional German-speaking countries, acknowledging significant international developments and policy innovations in many developed countries (Ryan, 2001). This short overview of the significance of the dual vocational education system demonstrates the importance of general education for a sustainable VET system. This is particularly relevant in light of the rapid pace of technological change and the emergence of megatrends such as automation, digitalization, and green energy, which are having a significant impact on the future of VET systems (Achtenhagen & Oldenbürger, 1996; Boldrini & Wüthrich, 2022; Seifried, 2002; Seufert, 2018). To address these challenges, governments and educational institutions are seeking to develop more flexible, industry-aligned curricula, and foster stronger partnerships between education and industry (Stalder & Clerc, 2019; Wettstein et al., 2014; Winther & Achtenhagen, 2009). In light of these challenges, VET systems must focus on not only developing specific jobrelated knowledge but also fostering interdisciplinary competencies like problem-solving, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration—skills that are increasingly crucial in today's rapidly changing world (Frey et al., 2014). Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) is essential for acquiring these competencies and is indispensable for success in both current vocational training and lifelong learning (Forster et al., 2016; Hanushek et al., 2017; Jossberger et al., 2010; Kirschner & Stoyanov, 2020; Rozendaal et al., 2003, 2005). Studies show that workers with strong SRL foundations and a commitment to continuous education are more adaptable to market changes and less prone to long-term unemployment (Dubs, 2018). Thus, the dual VET system not only equips students with necessary professional qualifications but also plays a critical role in fostering SRL (Valiente & Scandurra, 2017). Understanding how vocational students navigate job market challenges requires studying their transition into professional life, with vocational schools playing a key role in this preparation. With the importance of SRL in VET established, it is crucial to explore how this concept can be effectively implemented in vocational schools. This involves understanding the conditions that facilitate optimal SRL. As preparing young people for the labor market becomes an increasingly urgent goal for VET systems, the challenge lies in determining how SRL can be developed and promoted within vocational education. 195 Mejeh, Grieder 2 Self-RegulatedLearninginVocationalSchools SRL serves as a foundation for the development of sustainable knowledge construction and is therefore highly relevant in schools and classrooms as well as for lifelong learning (Anthonysamy et al., 2020; Bolhuis, 2003; Lüftenegger et al., 2012; UNESCO, 2022). SRL is viewed as a hierarchical, dynamic, and adaptive process in which learners analyze a task, set goals, and devise plans to complete the task. The use of various learning strategies and the influence of motivational and emotional factors are crucial for initiating and maintaining progress towards these goals. The learning process and goal attainment are regularly evaluated through metacognitive strategies, and the choice and effectiveness of self-regulatory strategies are contingent on the task and context of the learning environment (Greene et al., 2021). A crucial task in vocational education is to equip learners not only with specific jobrelated knowledge but also with interdisciplinary competencies such as critical thinking, collaboration, creative problem-solving, personal responsibility, adaptability, communication skills, and a commitment to lifelong learning (Asplund et al., 2021; Höpfer, 2017; OECD, 2016; Sembill, 2000). This highlights the importance of SRL in VET (Forster et al., 2016; Hanushek et al., 2017; Kirschner & Stoyanov, 2020). Therefore, vocational school instruction should be seen as a crucial component of VET, warranting continual improvement due to its lasting impact on learners' learning and behavior patterns (Höpfer, 2017). Several empirical studies have specifically focused on SRL within vocational schools. For instance, Sembill et al. (2007) examined the implementation of SRL in various settings at commercial vocational schools, finding that teaching SRL strategies led to increased learning motivation and problem-solving abilities among learners while maintaining technical knowledge. Other studies suggest that strategies like self-control, time management, and the regulation of motivation and concentration are viewed ambivalently by vocational learners during their training (Metzger, 2001; Metzger & Nüesch, 2011). However, it can be assumed that the use of learning strategies positively affects problem-solving abilities and expands learners' strategic repertoires (Metzger, 2014; Sembill, 1999; Wuttke, 1999). Hiltmann (2015) demonstrated that the ability to learn in a self-regulated manner positively influences learning time, with vocational learners using "if-then plans" performing more learning actions and investing more time in their studies. Effective use of learning strategies encourages vocational learners to take active initiative in their own learning, which is closely related to learning performance, motivation, and emotional dispositions (Tenberg, 2008). Furthermore, a strong sense of ownership of the learning process enables deeper information processing (Boekaerts & Minnaert, 2003; Rozendaal et al., 2005; Witteman, 1997). Motivation, as a key component of SRL, plays a critical role in both learning success in vocational education (Beck, 2000; Hardt et al., 1996; Nenniger & Wosnitza, 2000; Rosendahl & Straka, 2011) and job retention (Bergmann, 1992; Coomber & Barriball, 2007; Duraisingam et al., 2009; Rosser, 2004; Sembill, 1992). Rozendaal (2002) showed that the quality of 196 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review the learning environment influences the affective variables of SRL, with direct interventions increasing the motivation of vocational learners, leading to deeper information processing and reduced anxiety. However, feedback and assessment of learning processes, fundamental to SRL (Butler & Winne, 1995), are not fully implemented in basic vocational education (Rozendaal, 2002). For example, self-reflection elements are not frequently used, resulting in limited use of metacognitive regulation strategies (van Velzen, 2004; van Velzen & Tillema, 2004). The different objectives of vocational learners and teachers further illustrate this gap (Rozendaal et al., 2005). Nevertheless, when teachers encourage self-reflection, it can significantly influence learners' reflective thinking, with the learners' perception of the teacher being particularly relevant (van Velzen & Tillema, 2004). After reviewing the literature to date, several important aspects emerge that require further investigation. First, all of the cited studies above have been conducted exclusively in the Netherlands, Germany, or Switzerland. Consequently, it is crucial to explore the representation of SRL beyond these borders. Secondly, there is currently limited knowledge about the learning regulation of vocational students (Jossberger et al., 2015, 2018; Khaled et al., 2015). This is particularly concerning, as the self-regulation of cognitive, motivational, and emotional processes during practical and academic task performance in vocational education is critical to helping learners achieve effective learning outcomes (Boekaerts & Cascallar, 2006; de Bruijn & Leeman, 2011; Jossberger et al., 2010; van Grinsven & Tillema, 2006). External factors, such as the influence of teachers or the design of the learning environment, can significantly impact learners' SRL (Dignath & Veenman, 2021). This underscores the importance of a well-designed learning environment in fostering SRL among vocational learners. Thirdly, to accurately demonstrate the effects on the development of SRL in vocational schools, it is essential to identify studies where relevant interventions have been implemented (Gottfredson et al., 2015). Reviews on how SRL can be promoted through educational interventions already exist for different levels of education (e.g., Clark, 2012; Dent & Koenka, 2016; Dignath et al., 2008; Dignath & Büttner, 2008; Dignath & Veenman, 2021; Loyens et al., 2008; Richardson et al., 2012; Sitzmann & Ely, 2011). However, reviews focusing specifically on how SRL can be promoted through educational interventions in vocational schools have been lacking. 3 AimsandResearchQuestions Based on the aforementioned points, the goal of this study is to use previous intervention studies to identify and characterize effective methods for promoting SRL in vocational schools. This study is important because SRL is crucial for lifelong learning. By examining existing 197 Mejeh, Grieder evidence on the self-regulation of learning processes among vocational students, this study seeks to fill a critical gap in the literature. Intervention research plays a vital role in identifying the most effective teaching methods for promoting SRL in vocational schools. However, to the best of our knowledge, no systematic review has yet been conducted on intervention studies aimed at enhancing SRL in this specific context. To summarize, the current best practices for promoting successful SRL in vocational schools are not well understood. Therefore, the first step is to identify intervention studies that focus on changing educational practices related to SRL in vocational schools. The second step involves analyzing the characteristics of these studies. To achieve this, an exploratory systematic review of intervention research on SRL in the context of vocational education was conducted. The research questions for this review are as follows: 1. What are the characteristics of intervention studies aimed at fostering self-regulated learning in vocational schools (RQ1)? 2. What is the quality of intervention studies on the promotion of self-regulated learning in vocational schools (RQ2)? The second question is further divided into two sub-questions: a) What is the quality of the research designs? b) What is the quality of evidence provided by the studies found regarding the promotion of self-regulated learning in vocational schools? These research questions enable an analysis of which interventions effectively foster SRL, as well as the identification of limitations in these approaches. After reviewing the literature on SRL, vocational education and training, vocational schools, and interventions, the research questions were formulated according to the guidelines of the PICo system for qualitative studies (Miller & Forrest, 2001; Murdoch University, 2024). By evaluating the effectiveness of the interventions, it will be possible to draw conclusions about which interventions are most optimal for promoting SRL among vocational students. A broad scope ensures that all studies relevant to the research questions are included, with none excluded a priori (Muka et al., 2020). 4 Methodology The review was conducted following the method outlined by Boland et al. (2017). This method involves two different but related modes of searching: A scoping search and a main search for evidence. First, a preliminary literature search, known as a scoping search, was 198 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review conducted. The purpose of the scoping search was to provide an overview of the published literature and available information on the topic. Based on the findings of the scoping search, a clear search strategy was then developed. This strategy included setting inclusion and exclusion criteria, as well as establishing a screening and selection process to identify potential intervention studies for this review, which is referred to as the main search. 4.1 SearchStrategyandScreeningProcess The search strategy began with the creation of a comprehensive keyword list, encompassing synonyms for the terms "self-regulated learning", "vocational education", and "intervention". Using this list, a database-agnostic search string was developed which served as the foundation for database-specific queries. This search string was refined through collaborative revisions by the two authors. Subsequently, tailored search queries were constructed for each database to account for differences in syntax and indexing.1 The search was executed across several databases, including ERIC (OvidSP), APA PsycInfo (OvidSP), PSYNDEXplus Literature and Audiovisual Media (OvidSP), Web of Science (All Databases), Scopus, SocINDEX (EBSCOhost), International Bibliography of the Social Sciences (ProQuest), and Sociological Abstracts (ProQuest). These databases were selected due to their extensive coverage of literature in the fields of education, psychology, and social sciences, and their relevance to our research focus. The literature search was conducted in July 2024, with all records available up to the search date included. We applied no restrictions regarding the publication date, but only articles published in English were considered. The search yielded a total of 224 research articles published between 1988 and 20222. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flowchart in Figure 1 outlines the screening and selection process. No additional records were identified through other sources, such as grey literature. 1 The search string syntax is available upon request from the authors. 2 Two scoping queries were carried out initially. The first query yielded 1,645 unique hits, but this number was significantly reduced to 222 when we added the search term 'intervention' to our syntax. 199 Mejeh, Grieder Figure 1: PRISMA Flow Diagram of Included Studies (adapted from Moher et al., 2009)3 3 Full-text articles could have multiple reasons for exclusion; therefore, the sum of each reason together is > 16 after the first round for eligibility. Study Study ID Country Study focus Study design Study sample Intervention and comparator Means of data collection Study findings van Grinsven & Tillema (2006) 2 The Netherlands Analysis of student perceptions of their learning environment in relation to their motivation and learning strategies Quasi experiment with five different intervention groups: Traditional format group, open learning center group, independent group work group, project-oriented learning group, project-based learning group Traditional education group: n = 72 Open learning center group: n = 69 Independent group work group: n = 344 Project-oriented learning group: n = 72 Project-based learning group: n = 66 Five differently arranged learning programs, no control group(s) Questionnaires and a categorization scheme to analyze learning environments Student motivation had the greatest influence on the use of self-regulated learning strategies. Teachers’ behavior in the independent group work group, project-oriented learning group, and project-based learning group was seen as more conducive to learning compared to the other groups. The students in those groups experienced more autonomy, self-efficacy, and motivation than in the other groups, as the teachers were less focused on control and more on supporting student autonomy. Gunduz et al. (2016) 3Turkey Evaluation of effectiveness of a problem-based online learning environment Quasi-experiment with one intervention group, no control group (post-intervention measurement only) Performance task: n = 187 Self-evaluation form: question 1: n = 70 question 2: n = 59 question 3: n = 230 The intervention group participated in an online problem-based learning environment Performance task and self-evaluation form from students A positive influence on how to write a petition was a positive effect of the designed online problem-based environment; less interaction with each other and less participation from the students were negative effects. Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review 206 Study Study ID Country Study focus Study design Study sample Intervention and comparator Means of data collection Study findings Rush & Milburn (1988) 4 USA Evaluation of effectiveness of a reciprocal teachinga procedure of the metacognitive comprehension method Quasi-experiment with two intervention groups and two control groups (preand post-intervention measurement and follow-up measure after five weeks) n = 150 Intervention group one learned the metacognitive comprehension method through reciprocal teaching; intervention group two learned the metacognitive comprehension method through conventional teacher-centered whole-class instruction; control group one engaged in course-related reading activities; control group two engaged in nonreading course activities Reading comprehension task (The Cooperative English Test) Measurement immediately after the intervention showed the effectiveness of the intervention but did not favor either instructional format. Students in the reciprocal teaching group were more enthusiastic and involved, but the metacognitive comprehension method was not more effective compared to conventional teachercentered whole-class instruction. Intervention group two significantly outperformed both control groups on the Cooperative English Test. Tsai (2011) 5 Taiwan Effectiveness of a web-mediated self-regulated learning and collaborative learning course on students’ thoughts in regard to this course Quasi experiment with one intervention group (post-intervention measurement only) n = 64 The intervention group got exposed to a web-mediated self-regulated learning and collaborative learning course Questionnaire There was a positive effect on students’ thoughts, which were improved in regard to the web-meditated selfregulated learning and collaborative learning course. Tsai et al. (2013) 6Taiwan Investigation of effects of web-enabled problem-based learning and self-regulated learning on low achieving vocational students’ computing skills Quasi experiment with two intervention groups and one control group (preand post-intervention measurement) intervention group one: n = 23 intervention group two: n = 22 control group: n = 31 Intervention group one received problem-based and self-regulated learning online course; intervention group two received problem-based online course; the control group received face to face teaching in classroom Certificate examinations, which measured students’ computing skills in grades; gradepoint average (GPA) to measure the students’ learning progress Intervention group one had significantly better computing skills than intervention group two and control group. Mejeh, Grieder 207 Yang (2016) 7 Taiwan Analysis if selfregulated learning in on-site workshops and with an online learning community makes low foreign language achiever to become more autonomous learners Quasi-experiment with one intervention group, no control group (preand post-intervention measurement) n = 104 The intervention group signed up for a series of 18 ESP (English for specific purposes) workshops Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC); questionnaire about students’ beliefs in learner autonomy, self-regulated learning and ESP The intervention group had significant better post-intervention results than pre-intervention and developed learner autonomy. Tsai et al. (2011) 8Taiwan Effect of a course with web-enabled self-regulated learning on vocational students’ skills of applying functions of database management system Quasi-experiments with randomization; three intervention groups, no control group (preand post-intervention) intervention group one: n = 39 intervention group two: n = 36 intervention group three: n = 37 Intervention group one received ten arranged blended learning sessions with self-regulated learning aspects; group two received five arranged blended learning sessions with self-regulated learning aspects; intervention group three received five arranged blended learning sessions without self-regulated learning aspects Computer skills test (graded) before the intervention; questionnaire about student’s thoughts towards blended course and interventions concerning self-regulated learning Intervention group two had the highest grades in the database management system exams and most positive thoughts towards the intervention. Lee et al. (2010) 9Taiwan Effect of four different learning settings on students’ involvement in learning 2 x 2 factorial preand postintervention measurement intervention group one: n = 28 intervention group two: n = 25 intervention group three: n = 24 control group: n = 25 Intervention group one received self-regulated learning and problem-based learning approach; intervention group two received problem-based and no self-regulated learning approach; intervention group three received self-regulated and no problem-based approach; the control group received no selfregulated learning and no problembased learning approach Personal Involvement Inventory (PII) Significant increase in scores of involvement for the problem-based groups post-intervention measurement; significant increase in scores of involvement of the self-regulated learning post-intervention measurement. Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review 208 Mejeh & Held (2022) 10 Switzerland Investigate the development of SRL components over time and analyze the impact of an SRL-promoting learning environment compared to regular instruction Quasi experiment with tree intervention groups and four control groups (preand post-intervention measurement) intervention group n = 68 control group n = 91 Intervention group: - received a learning job (document that included all tasks to be completed) every 4 weeks - 4 to 5 20 min. input sessions with technical content of subjects - students created their learning process largely on their own - each student was supported by a personal coach and had a coaching meeting every 4 weeks control group: - attended regular classes with lessons in all subjects for 45 min. Long questionnaires (14 scales addressing the different components of SRL) at the beginning and end of the school year, and weekly short questionnaires (consisted of one item of the scales) Differences in dispositional changes in (meta)cognitive strategies like planning and elaboration within and between intervention and control group; the students’ disposition regarding planning increased significantly in the intervention group. Momentary metacognitive activity (e.g., repetition planning or monitoring) increases over time in the intervention group. Helm (2014) 11 Austria Examine the competence development of students in grade 9 Quasi experiment with 13 intervention groups and 14 control group (preand post-intervention measurement) Intervention group n = 285 Control group n = 317 Intervention group received the treatment while the traditional classes attended normal school lessons Students’ competence in Accountancy were measured with the standardized instrument "Knowledge Testing of Basic Knowledge of Bookkeeping" Differentiation, scaffolding, the use of "constructivist" tasks and metacognition were negatively related to Accountancy scores. Note. a "Reciprocal teaching is an instructional procedure designed to teach students cognitive strategies that might lead to improved reading comprehension" (Rosenshine & Meister, 1994, p. 479). Mejeh, Grieder 209 210 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review The two randomized studies did not report information about the concealment of allocation, and it was unclear if the students were blind to the intervention. Since there was no follow-up in either of the studies, this point was not applicable for the quality assessment. Apart from that, both studies fulfilled all quality criteria for randomized studies (Tufanaru et al., 2020). The methodological quality in terms of statistical analysis in the study with ID 9 could have been improved. They only performed independent t-tests, while their study design would have been improved if they added paired sample t-tests. Further, studies with ID 3 and ID 6 were missing statistical analysis and the description of the case studies in study with ID 1were almost completely absent. Table 4: Participant Characteristics Study Study ID Sample size Age (years) Female sex N Current education level M (SD) range Cattaneo & Boldrini (2017) 1 case 1: N = 38 case 2: N = 6 case 3: N = 136 case 4: N = 3 NS (NS) NS NS Case 1: First-year vocational students in a three-year long clothing design apprenticeship Case 2: Second-year vocational students, not stated how long the butcher apprenticeship takes Case 3: Second-year vocational students in three-year long office clerk apprenticeship Case 4: Nurse student, not stated in which year of her apprenticeship she is in and how long the apprenticeship takes van Grinsven & Tillema (2006) 2N = 623 NS (NS) 16 – 18 NS Second-year vocational education students, in their threeto four-year long vocational education Gunduz et al. (2016) 3N = 623 NS (NS) 16 – 18 NS Second-year vocational education students, in their threeto four-year long vocational education Rush & Milburn (1988) 4N = 150 NS (NS) NS 0 Students who were enrolled in a post-secondary technical diesel automotive training program; it is not stated how long their vocational education takes Tsai (2011) 5 N = 64 20 (NS) NS NS Second-year university students from the department of Security Management; it is not stated how long their vocational education takes Tsai et al. (2013) 6 N = 76 18.17 (NS) NS 48 First-year students from the department of business administration of a private vocational school; it is not stated how long their vocational education takes Yang (2016) 7 N = 104 NS (NS) 20 – 26 52 Students from technical or vocational universities; it is not stated how long their vocational education takes secondyear vocational students, enrolled in a course titled Tsai et al. (2011) 8 N = 112 19 (NS) NS 79 "Database management system"; it is not stated how long their vocational education takes Lee et al. (2010) 9 N = 102 NS (NS) NS 71 First-year students at a university of science and technology, enrolled in a course titled “packaged software and application; it is not stated how long their vocational education takes Mejeh & Held (2022) 10 N = 159 16.64 (2.23) NS 83 First school year at vocational school Helm (2014) 11 N = 602 14.5 (.76) NS 430 9th grade at vocational school Note. NS (not stated). Mejeh, Grieder 211 212 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review The quality assessment revealed that the included papers did not have the same design or the same type of numerical data for extracting and analyzing the results. Two studies used randomization of participants to the intervention or control group, while seven studies were quasiexperimental studies without randomization. Some of these were preand post-intervention measurements, while others were only post-intervention. Overall, there were limitations in the quality assessment regarding how the 11 studies were designed and conducted. They were partially reliable, particularly in regard to how they provided support in answering the research question. 5.3 DescriptionoftheStudies The authors of study ID 1 (Table 5) designed instructional scenarios with interventions based on student errors. The study primarily focused on whether the precise depiction of possible errors could assist vocational students in avoiding those mistakes. This led to four different study designs, each of which investigated a separate intervention. Case one found that the intervention group had higher test scores for analyzing errors compared to the control group in practical exercises. Case two was conducted as a pilot study and found that the analysis of a work-based video-recorded practice with a description of possible errors is a beneficial instructional strategy. Case three showed that the intervention group, which focused on the analysis of errors, had better average scores in listening to correct elements of consultation process and potential errors than the control group. Case four found that a nursing student and her tutors agreed that the video helped them identify errors that they would not have recognized in real practice. This led the tutors to change their way of giving feedback from a nonspecific, corrective to supportive feedback while the student became more accepting of feedback and increased her self-regulated reflection. 213 Mejeh, Grieder Table 5: Study Results From Cattaneo and Boldrini (2017) Study ID Study focus Outcomes 1 Case 1 test-score Test score for practical exercise IG (M/SD) 13.8 (4.0) CG (M/SD) 8.8 (5.0) Case 2 qualitative data Written and oral qualitative data from conversations between teachers and students The analysis of a work-based video-recorded practice with errors is a beneficial instructional strategy. The errors, which have been put on purpose into the video, can be an initial step for the students to rate their own errors Case 3 test-scorea Listing correct elements of procedure and potential errors t(134) = 5.1** Case 4 qualitative data Content analysis The tutors changed their way of giving feedback from a nonspecific, corrective to supportive feedback. The nurse student became more accepting for feedback and for the errors she made; student and tutors said that the video helped them to see errors which in real practice would not have been recognized Note. *p < .05, **p < .01 aThe authors only reported this t-test result; it remains unclear, where the data of the intervention and control group was. The study with ID 2 (Table 6) showed that the way an instructional design is planned matters. The focus was on vocational students' perception of their learning environment in relation to their motivation and learning strategies. Different learning environments had different impacts on students' use of SRL strategies. Students' motivation, which is influenced by the learning environment and vice versa, affected the use of SRL strategies the most, more than teachers' behavior and autonomy feeling of students. Table 6: Study Results From van Grinsven and Tilemma (2006) Study ID Study focus Students in different learning environment Autonomy Task value Supportive teacher behaviour 2 effects of learning environment variables on students experience for self-regulated learning traditional education -1.4 1.5 -1.2 open learning center -1.5 -1.3 -.7 independent group work .8 .3 1 project-oriented learning .2 -1.5 .1 project-based learning .7 .8 1.3 Note. Transformed beta weights of learning environments on the three aspects of students experience for self-regulated learning. The next study focused on the effectiveness of a problem-based online learning environment. This study, with ID 3 (Table 7), showed that a problem-based online learning environment 214 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review can be beneficial for students when they are provided with necessary informational resources, guidelines, a tool to collaborate with their colleagues, and when they are getting support from their teacher. The students got higher grades for a petition-writing task after they experienced the problem-based online learning approach and said in the questionnaire that this approach helped them become more confident in writing a petition. The study with ID 4 (table 7) primarily focused on whether a web mediated SRL and collaborative learning course had an effect on vocational students' thoughts regarding SRL and collaborative learning. This study showed that the intervention, a web-mediated self-regulated and collaborative learning course, was beneficial for the students. All 64 students said that the learning collaboration with other students was helpful or very helpful for developing their computing skills. Almost 90% thought that the SRL approach helped them develop a regular learning behavior, and almost all students concluded that the web-mediated selfregulated and collaborative learning course was a better or much better learning experience compared to traditional courses they took. Table 7: Study Results From Gunduz et al. (2016) and Tsai (2011) Study ID Study focus Scores given by the teacher Individual degree how much students learned Individual degree how confident the students felt writing a petition 3effectiveness of a problem-based online learning environment high: 78.1% intermediate: 19.8% low: 2.1% very well: 35.7% enough: 58.6% poor: 5.7% yes: 91.5% weak: 5.1% no: 3.4% 4 effectiveness of a web-mediated self-regulated learning and collaborative learning course very helpful: 56.3% helpful: 43.8% not very helpful: 0.0% did not use them: 0.0% very helpful: 48.4% helpful: 40.6% not very helpful: 9.4% did not use them: 1.6% much better: 35.9% better: 60.9% worse: 3.1% much worse: 0.0% Note. Distribution of students' responses in percent The primary focus of the next study was whether a reciprocal teaching procedure of a metacognitive comprehension method was effective. This study, with ID 5 (table 8), showed that two intervention groups, the reciprocal teaching group, and the whole-class instruction group, performed significantly better in the maintenance phase than the control group, which participated in normal course-related activities. However, five weeks after the intervention, no significant differences in the comprehension measure were found between the different groups. The reciprocal teaching group could not be favored compared to the conventional whole-class instruction group. In the post-intervention measurement, the conventional whole-class instruction group showed even statistically significant better results in the Cooperative English Test than the control group. Another study focused on the effects of web-enabled problem-based learning and SRL on low-achieving vocational students' computing skills. This study, with ID 6 (table 8), showed increased computing test scores for the intervention group in the long-term (measure was 36 months post-intervention). The intervention involved a web-based problem-based learning 215 Mejeh, Grieder and SRL environment. The results were statistically insignificant. Compared to the intervention group two, which only received the problem-based learning approach, the intervention group performed worse in the long-term and had a similar computing skill test score four months postintervention as the control group. The control group in particular was seen to be quite ineffective, a significant reduction in test scores was found at 36 months in comparison to four months postintervention. The study with ID 7 (table 8) had its focus on whether SRL in on-site workshops and with an online learning community makes low foreign language achievers become more autonomous learners. This study demonstrated that the students, who undertook the workshop in SRL of English for specific purposes with an online learning community, developed autonomy and improved their English reading and listening skills. The results were all statistically significant. There was no control group, however, which would have been a good comparator for the effect of the intervention. The next study primarily focused on whether a course with web enabled SRL had an effect on vocational students' skills of applying functions of database management system. This study, with ID 8 (table 8), found that a course with web enabled SRL had a positive effect on vocational students' skills of applying functions of a database management system. The students in the intervention group with five lessons of SRL and blended learning had higher average database test scores than those in the group with ten lessons of SRL or blended learning only. The study's results supported the hypothesis that a blended learning course with fewer online classes results in better learning effects and that SRL has a higher effect in a web-based learning environment than without this instructional method. The study also found that the intervention group with zero lessons of SRL had lower average database test scores than the intervention group with five lessons of SRL. The next study primarily focused on which of four different learning settings were effective on students' involvement in learning. This study, with ID 9 (table 8), showed that the group which received an intervention of problem-based learning and SRL had a statistically significant increase of their post-intervention involvement level compared to their pre-intervention involvement level. The study with ID 10 focused on whether a classroom structure intervention with "SRL-supportive structures" would foster SRL. The results showed that students' dispositions toward planning, elaboration, and learning with fellow students significantly improved in the intervention group, reflecting dispositional change. Additionally, planning, repetition, monitoring, regulation, and structuring an appropriate learning environment demonstrated situational development, revealing a significant interaction effect between time and the treatment. The study with ID 11 was the first to provide deeper insights into the effects of cooperative open learning (COOL). Students in the COOL intervention demonstrated higher competencies in Accountancy compared to the control group, which attended regular school lessons. 222 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review Hadwin & Oshige, 2011; Järvelä et al., 2016) and socially shared metacognitive regulation (De Backer et al., 2015; Iiskala et al., 2021; Volet et al., 2009). Another important finding from the summary of results was that promoting SRL skills was more of a means to an end, rather than the central focus of the intervention studies. Although SRL was applied in various forms, in most of the studies the emphasis was placed on measuring outcomes such as improved test scores, rather than promoting SRL strategies. However, the intervention studies did incorporate key elements of SRL promotion, such as prioritizing learners as problem-solvers, granting high levels of student participation and autonomy, utilizing project-based approaches, and encouraging collaborative group work on complex problems (Sembill et al., 2007). While all studies identified concepts for promoting SRL in vocational schools, the target group of the interventions remained mostly unclear. There was inconsistent reporting of participant ages among the studies, and information on the complete duration of vocational training was often missing. Given the demonstrated importance of participant characteristics in educational intervention studies (Steed & Kranski, 2020; Wong et al., 2015), this lack of detailed reporting could limit the understanding of the interventions' effectiveness. Consequently, the findings of this study confirm the importance of distinguishing between direct and indirect interventions to foster SRL in the classroom, a concept thoroughly examined in other educational contexts (Dignath & Veenman, 2021). Research has shown that both direct and indirect approaches can be effective in promoting SRL, but the effectiveness of each approach may depend on the specific context and student population. For instance, direct promotion may be more effective for students with limited prior experience with SRL, while indirect promotion may be more effective for students who have already developed some SRL skills and are motivated to use them (Dignath & Büttner, 2018; Perry et al., 2020). 6.2 StudyQuality The quality of evidence in studies investigating the promotion of SRL varies widely, as demonstrated by the analysis. The interventions showed positive effects, including improved test scores and the development of key skills such as autonomy and computational abilities, which are crucial for successful SRL (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011). However, there were concerns about the variability in outcome measures and the differing effect sizes across the 11 studies, which can be attributed to the diversity of study designs used. For example, the quasi-experimental approach for the non-randomized studies was interpreted differently across the papers. A quasi-experimental design is commonly used in educational research when randomization is not feasible, but it can lead to "numerous interpretation problems" 223 Mejeh, Grieder (Gribbons & Herman, 1996, p. 2). Authors could have provided more clarity on their interpretation of quasi-experiments when describing their methodology. In this review, various designs were identified, including post-intervention measurement only, preand post-intervention measurement, and even follow-up measurement. Notably, six studies did not include a control group, only intervention groups, yet still discussed the effectiveness of the interventions. This is a limitation because a reliable comparison, typically provided by a control group, was missing (Pressley & Harris, 1994). Another challenge was the generalization of the effectiveness of the interventions. As Gottfredson et al. (2015) describe, assessing effectiveness typically involves comparing the mean difference in the target variable between the intervention and control groups. To conclude that an intervention is effective, the intervention group should exhibit a statistically significant difference in mean values compared to the control group. For instance, rigorous preand post-intervention measurements are necessary to accurately assess whether students benefit from the intervention. The target variable should be measured before and after the intervention in such cases to determine whether it produced individual-level differences (Walton & Wilson, 2018). The quality of evidence in the intervention studies ranged from low to moderate, suggesting that the findings of individual studies should be interpreted with caution. The variation in study design and methodological quality makes it challenging to compare studies and draw definitive conclusions. 7 Implications,FutureResearchandLimitations From the analysis of the different intervention studies on the promotion of SRL in vocational schools, several implications can be derived. Firstly, a combination of direct and indirect approaches to promoting SRL has been found to be most effective in maximizing the potential benefits of interventions (Schuster et al., 2020, 2023). Future interventions in vocational schools should therefore incorporate both direct and indirect promotion of SRL. However, this approach may also present challenges that need to be carefully considered. The key challenge lies in finding the right balance between direct and indirect promotion for a particular student group, as the effectiveness can vary based on context and the characteristics of the student population. When analyzing the results of intervention studies, it is critical to consider the interaction between student aptitudes and the treatments provided. The effectiveness of an intervention is believed to be influenced by the fit between a student's abilities and the intervention they receive (Cronbach & Snow, 1977; Yeh, 2012). Based on their unique aptitudes, some students may respond more positively to an intervention (Snow, 1992). This suggests that the impact of an intervention may not be uniform across all students. Further research is needed to 224 Promoting SRL in Vocational Schools – A Systematic Review explore whether there are consistent differences in students' aptitudes that affect the success of the intervention. Secondly, both direct and indirect promotion of SRL are resource-demanding and timeconsuming, as they require the development of multiple intervention components, such as instructional materials, training programs, and assessment tools. To address this challenge, it may be beneficial to co-create the interventions with stakeholders, such as students and teachers, using design-based research or co-design methods (McKenney & Reeves, 2013; Penuel et al., 2022; Roschelle & Penuel, 2006). Thirdly, the overall quality of the studies was relatively low. While the outcome measurements were generally assumed to be valid, there may have been room for improvement in the statistical analyses. This issue highlights a broader problem in educational intervention research: A lack of reported information and transparency in the use of statistical methods. As a result, it becomes challenging to generate reliable and generalizable meta-analytic results that can be applied to educational practice, particularly in research on SRL (CorneliusWhite, 2007; Dent & Koenka, 2016; Dignath & Büttner, 2008; Dignath & Veenman, 2021; Jansen et al., 2019; Panadero, 2017; Sitzman & Ely, 2011). In future studies, it is crucial to prioritize providing all necessary information for thorough investigation and to use appropriate statistical procedures. Moreover, since the quality of meta-analytic data depends on the practices in primary research, primary researchers should be even more diligent in reporting their research design, methodology, and statistical analyses with thoroughness and care (Ahn et al., 2012). Preregistered studies could be one potential solution to address this issue (Anderson et al., 2019; Gehlbach & Robinson, 2018). The findings should be considered by taking into account some limitations of the study. First, only a few studies were identified that could be included in the analysis. This limitation may be attributed, on the one hand, to the exclusion of gray literature from the analysis. On the other hand, the diversity of VET systems worldwide (Cedefop, 2021; Pilz, 2016; Valiente & Scandurra, 2017) might have resulted in SRL being promoted in different ways, making it difficult to identify consistent patterns. Another limitation of this study is the exclusive focus on English-language publications, which may have led to the exclusion of programs and interventions aimed at promoting SRL that were developed, implemented, and tested in other national languages. Consequently, valuable insights from studies conducted in different language regions might not have been captured in our analysis. Secondly, a meta-analysis was not conducted after data synthesis for two main reasons: The predefined scope of the work and the lack of homogeneity among the studies (Boland et al., 2017). The diverse outcomes and intervention programs made meaningful comparisons impossible, as vocational students were exposed to different interventions over varying time periods. 225 Mejeh, Grieder 8 Conclusion Based on the available research, it appears that the promotion of SRL in VET has not been extensively explored by researchers. The limited empirical evidence and theoretical frameworks suggest that more research is necessary to better understand and address this subject. Further research could provide valuable insights and contribute to advancing both knowledge and practice in this area. VET is intended to equip and empower young people with the knowledge and skills needed to learn and work autonomously, preparing them for employment in today's dynamically changing world (Persico et al., 2015). SRL in VET is crucial for students to actively learn from practical task experiences. 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