Architectural Palimpsest of Peshawar: Engineering, Identity, and Conservation Peshawar

ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 321 321 Article Arrival Date Article Published Date 19.10.2025 20.12.2025 Architectural Palimpsest of Peshawar: Engineering, Identity, and Conservation Peshawar Muhammad ALI1, Muhammad Tayyab NAQASH2, Wahaj ULLAH3 1Technical Department, Design Services Pak, Peshawar, Pakistan 2 Corresponding author, Department of Civil Engineering, Islamic University of Madinah, Saudi Arabia 3 Reportage ,Riyad, Saudi Arabia Abstract Peshawar, one of South Asia’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, presents a living architectural palimpsest shaped by centuries of cultural, political, and religious transformations. This study explores the evolution of Peshawar’s architectural heritage through photographic documentation and case studies of key sites, including Mughal mosques, colonial institutions, and contemporary structures. It integrates architectural analysis with civil engineering approaches to assess preservation challenges and propose sustainable conservation strategies. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, including photographic documentation, structural analysis, and review of urban development policies. It highlights the role of civil engineering in structural retrofitting, digital documentation (e.g., HBIM), and seismic resilience. Findings reveal that modern urbanization, lack of awareness, and insufficient policy frameworks erode the city’s rich built environment. The paper advocates for an interdisciplinary conservation model, aligning architectural heritage with engineering innovation, urban planning, and community participation. By understanding Peshawar’s layered built history, stakeholders can ensure that modernization complements rather than erases the city’s historic identity. Keywords: Peshawar, Architectural Heritage, Mughal Architecture, Colonial Era, Urban Modernism, Conservation, Civil Engineering, Islamic Architecture 1. Introduction Peshawar is one of South Asia's oldest continuously inhabited cities, with roots dating back to the Gandharan civilization and extending through Islamic, Mughal, Sikh, colonial, and contemporary eras. Each historical phase left architectural imprints that collectively form a palimpsestic urban fabric [1], [2], [3], [4]. Architectural palimpsest refers to a city where new developments overlay, but do not erase, earlier structures, resulting in a layered historical narrative (Ren, 2021). In South Asia, such sites are increasingly threatened by urban encroachment, weak policy frameworks, and limited technical interventions [6]. ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 322 322 International charters such as UNESCO’s Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) [7] call for integrating cultural heritage into urban planning and infrastructure development. This multidisciplinary approach is especially relevant for Peshawar, where heritage is embedded in daily life and evolving cityscapes [8], [9], [10]. The engineering dimension of conservation is increasingly emphasized, with tools like Building Information Modeling (BIM), laser scanning, and seismic retrofitting playing key roles This study analyses how civil engineering techniques, when used alongside architectural analysis, can offer sustainable solutions for heritage preservation in Peshawar [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17]. Table 1: Historical Timeline and Architectural Evolution of Peshawar [18], [19], [20], [21], [22], [23], [24], [25], [26] Period Timeframe Ruling Power / Influences Architectural Characteristics Legacy & Preservation Status Ancient (Gandhara) 6th century BCE – 5th century CE Gandhara Civilization, Kushan Empire Buddhist stupas, monasteries, use of schist stone, sculpture-rich façades Ruins at Gor Khatri and Shah-ji-ki-Dheri, with limited preservation Early Islamic Era 7th – 12th century CE Hindu Shahi Ghaznavids Ghurids Fortifications, early mosques, mud-brick structures Little survives; archaeological potential Mughal Period 16th – 18th century Mughal Empire (Babur to Aurangzeb) Arches, domes, frescoes, gardens, mosques (e.g., Mahabat Khan Mosque) Key heritage assets, partially conserved Durrani & Sikh Rule 1747 – 1849 Durrani Empire, Sikh Confederacy Fort renovation (Bala Hissar), blend of Central Asian and Sikh motifs Bala Hissar remodeled; limited public access British Colonial Era 1849 – 1947 British Raj Indo-Saracenic style, red brick, symmetry, educational institutions (e.g., Islamia College) Iconic landmarks, some well-preserved PostIndependence 1947 – 2000s Pakistan Institutional expansion, civic buildings, mixed styles Urban growth, limited zoning enforcement Contemporary Period 2000 – Present Government of KP & private sector Glass façades, high-rises, BRT infrastructure, Brutalism Modernization often lacks heritage integration Table 1 shows a Timeline of major historical periods in Peshawar and their associated architectural developments. This chronology highlights the city’s layered urban fabric and the importance of context-aware conservation strategies [27], [28]. The city presents a living architectural palimpsest, each era contributing a new layer without entirely erasing the past. However, rapid urbanization, inadequate conservation efforts, and modern infrastructure development now threaten this delicate balance. Historic structures face neglect, while new construction often disregards heritage context and identity. This research proposes to analyze and document the architectural heritage of Peshawar through a combination of photographic surveys, stylistic analysis, and case studies of significant ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 323 323 buildings. The study also examines how civil engineering techniques can support heritage preservation. It proposes a set of recommendations for sustainable conservation. By tracing these architectural layers, the paper aims to raise awareness of Peshawar’s cultural identity and advocate for a thoughtful blend of modernization and preservation in urban planning[29], [30]. This paper argues that sustainable urban development in Peshawar must be grounded in a deep understanding of its architectural history, requiring interdisciplinary collaboration between civil engineering, architecture, urban planning, and heritage management. In this context, the study argues that interdisciplinary collaboration between architects, engineers, planners, and policymakers is crucial to sustaining Peshawar’s urban character. The research framework (Figure 1) outlines the methodological flow from historical analysis to recommendations, capturing the interdisciplinary nature of the study. Additionally, weak enforcement of building bylaws and unauthorized development by municipal bodies has accelerated the erosion of historic character in the city’s core. Figure 1: Research framework illustrating the methodological flow of the study 2. Historical and Colonial Landmarks 2.1 Islamia College Peshawar: Architectural and Historical Significance Founded in 1913, Islamia College is a prominent example of Indo-Saracenic architecture, combining Mughal, Islamic, and colonial motifs. Its red brick façade, domes, minarets, and jharokhas embody educational and cultural symbolism. Islamia College Peshawar is one of the region's most iconic educational and architectural landmarks. It was established by prominent Muslim leaders, including Nawab Sir Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum and Sir George Roos-Keppel, with the vision of promoting modern education among the Muslim population of the North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) [31]. The college played a vital role in the Pakistan Movement. It later evolved into a university, ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 324 324 maintaining its status as a symbol of academic excellence. Architecturally, the college is a striking example of Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture. This style blends Islamic, Hindu, and British colonial elements. Its grand façade features domes, minarets, cusped arches, and Mughal-style jharokhas (overhanging balconies), creating a sense of cultural continuity and colonial influence. The building's red brick construction, symmetrical layout, and intricately designed ironwork in the inner verandahs reflect meticulous craftsmanship. The central marble fountain in the courtyard evokes traditional Islamic garden design, emphasizing serenity and geometric harmony [32]. Islamia College is not only a masterpiece of architectural fusion but also a living monument to Muslims' socio-political and intellectual awakening in the early 20th century. Its preservation is crucial for its physical beauty andts legacy in Pakistan's cultural and educational landscape[33]. Figure 2: elevation of Islamia College Peshawar Islamia College’s Indo-Saracenic architecture, with its red brick façade and Mughal-style jharokhas, is a prime example of architectural synthesis (Figures 2 & 3) [34]. Figure 3: Side view of Islamia College showing corner turret and Mughal-style jharokhas [35]. ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 325 325 2.2 Arches and Engineering Techniques at Islamia College Peshawar The arches, primarily cusped and pointed, are constructed using load-bearing masonry, distributing weight across voussoirs without modern reinforcement. The building also incorporates passive cooling features such as shaded verandahs and open courtyards, demonstrating climate-responsive design. The architectural design of Islamia College Peshawar prominently features a series of carefully constructed arches, which serve both aesthetic and structural purposes. The arches, primarily pointed (ogee) and cusped in form, are inspired by Mughal and Islamic architectural traditions, contributing to the grandeur and rhythmic symmetry of the building’s façade and corridors. These arches are constructed using traditional brick masonry techniques, with each voussoir (wedge-shaped brick) meticulously placed to distribute the structural load evenly across the span. This method eliminates the need for extensive steel reinforcement, relying on compression principles to maintain stability [36]. Many arches are enhanced with carved plaster or terracotta ornamentation, showcasing geometric patterns and floral motifs that reflect Islamic artistic sensibilities. The inner verandahs and entrances also feature multi-foil arches, adding a decorative richness and soft curvature. The engineering behind these arches reflects a balance of form and function, providing open, shaded walkways that improve airflow and reduce thermal heat gain, which is particularly suited to the hot climate of Peshawar [37]. The successful integration of traditional engineering knowledge with local materials and craftsmanship demonstrates how the builders of Islamia College achieved durability, beauty, and cultural identity. These arches are not merely architectural elements but essential to understanding the building's enduring strength and symbolic power [38]. Figure 4: View from the inner verandah of the Islamia College courtyard, showcasing carved ironwork and landscaped garden. ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 326 326 The inner verandahs, with carved ironwork and landscaped gardens (Figure 4), demonstrate a careful balance of aesthetics and environmental comfort. 2.3 The Central Fountain: Symbolism and Design Inspired by Islamic Charbagh garden geometry, the octagonal marble fountain reflects spiritual and climatic sensibilities. Such water features served symbolic and microclimatic purposes in traditional Islamic architecture [38], [39]. At the heart of Islamia College Peshawar's central courtyard lies an elegant octagonal marble fountain, both a visual focal point and a cultural symbol. The fountain draws inspiration from traditional Islamic garden design, particularly the concept of the Charbagh, a quadrilateral garden layout. Its octagonal shape reflects a geometric balance common in Islamic architecture, representing order, harmony, and unity. Constructed from polished white marble, the fountain basin features subtle engravings and water outlets that would have initially created a gentle, cooling stream, enhancing the sensory experience of the courtyard. Though now primarily decorative, such fountains were historically engineered for microclimatic control, helping to cool the surrounding air and provide a sense of serenity in hot, arid environments. The location of the fountain, centrally aligned with the central axis of the building, demonstrates a strong understanding of symmetry, axial planning, and landscape integration. This fountain adds aesthetic value and reflects the intellectual and spiritual ideals associated with Islamic educational institutions. It connects the built environment to nature and metaphysical symbolism, making it a timeless element within the architectural legacy of Islamia College. Figure 5: Octagonal marble fountain in the central courtyard of Islamia College, a nod to traditional Islamic garden design. The octagonal marble fountain (Figure 5), centrally placed in the courtyard, reflects Charbaghbased Islamic garden symbolism. 3. Mughal era and Islamic Architecture 3.1 Gor Khatri Originally a Buddhist site, Gor Khatri evolved into a Mughal caravanserai under Jahan Ara Begum. The site reflects Peshawar’s transformation across religious and cultural regimes. Gor ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 327 327 Khatri is an archaeological site located in Peshawar, Pakistan, that includes a square-shaped compound that has been excavated and researched. In 1641, Jehan Ara Begum, daughter of Shah Jahan, built Gor Khatri as a caravanserai [40]. Alexander Cunningham initially identified Gor Khatri as the location of the Kanishka stupa. Ahmad Hasan Dani further discovered that it was also where the Buddha bowl tower once stood. Figure 6: Gorkhatri's entryway as viewed from Peshawar's old city Gor Khatri’s gateway (Figure 6) reveals its transformation from a Buddhist site to a Mughal caravansary. 3.2 Qila Bala Hissar Fort: History and Architecture This elevated fort combines Afghan, Mughal, and colonial military architecture. Its earthquakeprone mud-brick walls require retrofitting via jacketing and stabilization. Qila Bala Hisar exhibits Islamic architectural elements, but is not solely an example of Islamic architecture. It is a historic fort with a composite architectural heritage. Qila Bala Hissar, meaning "High Fort," is one of Peshawar's most significant historical landmarks, situated on a prominent elevation at the city’s western edge. The fort’s strategic location has made it a power centre for rulers throughout history, from the Mughals and Durranis to the Sikhs and British. Although its earliest foundations may date back centuries, the fort became prominent during the Durrani Empire in the 18th century, when it served as a royal residence for Ahmad Shah Durrani, the founder of modern Afghanistan. Architecturally, Bala Hissar Fort is a classic example of military defensive construction, characterized by thick mud-brick and stone walls, watchtowers, and ramparts designed to withstand siege. The fort's rectangular layout encloses large open courtyards, administrative buildings, and barracks. The elevation of the fort provides panoramic views of Peshawar city, reinforcing its function as both a military stronghold and a seat of governance. One of the defining architectural features of Bala Hissar is its massive gateways and bastions, which reflect elements of Mughal and Afghan fortification styles. The arched gateways, supported by large voussoirs and flanked by turrets, combine structural strength with symbolic authority. Inside, remnants of carved wooden balconies, brick arches, and water channels hint at the more refined aspects of royal life that once existed within the fortified walls. Today, Bala Hissar remains under the control of Pakistan’s Frontier Corps, with limited public access. Yet, it is a living monument to the region’s turbulent history, architectural evolution, ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 328 328 and cultural resilience. Conservation efforts are essential to preserve this iconic structure, which encapsulates centuries of power dynamics, warfare, and regional identity in Peshawar [41], [42], [43], [44] . Figure 7: A view of Qilla Bala Hisar The elevated view of Qila Bala Hissar (Figure 7) illustrates the fort’s strategic military and architectural importance 3.3 Mahabat Khan Mosque: Ornamentation and Arch Typology Built in the 17th century, the mosque showcases multi-cusped arches, frescoes, and Persianinfluenced ornamentation (Brumana et al., 2017). Conservation efforts have employed hidden steel rods and lime grouting to reinforce its structure (Ali et al., 2022). The Mahabat Khan Mosque, built in the 17th century during the reign of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, is one of Peshawar’s most celebrated examples of Mughal Islamic architecture. The mosque is particularly renowned for its rich interior ornamentation and distinct arch types, which reflect both the artistic sophistication and engineering mastery of the Mughal period. The interior of the main prayer hall is adorned with intricate frescoes, featuring floral patterns, arabesques, and calligraphy in traditional Mughal color palettes of deep reds, blues, and gold. The walls and ceilings are covered with stucco carvings and painted medallions, representing a fusion of Persian and Central Asian decorative styles. These ornamentations not only enhance visual beauty but also serve to inspire spiritual contemplation. Structurally, the mosque employs a series of multi-cusped arches, also known as muqarnas or scalloped arches, particularly in the prayer hall and entrance bays. These decorative and functional arches distribute the roof’s weight to the columns and piers. The central iwan (arched entrance) features a high, pointed arch, a hallmark of Islamic monumental architecture, flanked by smaller, blind arches that frame the façade with symmetry and depth. These arch forms, combined with the lavish ornamentation, reflect the Mughal emphasis on harmony, grandeur, and spiritual symbolism in architecture. The Mahabat Khan Mosque is a prime example of how form, function, and faith converge in Islamic architectural design. ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 329 329 Figure 8: The Mahabat Khan Mosque's richly ornamented prayer hall interior, with intricate floral frescoes and marble flooring. The richly ornamented prayer hall of the Mahabat Khan Mosque (Figure 8) showcases the Mughal mastery of geometry and fresco. 3.4 Sunehri Masjid: Ornamentation and Arch Typology This 18th-century mosque features gilded domes, floral frescoes, and calligraphic ornamentation. Its triple-arched entrance and qibla-facing mihrab reflect Mughal religious architecture (Ahmad, 2006). The Sunehri Masjid, or "Golden Mosque," located in the heart of Peshawar’s old city, is a remarkable example of late Mughal-era mosque architecture in the region. Built in the 18th century, this mosque is named after its distinctive gilded domes, which gleam in sunlight and serve as a visual landmark in the densely built urban fabric. Though more compact than the Mahabat Khan Mosque, the Sunehri Masjid showcases exquisite ornamentation and arch designs that reflect its time's aesthetic sensibilities and religious artistry[45]. The mosque's interior and façade are adorned with hand-painted floral motifs, geometric patterns, and Quranic inscriptions rendered in traditional Naqsh (stylized calligraphy). Using vibrant colors such as cobalt blue, turquoise, and deep green on white plaster creates a striking contrast. It enhances the spiritual ambience of the prayer space. The mihrab (prayer niche) is intricately decorated with layered arches and calligraphic panels, signifying the qibla direction and drawing the worshipper’s attention toward Mecca. Architecturally, the Sunehri Masjid features a series of pointed and cusped arches that frame the prayer halls and entryways. These arches are structurally significant, channelling the weight of the domes and upper levels down to the mosque’s thick load-bearing walls. The main entrance is emphasized by a triple-arched façade, with the central arch slightly taller and more pronounced than the flanking ones, a classic feature in Mughal mosque design. Smaller blind ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 336 336 By applying these technologies, civil engineers contribute to both the preservation and modernization of Peshawar’s architectural heritage, ensuring that the past is documented accurately and protected intelligently for future generations. Tools like 3D laser scanning, photogrammetry, and Heritage BIM (HBIM) allow digital archiving and simulation for stress analysis. 9. Recommendations 9.1 Policy-level suggestions Government institutions must play a proactive role in protecting heritage structures through clear, enforceable conservation policies. This includes implementing heritage zoning laws, restricting unauthorized construction around protected sites, and offering legal protection to historically significant buildings. Budget allocations for heritage preservation should be increased and integrated into urban planning frameworks. In addition, public-private partnerships can be encouraged to fund restoration projects and adaptive reuse of old buildings for cultural or civic purposes. A centralized heritage management authority in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa could coordinate efforts, maintain a heritage site registry, and ensure conservation standards. Enforce zoning, heritage mapping, and legal protections. 9.2 Community involvement Local communities must be seen as active stakeholders in the preservation process. Awareness campaigns, guided heritage walks, and public exhibitions can help residents understand the' cultural and historical value. Incentives such as tax breaks or restoration grants could encourage homeowners and businesses to maintain historic façades and structures. Involving local artisans, masons, and traditional craftsmen in restoration supports cultural continuity and economic participation. Community-driven projects build a sense of pride and responsibility, ensuring long-term stewardship of heritage assets. Use incentives, awareness campaigns, and local participation. 9.3 Educational initiatives Educational institutions can play a major role in shaping future conservation efforts. Schools, colleges, and universities should integrate heritage studies into their curricula, especially those offering architecture, civil engineering, or urban planning. Workshops, field studies, and student documentation projects can help foster interest and skills in heritage conservation from an early stage. Furthermore, partnerships between academic institutions and local government bodies can lead to research-based conservation strategies using traditional knowledge and modern technology. Encouraging youth engagement is essential for ensuring that Peshawar’s architectural legacy is not only preserved but actively celebrated. Integrate heritage studies in civil engineering and architecture curricula. Together, these recommendations emphasize the importance of multi-level action policy reform, community engagement, and educational integration to ensure that Peshawar’s architectural heritage is preserved and revitalized as a living part of the urban fabric. 9.4 Strengthen enforcement of conservation bylaws Municipalities and development authorities must be held accountable for approving construction violating zoning laws or disregards heritage protection. Architects and developers should be required to follow approved drawings, and strict penalties should be enforced for violations. Authorities should integrate digital building permit systems, public grievance mechanisms, and third-party audits to ensure transparency in enforcement. ARCENG INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING ISSN 2822-6895 Year 5 (2025) Vol:5 Issue: 2 Issued in December 2025 www.e-arceng.com 337 337 10. Conclusion This study documents Peshawar’s architectural evolution, identifying challenges and engineering solutions for heritage conservation. It emphasizes that interdisciplinary collaboration is essential to balance modernization with cultural continuity. As Peshawar grows, its development must reflect economic aspirations and its layered historical identity. The study has explored the architectural richness and historical layers of Peshawar, highlighting key examples such as Islamia College, Mahabat Khan Mosque, Sunehri Masjid, and Bala Hissar Fort. The research demonstrates how Peshawar’s built environment reflects centuries of cultural exchange, colonial influence, and Islamic tradition. It also examined the evolving nature of the city’s urban development, showcasing the contrast between traditional craftsmanship and contemporary architecture. While the city's architectural heritage remains a source of cultural identity and historical continuity, it is increasingly threatened by urban encroachment, neglect, and structural decay. The role of civil engineering and architects in heritage preservation was emphasized, particularly through modern restoration, retrofitting techniques, and digital documentation technologies like BIM and laser scanning. In addition, challenges such as a lack of public awareness, funding limitations, and inadequate policy enforcement were identified as major barriers to effective conservation. The findings make it clear that sustainable heritage conservation is essential for protecting historical monuments and maintaining the cultural identity, social continuity, and collective memory of the people of Peshawar. Heritage buildings are more than relics of the past; they are living narratives that inform urban character and civic pride. By integrating conservation efforts into urban planning, education, and community involvement, we can ensure that development does not come at the cost of history. Moving forward, adopting inclusive, interdisciplinary approaches that balance modernization with preservation is imperative. This will allow Peshawar to grow as a dynamic, livable city while honouring its rich architectural legacy. This legacy must be preserved for future generations to experience, study, and appreciate. As Peshawar continues to grow, its architectural identity must evolve not through erasure but through thoughtful integration of past and present. This vision requires commitment, creativity, and collaboration across disciplines. The architectural narrative of Peshawar is not merely about buildings; it reflects the collective memory, identity, and future trajectory of its people. Future research could expand on this study by incorporating GIS-based heritage mapping, interviews with local artisans, and real-time structural monitoring of vulnerable monuments. The insights from Peshawar’s experience may serve as a model for other historic South Asian cities facing the dual pressures of modernization and heritage erosion. While this study offers a comprehensive overview of Peshawar’s architectural heritage, it is limited by the availability of access to specific heritage sites under military or private control. Future research could include on-site structural analysis, interviews with local artisans, and integration of GIS-based heritage mapping to enhance documentation and planning further. References K. Behrendt, The Buddhist Architecture of Gandhara. 2018. doi: 10.1163/9789047412571. K. A. Muiz, “Analytical Study of Uniqueness of Culture of Pakistan,” Journal of Art, Architecture and Built Environment, vol. 3, no. 2, 2020, doi: 10.32350/jaabe/2020/32/973. I. 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