Interlinear Texts from Indonesia

edited by Ronit RICCI and Fadhli LUKMAN • 25.3 (2025) ISSN 0806-198X DOI 10.5617/jais.12772 ACROSS THE MUSLIM WORLD A Comparative Perspective Themed Section Contents FADHLI LUKMAN and RONIT RICCI Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 5 A.C.S. PEACOCK Medieval Eastern Turkish Interlinear Translation: Their Manuscripts, Audience, and Persian Background................................................................................... 19 AGLAIA IANKOVSKAIA A World of Words and Words for the World: Encyclopaedism and Language Learning in a 19th-century Arabic-Malay Vocabulary ...................................... 51 RAPHAEL MICHAELI Interlinear Translation in Textual Performance: The Usage of Swahili in Arabic Mawlid Readings from East Africa ................................................................... 73 FADHLI LUKMAN Surau Texts Translated: Translation in Form, Textual Analysis in Substance .................. 103 MIDORI KAWASHIMA Ingenuity Between the Lines: Interlinear Translation from Arabic to Malay to Vernacular in Mindanao ................................................................................................ 123 MUHAMMAD DLUHA LUTHFILLAH Not the Utawi You Think You Know: Some Preliminary Notes on Early Javanese Interlinear Translations ...................................................................................... 175 RONIT RICCI Interlinear Texts from Indonesia: Preliminary Thoughts on Their Study ......................... 197 Notes on Contributors ....................................................................................................... 221 Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 © Ronit Ricci, Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Australian National University ISSN 0806-198X DOI 10.5617/jais.12699 Interlinear Texts from Indonesia: Preliminary Thoughts on Their Study RONIT RICCI (Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Australian National University)1 Abstract Interlinear translations have been known in Indonesia’s Islamic communities since at least the late 16th century with extant evidence in the form of manuscripts pointing to their ongoing popularity in the following centuries. Such translations encompass important works composed in Arabic and rendered in the languages of the archipelago, and they touch upon key fields of knowledge, among them Islamic law, theology and grammar. But has this textual abundance been matched by the range of scholarly writings produced about this phenomenon? This paper asks if and how interlinear texts from Indonesia were studied by scholars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It does not attempt to offer an exhaustive survey but rather raises questions about how interlinear translations were perceived and points to possible trends that have helped shape the scholarly context for the Textual Microcosms project, currently exploring interlinear translation across the Indonesian-Malay world. Keywords: Indonesia, Java, Interlinear translation, colonial scholarship, pesantren Introduction Indonesia is a vast, multilingual and multicultural archipelago and has been a crossroads of religious ideas and practices for many centuries. The history of Islam in the region goes back to at least the 13th century and likely earlier and Islam is now the religion of approximately 90% of Indonesia’s citizens. Arabic texts, above all the Qur’an but also legal, ritual, historical and hagiographical texts of diverse origins in their original, adapted and translated forms played a central role in the process of Islamization which unfolded gradually across the region. In the long process of Islamization translation and education played major roles. Interlinear translation—the addition of a translation in between the lines of a text—reflected 1 I thank the Israel Science Foundation (grant no. 2009/19) and the European Research Council Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Grant agreement No. CoG 101001731) for generously funding the research on which this study is based. My thanks go also to all participants in the “Interlinear Translation Across the Muslim World” workshop, to my co-editor Dr Fadhli Lukman and to Tony Day, for their insightful and constructive comments. Ronit Ricci • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 198 a linking of the two as it was used to teach both the Arabic language and the doctrines and rituals of the faith. This article emerged from on-going research on interlinear translation in the IndonesianMalay world, understood as a translation method, a historical and living practice, and a site of a range of encounters. A site where two languages meet one another, where ideas, beliefs and textual histories of one culture approach another’s, teacher and disciple interact, and colors, ink types, scripts and frames structure visual encounters on a page. How was this phenomenon studied by others, especially early on, and what assumptions about it might we have inherited, I wondered. Interlinear translations have been known in Indonesia’s Islamic communities for several centuries with extant evidence in the form of manuscripts pointing to their ongoing popularity from the late sixteenth century. Such translations encompass important works composed in Arabic and rendered in the languages of the archipelago, and they touch upon key fields of knowledge, among them Islamic law, theology, sufism and grammar.2 In thinking about interlinear translation from Arabic to local languages two initial questions that emerge are which languages were used to produce the translations and how significant were Islamic interlinear translations in the Indonesian archipelago.3 Within the vast, diverse and multi-lingual archipelago the two languages that stand out are Malay and Javanese, used more often than other languages to provide an interlinear translation of Arabic texts, although translations into Sundanese, Bugis, Makassarese, Madurese and additional languages were produced as well.4 Regarding the significance of interlinear translations from this region two types of evidence stand out in particular: chronological and quantitative. I begin with chronology. One of the earliest known Arabic-Malay interlinear exemplars is found in a manuscript of Islamic Creed (ʿAqāʾid) by al-Nasafī dated 1590, while the Arabic to Malay al-Burda was inscribed in 1600 at the latest.5 Indonesian manuscripts from the sixteenth century are rare, making both of these manuscripts among the oldest Malay (and more generally Indonesian) manuscripts of any genre extant. Other early examples include early 17th century fragments from the Arabic poem Badʾi al-āmāli, a beginner’s treatise on theology with interlinear Malay translation, and an early 18th century treatise on marriage, Aḥkām al-nikāḥ, also with 2 Azyumardi Azra, “Naskah Terjemahan Antarbaris: Kontribusi Kreatif Dunia Islam Melayu-Indonesia.” In Sadur: Sejarah Terjemahan di Indonesia dan Malaysia, ed. Henri Chambert-Loir (Gramedia, 2009, 435–443. 3 Using “Indonesia,” and also “the Indonesian archipelago” are of course anachronisms as the state was founded in 1945, but I will use them here for the sake of brevity and convenience. There are additional, non-Islamic traditions of interlinear translation in the archipelago, however in this article my focus is for the most part on Islamic texts. 4 Malay was the most important language to the spread of Islam in the region, a lingua franca of trade, travel, diplomacy and religious teaching. Javanese was the language of the largest ethnic group and one that possessed a literary and religious writing tradition going back to at least the 9th century. 5 On the former see S. M. N. Al-Attas, The Oldest Known Malay Manuscript: a 16th century Malay Translation of the ‘Aqā’id of AlNasafī (University of Malaya, 1988). On the latter see G.W. J. Drewes, Een 16de Eeuwse Maleische Vertaling van de Burda van al-Busiri (Arabisch Lofdicht op Mohammad) (Martinus Nijhoff, 1955). Interlinear Texts from Indonesia • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 199 interlinear Malay translation.6 In the case of Arabic to Javanese, the earliest known exemplar of interlinear translation from Arabic is said to be the Masāʾil al-taʿlīm, dated 1623 at the latest and housed at the British Library (see Fig. 1).7 Another, possibly even earlier example is a copy of al-Īḍāḥ from the collection of Jan Theunisz (d. 1638) currently at the Library of the University of Amsterdam.8 Both are works on jurisprudence (fiqh). The fact that some of the earliest surviving manuscripts still extant from the archipelago are in the form of interlinear translations is telling and suggests this form of writing may have been among the first to circulate as Islam was taking hold in the region. At the very least these dated manuscripts 6 Both are discussed by Ph. S. van Ronkel, on which see more below. Ph. S. van Ronkel, “Account of Six Malay Manuscripts of the Cambridge University Library,” Bijdragen tot de taal-, landen volkenkunde 46, no. 1 (1896): 1–53, doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/22134379-90000076. There are also examples from the archipelago of early interlinear translations from Persian into Malay, but these lie outside the purview of this article. On such examples see Majid Daneshgar, “Persianate Aspects of the Indonesian-Malay World: Some Rare Manuscripts in the Leiden University Library,” Dabir, no. 8 (2021): 51–78. 7 Bernard Arps and Annabel Teh Gallop, Golden Letters: Writing Traditions of Indonesia/Surat Emas: Budaya Tulis di Indonesia (The British Library; Yayasan Lontar, 1991), 100; I. Yahya, M.A.K. Hassan, dan Farkhan, Penerjemahan Manuskrip Masā’il at-Ta‘līm ke dalam Aksara Pegon pada Abad ke-17 M (IAIN Surakarta Press, 2018). 8 This is manuscript I H 1. Muhammad Dluha Lutfillah, Personal communication, January 2025. Fig. 1 Masāʾil al-taʿlīm, Arabic with Javanese translation and notes, 1623. British Library, Sloane 2645, ff. 6v–7r Ronit Ricci • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 200 offer concrete evidence for interlinear translations having been created and read during this early period. In addition to the chronologically important evidence of very early surviving manuscripts there is quantitative evidence of the prevalence of interlinear translation from libraries at Islamic boarding schools (pesantren in Java, surau in Sumatra) whose collections have been digitized by the Endangered Archives Programme and DREAMSEA initiatives, as well as from an in-progress database that draws on Indonesian manuscript collections in the British Library, Leiden University, the National Library of Indonesia, and more (for an example see Fig. 2).9 Fig. 2 Nazm poem. Arabic with Malay translation, 1870s, Palembang, Sumatra. DS 0005 00002 9 For the Endangered Archives Programme see https://eap.bl.uk/. For pesantren collections see, for example, https://eap.bl.uk/collection/EAP061-1 (from Langitan) and https://eap.bl.uk/collection/ EAP061-2 (Kranji). For DREAMSEA see https://dreamsea.co/. Interlinear Texts from Indonesia • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 201 Hence we know that interlinear translations circulated early on and that, in certain educational contexts, they were numerous. We also know that most extant manuscripts in Indonesia generally (and in collections of Indonesian manuscripts outside Indonesia, e.g., in Leiden, Kuala Lumpur, London), and also specifically those from pesantren, date from the 19th century. This is important because the height of colonial scholarly production about Indonesian religions, languages and cultures was in the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries, suggesting that there was no dearth of interlinear translations to be examined and studied during this period. Did this phenomenon inspire interest and curiosity among scholars? What evidence is available on inquiries into the practice and its implications? To consider these questions this article explores how interlinear translation was addressed in scholarship on Indonesia, with a focus on the 19th and early 20th centuries: what was written about it, and by whom? How was the practice described and understood? What significance was attached to it, if any? It offers a preliminary survey and tentative thoughts about how interlinear translations were perceived during this period and points to possible trends that have helped shape the scholarly context for the Textual Microcosms project, currently exploring interlinear translation across the Indonesian-Malay world.10 Where are the Interlinear Translations? Working within the framework of Textual Microcosms and considering various approaches to the study of interlinear translation raised the question of how earlier researchers viewed these texts. The search for interlinear texts and for their explication and analysis in scholarship turned out to be more challenging than I had expected, as outlined in the following pages. In what may be one of the early mentions of interlinear translation in a scholarly publication the famed Dutch linguist H. N. van der Tuuk, writing in the Leiden-based journal Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde (BKI) in 1866, mentioned an Arabic to Malay interlinear translation of al-Samarkandi’s Bayān ʿaqīdah al-uṣūl (commonly known in Indonesia by its author’s name) in a brief report he published on various Malay manuscripts.11 There was no detailed description or discussion, but the author was clearly familiar with this popular text and noted that interlinear translations of al-Samarkandi into Javanese in west Java were “numerous” and that there was also, in Batavia, a commentary on the text which had an interlinear translation in Javanese. Finally, he mentioned that he was in the possession of two such commentaries in Sundanese.12 Based on this fleeting note we can conclude that 10 For more on Textual Microcosms, a European Research Council Horizon 2020 project (CoG 101001731) see https://textualmicrocosms.huji.ac.il/. 11 H. N. van der Tuuk, “Aanteekeningen,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde 13, no.1 (1866): 466–467. This was in fact a set of “Notes.” Mention of the interlinear translation text occurred within a survey of various manuscripts, including a section on manuscripts from the Indian Office in London that were previously held at the East India House. 12 Sundanese is spoken in the western part of Java. It is not clear from Van der Tuuk description whether Ronit Ricci • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 202 Van der Tuuk was familiar with the phenomenon, with interlinear translations from Arabic into two or three languages (Malay, Javanese, possibly Sundanese), and with their popularity. There is nothing in his brief paragraph that expresses any surprise or special interest or insight. Fifteen years later, writing in the same journal, the philologist A. W. T. Juynboll discussed an Arabic to Javanese interlinear translation of the same text, which he had translated into Dutch. His article, which contained only two pages written by him and ten pages of the interlinear text, was titled “A Muslim catechism in Arabic with a Javanese interlinear translation in Pegon script.”13 All we learn about the manuscript on which his translation was based is that it was brought by one of his students from Java to Holland, and that large parts of it were eaten up by ants.14 Although Juynboll highlighted the interlinear translation in his article’s title, he seemed interested in authorship, content and textual versions but said nothing of the translation method, its uses or implications. The Dutch translation he produced referred only to the Arabic text, ignoring the potential meanings and nuances of the Javanese interlinear translation and its use as a pedagogical and cultural phenomenon. Although this remains unacknowledged, the Dutch in fact replaced the Javanese as the translation language. In the same BKI volume Juynboll published three more brief articles on the Samarkandi, titled “The Samarkandi Cathechism Reviewed” parts I, II and III.15 In the first he explained that he recently came across a manuscript with the Arabic Samarkandi text and a commentary on it that helped him better understand it and therefore he was able to improve his earlier Dutch translation and he decided to publish this Arabic text. In part II he republished his Dutch translation, and in part III are found his notes, which address several points appearing in the Arabic text and also discussed in the commentary (e.g., the angels, God’s throne, God’s oneness). No further mention is made of the interlinear translation and one can contrast the ongoing interest of Juynboll in the Arabic text and his attempts to read and re-read it, along with the helpful commentary (which could have been compared to the Javanese translation, asking, for example, if there were any echoes of the commentary within the translation) with the Sundanese text contains an interlinear translation or just commentaries. Van der Tuuk, “Aanteekeningen,” 467. 13 A.W.T. Juynboll, “Een Moslimsche catechismus in her Arabisch met eene Javaansche interlineare vertaling in pegonschrift,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, no. 29 (1881): 215–227. Juynboll wrote that “Since the Arabic text is not entirely complete, and there are also gaps in the Javanese interlinear translation, I have tried to consult more manuscripts of this work, but so far without result,” a comment that shows that he likely relied at least somewhat on the translation to understand the Arabic. “Nevertheless,” he continued, “I believe that this edition should not be postponed, but on the contrary can be useful, since for many people there may be a good opportunity to compare other copies with the text given here, so that this provisional edition can soon be replaced by a better one. That is why I only give here the Arabic and Javanese text with a simple translation, without further explanation, which will certainly not be lacking in a later edition.” Ibid, 215. 14 The translation into Dutch appears in the same volume: A.W.T. Juynboll, “Een Moslimsche catechismus in het Arabisch met eene Javaansche interlineare vertaling in pegonschrift uitgegeven en in het Nederlansch vertaald,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, no. 29 (1881): 229–231. 15 A.W.T. Juynboll, “Samarkandi’s Catechismus opnieuw besproken,” I, II, III, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, no. 29 (1881): 267–274, 275–278, 279–284, respectively. Interlinear Texts from Indonesia • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 203 his silence on the Javanese rendering of this important work to which, at least in these writings, he did not seem to attach significance. It is worthy of note that in both the initial article (see note 13) and in his “Review part I” Juynboll expressed some hesitation about publishing on al-Samarkandi without reviewing and comparing additional exemplars for detail and depth but decided nonetheless to go forward with the rationale that even partial scholarship on these texts is important and would assist others with access to similar sources, yet none of his considerations touch on the existence of the interlinear translation. During approximately the same period the work of Ph. S. van Ronkel stands out for his interest in the practice and his attentiveness to the detail that is among the hallmarks of interlinear translation. In an 1896 article describing six manuscripts housed at the Cambridge University library he discussed two that included interlinear texts and commented in detail on several of their dimensions.16 Possibly following that work, as well as an examination of additional manuscripts he encountered, Van Ronkel several years later (1899) published what constituted a pioneering attempt to survey the interlinear practice and map its far-reaching effects.17 Van Ronkel’s main claim, based on a range of interlinear translation examples, was that there was a striking uniformity in the way Malay scholars and scribes translated Arabic words, idioms, and grammatical particles, such as prepositions, into Malay. He showed how they also tended to standardize the way in which markers of gender, number, and tense— omnipresent in Arabic but not in Malay—were rendered in a manner that could be understood and internalized by the texts’ audiences. Further, he claimed that interlinear translation not only impacted content and the way vocabulary was appropriated or adapted in a new language and culture, but also that such translations were a powerful influence on recasting the more subtle realm of Malay syntax. For example, he found that the Arabic preposition bi was consistently translated as dengan, and so the phrase bismillāh (in the name of God) was translated into Malay as dengan nama Allah, rather than the conventional atas nama Allah. Moreover, Van Ronkel showed also how various irregular constructions in Malay can be understood if retranslated (i.e., “translated backwards”) into Arabic. Such patterns were then gradually assimilated into texts that were not interlinear translations, generalized and incorporated into the Malay language, and gaining a life of their own that was no longer dependent on a detailed translation strategy. Using Arabic syntax to write Malay thus gradually became more habitual, so much so that it is clearly visible in examples taken from the Malay hikayat genre, often recounting tales of love, adventure, and travel that have little to do explicitly with religion.18 16 Van Ronkel, “Account of Six Malay Manuscripts,” 1–53. 17 Ph. S. van Ronkel, Mengenai Pengaruh Tatakalimat Arab Terhadap Tatakalimat Melayu, trans. A. Ikram, Seri Terjemahan Karangan-karangan Belanda (Bhratara, 1977). First published as “Over de Invloed der Arabische Syntaxis op de Maleische,” Tijdschrift voor Indische TaalLanden Volkenkunde, no. 41 (1899): 498–528. 18 A similar process was most likely taking shape in Javanese, through interlinear translations from Arabic. For a discussion of an example that points to how “interlinear translation Javanese” was employed in Javanese-only literature, see Ronit Ricci, “Mediating the Maulid: Interlinear Translations of the Maulid Syaraf al-Anām Across the Indonesian-Malay World,” Indonesia and the Malay World 51, no.150 (2023): Ronit Ricci • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 210 detailed overview of pesantren education yet it did not engage with the widespread practice of interlinear translation and, more generally, the author was unable to learn much of substance of the Javano-Islamic pedagogical system. For example, in a section describing the langgars (small houses of worship and study where youngsters often begun their educational journey), Brumund wrote that “it is said that there are thirteen Korans, at least parts of the Koran translated into Javanese and written with Arabic characters. I have never come across them. In Samarang, I am told that someone saw an Arabic Koran with an interlinear partial Javanese translation. Another was recently discovered elsewhere.”47 Discussing the students at a pesantren in Langkong he claimed that they were taught to read and write Arabic “more or less mechanically” and that they “usually do not understand anything of what they read; now and then the haji gives the meaning and through this they then get some understanding, but very imperfect, incomplete and inaccurate.”48 The author repeatedly mentioned his surprise and dismay that the kyais he met did not seem to know anything or be able to explain to him what he wanted to hear, about their institutions, text books and pedagogy, but he also mentioned he had only basic Malay (and this while studying a Javanese system) and it did not seem to occur to him that the kyais may not have wanted to engage with him on religious matters. His approach to what he found was summed up well in the following statement: “Whichever pesantren you visit, they can only show you the Koran, which they do not understand, as well as the kitabs, which contain a number of prescriptions of dry and burdensome religious ceremonies.”49 Brumund’s study points to some of the limits of colonial research during this period: barriers of language, the difficulty of attaining certain types of information and an ideological bias that prevented him from seeing anything useful or productive in this particular system. As far as interlinear translations go, he was aware of their existence and possibly also of their use in some cases, and he made many assumptions about the pedagogical institutions in which these translations played a major role, but he was unable to gain access to them, both physically and in terms of the translations’ significance. Where are the Interlinear Translations? Part II: Manuscript Catalogues In addition to articles and books, a separate yet related body of works to examine when considering scholarship on interlinear translation are catalogues of Indonesian manuscripts. Such catalogues, assembled since around the mid-19th century, were sometimes written by colonial scholar-administrators, often the same figures who also wrote articles and books about their findings (e.g., Van der Tuuk). Catalogues, by definition, categorize the manuscripts according to certain criteria (be it language, region, collector, topic, genre, etc.) educational institutions in Java, cited in Dhofier, Tradisi Pesantren, 64. On this history of native education see also J.A. van der Chijs, “Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis van het Inlandsch Onderwijs in NederlandschIndië. Aan officiële bronnen ontleend,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land en Volkenkunde, no. 16 (1864): 212–323. 47 Brumund, Het Volksonderwijs onder de Javanen, 13. 48 Brumund, Het Volksonderwijs onder de Javanen, 19. 49 Brumund, Het Volksonderwijs onder de Javanen, 25. Interlinear Texts from Indonesia • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 211 and tend to offer only brief information. In both early and more recent catalogues interlinear translation does not form a category of analysis or of listing. At times the existence of such a translation is not even mentioned in item descriptions or is mentioned as such with little detail or none at all. For example, in a recent catalogue of manuscripts from West Kalimantan, a compilation of Arabic grammatical texts is described as written in the Arabic language and Arabic script without noting that it contains an interlinear translation into Javanese. The number of lines per page is noted as between five to nine, thus discounting the lines of translation. Interestingly, when the opening lines of the manuscript are quoted as part of the entry, the Arabic appears followed by the Javanese translation in parentheses, including the Javanese “code word” utawi that in such translations signals the subject of the Arabic nominal sentence.50 A reader familiar with the interlinear model might well recognize these brief lines as indicating the existence of an interlinear translation of the grammatical work but for others it is only the photo of the manuscript page that clarifies this fact (see Fig. 3). Since most catalogue entries do not include a photo, the likelihood of missing relevant items is not negligible.51 However, it is important to note that in some cases an interlinear translation (terjemahan antarbaris) is explicitly noted while in others there is mention of two languages, e.g., Arabic and Malay, but the conjunction “and” remains ambiguous as there are various ways in which a text can be composed of two languages and interlinear translation is but one of them. Whether or not the addition of an interlinear translation to a text or several texts within a bound manuscript was noted by the catalogue compiler or not would certainly have an effect on the availability of such texts for study and even of the awareness of their existence by future generations of scholars. And even if scholars wished to study the phenomenon it was often difficult to locate and assess the relevant texts based on the catalogues. An in-depth discussion of this aspect is beyond my scope but I will offer one example in order to make the point.52 In the descriptive, four-volume catalogue of Balinese, Javanese and Sasak manuscripts in Van der Tuuk’s collection published by Brandes beginning in 1901 there are 1658 items in total and only four mentions of interlinear translations (three in volume 1, one in volume 2, none in volumes 3 and 4).53 How to explain this? The issue of noticing and/or mentioning 50 On the historical development of the use of utawi see Muhammad Dluha Lutfillah’s article in the present issue. 51 Titik Pudjiastuti, ed. Naskah-naskah Kolesksi Masyarakat Indonesia Tengah Pontianak-Kalimantan Barat (Perpusnas Press, 2020), 33–34. For additional examples see p. 60, 80. 52 There are several notable exceptions, all relatively recent, among them the catalogues compiled by Pigeaud, Florida, and Ricklefs, Voorhoeve and Gallop, all of whom paid attention to the interlinear phenomenon and noted it, often with precision and nuance. As noted above other catalogues, including the one for West Kalimantan, also documented interlinear translation, but at times inconsistently. 53 J. Brandes, Beschrijving der Javaansche, Balineesche en Sasaksche Handschriften aangetroffen in de nalatenschap van Dr. H. N. van der Tuuk, en door hem vermaakt aan de Leidsche Universiteitsbibliotheek, 4 delen (Batavia en Weltevreden: Landsdrukkerij, 1901–1926). Ronit Ricci • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 212 Fig. 3 Kompilasi Tata Bahasa Arab (Arabic Grammar Compilation), Abdurrahman Husein al-Falugha Collection, Pontianak, West Kalimantan BAH/17/AHF/I/PON. In Pudjiastuti 2020: 34. interlinear translation is in part an issue of the terminology employed in scholarship and all the more so in catalogues that dedicate little space to each manuscript, and so the question of whether “interlinear” or a related term appears at all in a concise entry signals the difference between knowing, as a reader, that a text was interlinear (or followed a similar model) or not being aware of the fact. There has been a great deal of variability in terminology related to the interlinear practice, i.e., translation, glosses, interpretation, commentary and notes, which makes even searchable catalogues and databases difficult to assess and use for the purpose of identifying interlinear translations. The variety of terms reflects, in addition to idiosyncratic choices by compilers, perceptions of translation that have shifted over time and the ways different languages depict the practice: the complexity of what might seem like “translation” but upon a closer look branches off into glosses, notes, interpretation, maarti or kitab gandhul.54 In order to better assess the actual number of interlinear texts in Brandes’ 54 The latter two terms are examples of indigenous terminology that in no way engages with the idea of lines. Maarti (Balinese, to give meaning) refers to typically Old Javanese to Balinese translations of Indic texts that are inscribed on palm leaves (lontar), with small dots connecting between original and translation; kitab gandhul refers to Javanese translation between the lines of an Arabic text in which the Interlinear Texts from Indonesia • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 213 catalogue one would need to search for these different terms, and likely additional ones, closely examine the possibly-relevant entries, and reach tentative conclusions as a truly clear picture would be unlikely to emerge based on the available information.55 Preliminary Thoughts: Interlinear Translation and Scholarship on Indonesia This article emerged out of interest in how interlinear translation in the Indonesian-Malay world had been studied, especially early on, and what assumptions about it might have been inherited by those studying this phenomenon in the present. My initial search for secondary sources did not produce much, and so the question remained: where are the interlinear texts, and writings about them, hiding within scholarship on Indonesia? The examples discussed, on the whole, do not point to much interest in interlinear translation, even among scholars writing about Islamic manuscripts and educational contexts. Mine was by necessity a partial and rather tentative sample. Still, I believe it needs to be viewed within the general, broad scholarship produced about Indonesian religious and literary writings during the particular time period and also beyond it: interlinear translations, despite their abundance, the wealth of linguistic, historical and cultural information they can offer, and their importance as a method of teaching, learning and transmitting religioustextual traditions, including from early on in the process of Islamization in the IndonesianMalay world, have been little studied. This is especially striking when considered within the broader framework of (primarily Dutch) colonial and postcolonial philology which produced numerous, and often systematic textual and linguistic studies of Indonesian writings.56 Even studies that focused on translations from Arabic into Malay, or the influence of Arabic on the Malay language, tended to ignore or marginalize the interlinear model.57 The compilers of Javanese words “hang” or “dangle” (gandhul) from the Arabic ones. 55 In the more recent past, with many collections undergoing digitization, the availability of images makes things clearer, however even then searches are hampered by the use of multiple terms and, in some repositories, the neglect to employ “interlinear” as a descriptive category. Filtering collections by the number of languages appearing in a manuscript, sometimes the only hint that interlinearity may be present, is insufficient and produces many “false positives” that are not interlinear. 56 Examples include J. Gonda, Sanskrit in Indonesia (International Academy of Indian Culture, 1952); C. Hooykaas, The Old-Javanese Ramayana Kakawin with Special Reference to the Problem of Interpolation in Kakawins (Martinus Nijhoff, 1955); William Marsden, A Grammar of the Malayan Language, with an introduction and praxis (London: Cox and Baylis, 1812); Th. Pigeaud, Literature of Java, 4 volumes (Martinus Nijhoff, 1967–1980); A. Teeuw, Modern Indonesian Literature, 2 volumes (Martinus Nijhoff, 1967, 1979); H. N. van der Tuuk, “Kort verslag van de Maleische handschriften in het East India House te Londen,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie, no. 1 (1849): 385–405; E.M. Uhlenbeck, “Beknopte Javaansche grammatica (Concise Javanese Grammar)” (Volkslectuur, 1941); E.M. Uhlenbeck, “A Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Java and Madura” (Martinus Nijhof, 1964); P. J. Zoetmulder, Kalangwan: A Survey of Old Javanese Literature (Martinus Nijhoff, 1974). 57 G. W. J. Drewes,“The History of the Malay Language: A Preliminary Survey,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde 115, no. 2 (1959): 138–156; Cyril Skinner, “The Influence of Arabic on Modern Malay (with particular reference to spoken Malay),” In Cyril Skinner (1924–1986). Orientalist, Linguist, Ronit Ricci • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 214 dictionaries produced for multiple Indonesian languages also seem to have disregarded the interlinear texts as an important source even though the interlinear text can itself be viewed as a dictionary, offering a source and method to trace the history of words and their meanings.58 One exception (although not in the sphere of Islamic texts) was Van der Tuuk, who included many examples from Balinese maarti texts in his trilingual Old JavaneseBalinese-Dutch dictionary (1897–1912).59 Catalogues, as noted above, were also for the most part not fruitful sources for locating and studying interlinear translations. In part this was due to the variability of terminology which makes even searchable catalogues and databases difficult to assess and use for this purpose and, more generally, it seems that interlinear translation was often not considered as a vital dimension of manuscripts, worthy of elaboration or even mention. I suggest that the fact they were difficult to locate in catalogues, used as an important resource by scholars, contributed to cementing their relative “invisibility.” The gaps and silences in what can be termed “the interlinear archive,” presented in a preliminary manner in this article, make writing about it challenging as it is more difficult to write about and explain gaps in, and fragments of, scholarship, than to engage with more fully available sources, and perhaps many others are out there awaiting discovery and analysis. In addition, regarding what I called “non-examples,” that is surveys of Indonesia (focusing on regions or themes) that make no mention of interlinear translation, it is always possible and probable that their authors’ interest lay elsewhere, or that language barriers hampered their efforts.60 However, if we assume that the examples presented do add up to something, I make several suggestions below as to why interlinear translations have not been studied or documented more extensively. Can we detect here, as has been more generally proposed regarding colonial Dutch scholarship, a bias towards the Hindu-Buddhist and away from the Islamic? The approach or lack thereof towards interlinear texts may have been part of the trend, i.e., an enduring interest Historian, Scholar. A Collection of Essays and Reviews, ed. Corfield, J. (Monash Asia Institute, 1996): 3–20. 58 William Marsden, A Dictionary of the Malayan Language, in two parts, Malayan and English and English and Malayan (London: Cox and Baylis, 1812); B. F. Matthes, Boegineesch-Hollandsch woordenboek met Hollandsch-Boegineesch woordenlijst (Den Haag: Martinus Nijhoff, 1874); J. Pijnappel, MaleischHollandsch Woordenboek, 3rd edition (Amsterdam: Frederik Muller, 1884); J. Rigg, A Dictionary of the Sunda Language of Java (Batavia: Lange and Co., 1862); R.J. Wilkinson, A Malay-English Dictionary, 2 vols. (Kelly and Walsh, 1901; Macmillan & Co., 1959). 59 H.N. van der Tuuk, Kawi-Balineesch-Nederlands Woordenboek (Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1897–1912). According to Teuuw van der Tuuk “paid much attention” throughout his research to Balinese “interlinear translations, explanations and comments” within Old Javanese texts. In an 1871 letter van der Tuuk referred to such manuscripts he had encountered as “innumerable.” A. Teeuw, “Van der Tuuk as lexicographer,” Archipel, no. 51 (1996) 126. Whereas this article focuses for the most part on scholarship related to Islamic interlinear translations, a comparison with non-Islamic such translations from Indonesia is warranted. 60 As for language competence, the need to know both Arabic and an Indonesian language in order to read interlinear texts, many of the Dutch colonial scholars studied Arabic in addition to at least one Indonesian language as part of their training. Some scholar-administrators, e.g., Sir Stamford Thomas Raffles who wrote extensively about literature, relied on local informants. Interlinear Texts from Indonesia • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 215 in the ruins of temples, ancient sculpture, the role of Sanskrit in Old Javanese poetry, Islam as a “thin veneer” covering prior traditions as well as a deep-seated anxiety about Islam.61 Although interlinear translation was widespread in particular places, above all in the Islamic educational sphere, it seems to have often remained unseen.62 This approach was evident, for example, in Brumund’s book where, discussing the study of Arabic texts, he posed the questions: “is all of this something more than mechanical teaching? What is taught for the cultivation of the intellect, for the ennoblement of the heart, and the sanctification of life; what to inculcate in them pure concepts of God and religion, and to make them feel for them?” More generally, he viewed the pesantren as “institutions, established to complete the work of destruction of mind and heart…”63 These quotes point to an approach which saw Islam as a debilitating religion, the method of Islamic teachings as technical and superficial and Arabic as almost unattainable, whereas the author praised traditional (i.e., non-Islamic) Javanese literature for its beauty and its being filled with educational and religious prescriptions that, according to Brumund, were deliberately not included in the pesantren curriculum because the kyais preferred their disciples to be ignorant so they could remain in power.64 On the point of a certain invisibility of interlinear translations I would add that further to the question of scholarship’s approaches to Islam, it is interesting that texts that have a prominent visual aspect—text and translation often written in different-sized or colored script, multi-directional writing on the page, note-filled margins—are invisible or barely visible in the scholarship. That their visuality has not called much attention to them reveals a blind spot of traditional philology that has privileged textual analysis to the point of ignoring other major dimensions of the manuscripts.65 It also seems, based on the evidence so far, that interlinear translation was taken at face value, or taken for granted as a convenient way to translate, to transfer meaning efficiently from one language to another. If it was but a technical device without much depth and with 61 For a literary work in which Islam is portrayed as a hidden danger, lurking in the shadows of Dutch colonial life and threatening to overcome it, see Louis Couperus, De Stille Kracht (Amsterdam: L.J. Veen, 1900), translated into English by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos under the title The Hidden Force. 62 This argument would be strengthened by showing that, on the contrary, traditions of non-Islamic and especially Hindu-Buddhist interlinear translation were studied more extensively during this period. Such a comparative study has yet to be undertaken but, for now, to support the claim I suggest that (1) interlinear translation was used most widely in Islamic circles and so that is where most sources could be found and (2) a towering figure like Van der Tuuk, who was interested in Christian, Hindu-Buddhist and other nonIslamic cultures, and who was also familiar with Islamic interlinear texts (see above), did not disregard but rather was fascinated by Balinese interlinear translations and incorporated many of them into his dictionary. 63 Brumund, Het Volksonderwijs onder de Javanen, 24. 64 Brumund, Het Volksonderwijs onder de Javanen, 26. In the same section Javanese literature is also described as “a product of licentious imagination and excessive sensuality” yet nevertheless containing the above praiseworthy traits. 65 For an analysis that attempts to challenge this blind spot see Ronit Ricci, “Implicit Comparisons: Visuality and the Interlinear Manuscript Page,” History and Theory, published online 16 September 2025, https://doi.org/10.1111/hith.70002. Ronit Ricci • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 216 no significant implications what more was there to say about it?66 This approach is evident today if students and teachers in Islamic boarding schools are asked if there is reason to study the practice, and it may have been also prevalent in the past and conveyed to European scholars who showed an interest or who came across interlinear texts. Such an approach was apparent, for example, in Juynboll’s articles discussed above in which he only translated and analyzed an Arabic text, disregarding the translation. Interlinear texts may have also looked familiar to European scholars from their own world—the languages and the religion were different but the practice, especially for translating Latin into vernaculars, was well known in Europe for centuries. Could this explain why Dutch and British scholars, generally so interested in the details of Indonesia’s cultures, and studying them so extensively, were not more curious? Perhaps there were other reasons for interlinear translation not having been taken too seriously, besides its view as a technical device, that had to do with understandings of “translation.” As has been pointed out, terminologies for the practice as documented in articles and catalogues varied widely, suggesting that there was no agreement on whether the words between the lines constituted a translation (whatever the definition of this unruly term), or a commentary, gloss, interpretation, or explanatory notes, each of which could be understood differently on an epistemological level and valued or judged differently by scholars. The stark literalness of many Islamic interlinear translations, the effort to replicate the Arabic to the highest degree which produced clusters of words and sentences that were entirely unidiomatic, likely seemed like a pointless form of translation to some. It may also be, again within the broader sphere of colonial scholarship on Indonesian manuscripts and texts in which works were often evaluated based on their similarity (imagined or real) to earlier sources or Ur-texts, that the interlinear text could have been viewed as a form of interpolation: an unwanted, unwelcome addition that somehow contaminated the original, authentic text, in this case an Arabic one.67 Scholars who were exceptions to the rule in their interest and in the studies they produced, above all Van Ronkel and Snouck Hurgronje, showed how those who did examine the practice of Islamic interlinear translation more closely discovered its complexity and its implications which were apparent in the linguistic, religious and social spheres. Van Ronkel, as a central example of producing in-depth scholarship, clearly engaged with many interlinear texts in order to reach the level of detail and nuance presented in his studies. He detected dimensions of the genre that others disregarded, missed or ridiculed, including the extreme literalness of the method that, having its own logic, prioritized single words over sentence comprehensibility; the type of vocabulary translated in interlinear texts; both common and 66 Returning to the translations’ general invisibility, I note that convenience, efficiency and precision, usually associated during the colonial period with the Dutch, and much less so with Indonesians, was disregarded, or rendered invisible when it was accomplished, and on a large scale, by native translators. 67 Much of the scholarship that claims “interpolation” on the part of Indonesian writers is focused on Indian civilization-derived texts, see, for example, R. Ng. Poerbatjaraka, “Arjunawiwāha: Tekst en vertaling,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Landen Volkenkunde, no. 82 (1926): 181–305; C. Hooykaas, The Old Javanese Rāmāyaṇa Kakawin with Special Reference to the Problem of Interpolation in Kakawins (Martinus Nijhoff, 1950). Interlinear Texts from Indonesia • 25.3 (2025) IntlinTr: 197–220 Page | 217 unusual forms of rendering Arabic into Malay; and the source of much of the Arabic vocabulary adapted into Malay about which he dropped some hints but did not explicitly discuss. Snouck Hurgronje noted and described the differences between two methods of studying Arabic texts by Indonesians from various regions of the archipelago at home and in Mecca, offering a glimpse into the ethnic, linguistic, and social aspects of adhering to these practices. The work of these scholars (and other, more recent ones whose studies lie beyond the scope of this article) points to the richness of interlinear translations as a research topic and to the many yet unanswered questions about them that await investigation. References Al-ATTAS, S. M. N. 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