Intention to purchase alcohol by adults in the country in transition: The effects of health consciousness, self-efficacy and religion importance

Sinkevičius, Mindaugas Article Intention to purchase alcohol by adults in the country in transition: The effects of health consciousness, selfefficacy and religion importance Organizations and Markets in Emerging Economies Provided in Cooperation with: Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Vilnius University Suggested Citation: Sinkevičius, Mindaugas (2016) : Intention to purchase alcohol by adults in the country in transition: The effects of health consciousness, self-efficacy and religion importance, Organizations and Markets in Emerging Economies, ISSN 2345-0037, Vilnius University Press, Vilnius, Vol. 7, Iss. 2, pp. 25-42, https://doi.org/10.15388/omee.2016.7.2.14206 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/317140 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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ORGANIZATIONS AND MARKETS IN EMERGING ECONOMIES, 2016, VOL. 7, No. 2(14) INTENTION TO PURCHASE ALCOHOL BY ADULTS IN THE COUNTRY IN TRANSITION: THE EFFECTS OF HEALTH CONSCIOUSNESS, SELF-EFFICACY AND RELIGION IMPORTANCE Mindaugas Sinkevičius* ISM University of Management and Economics, Lithuania Abstract. The major trend in modern societies is towards encouragement of the reduction of alcohol use; however, this is not always in line with the various contexts and occasions. Individual factors may present rather non-homogeneous groups that often exert totally opposite influence on the intention to purchase alcohol. This research aims to examine the phenomenon of adult intention to purchase alcohol in Lithuania as a country in transition influenced by an individual’s health-consciousness, selfefficacy and religion importance. The nature of these factors is very different; their essence may lie in a rather individualistic concern about personal health, or can be linked with rather distant, but strong personal beliefs, priorities or lifestyles. Therefore, this research aimed to explore these effects. A total of 487 completed questionnaires were collected to perform the research. The findings reveal that health consciousness and religion importance have a significant influence on alcohol purchase intention among adults. However, self-efficacy proved to be of low influence. Key words: health consciousness, self-efficacy, religion importance, alcohol, country in transition 1. Introduction Bahmani-Oskooee & Kutan (2008) claim that Eastern Europe countries such as the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Slovak Republic are examples of emerging European economies. Although there are a few explanations to post-soviet transition, Moskalewicz (2000) emphasizes two main features: the collapse of planned economy model; and shifts in political system eliminating a single party or leader domination and introducing democracy. The transition is followed by changes in the legal system and significant transformation of existing institutions. Under such circumstances citizens of countries in transition often face instability of living standards, future uncertainty, increased rates of unemployment and poverty. Lithuania and * Corresponding author: Mindaugas Sinkevičius, ISM University of Management and Economics, Arklių g.18, Vilnius LT-01129, Lithuania, phone: +370 676 36853, e-mail: [email protected] 26 other states mentioned above are former transition countries that used to belong to the Soviet Union. During the very first transition years these states gradually moved from planned economy to market economy. Government interferences and various restrictions were lowered in order to increase economic competitiveness in the global market. The privatization process went on rapidly. Approximately 9 thousand Lithuanian companies changed ownership from public to private at the time of economic transition (Amdam et al., 2007). The collapse of previous political and economical systems brought about new challenges and social issues in the countries of transition. Since Lithuania restored its independence in 1990, health problems particularly related to alcohol and tobacco use have become of increased importance. Lack of legal regulations (Popova et al., 2007) and privatization of alcohol production sector played a significant effect on the production, supply and distribution of alcohol. As a result, alcohol consumption increased rapidly over the first years of Lithuania’s independence, according to Statistics Lithuania. There are constant attempts to reduce alcohol consumption in Lithuania by setting alcohol selling time regulations, restricting and banning alcohol advertisement, changing taxation. However, according to Statistics Lithuania, despite all efforts, no essential changes in alcohol consumption were reported. On the contrary, the consumption of alcohol per capita steadily increased (Figure 1). During the period from 1990 to 2010 the amount of alcohol consumed in Lithuania per capita doubled (Klumbiene et al., 2012). It should be also noted that the number of deaths resulting from alcohol abuse is considerably higher in Eastern European countries, such as Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, in comparison to Western European region. While analysing alcohol poisoning prevalence in the former Soviet Union countries Stickley et al. (2007) concluded that cases of death due to harmful alcohol consumption at a time had reached extremely high rates. The overall drinking trends, according to Statistics Lithuania, have increased FIGURE 1. Alcohol consumption per capita in Lithuania 2000-2015 (litres of absolute alcohol) * Preliminary data 7.8 8.5 9.1 9.3 10.1 10.4 11.1 11.7 11.8 11.1 11.5 12.5 12.6 12.4 12.1 12* 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 27 during the last sixteen years from 7.8 litres in 2000 to preliminary 12 litres per capita in 2015. What is also specific during the period of observation is the fact that drinking became more popular among women and adolescents. Existing insights into alcohol consumption behaviour rely on survey findings, which serve to inform statistics organizations, and often attempt to profile consumers along socio-demographic dimensions. Despite the attention given to the subject of alcohol purchase intention and related topics, the current scientific knowledge does not provide a clear understanding of how consumers manage their personal characteristics, which conclusively impacts their purchase behavior. The nature of individual factors is very different; their essence may lie in a rather individualistic concern about personal health, or can be linked with rather distant, but strong personal beliefs, priorities or lifestyles. For instance, it was observed that young adults’ health intentions are guided by a dissociation from the drunk prototype (negative) and an association with the abstainer prototype (positive). Falling in-between, or being a moderate drinker and becoming more sociable, is also a preferred intention. The moderate prototype drinker in general has been associated with positive attributes, like being spontaneous and sociable, while heavy drinkers are perceived as annoying, volatile and uncontrolled (Lettow et al., 2013). Individual factors may facilitate or impede the alcohol purchase intention, and different personal factors may present rather non-homogeneous groups that often exert totally opposite influence on the intention to purchase alcohol. This imposes a need for gathering more insights and reflections that might explain how different individual factors are related to adult alcohol purchase intention. The research that aims to analyze adult alcohol purchase intention in relation to health-consciousness, self-efficacy and religion importance is scarce. The research attempts to investigate consumer purchase decision as a phenomenon not related to cases of addiction to alcohol, a chronic habit, or alcoholism as a disease. The paper is structured as follows. First, a brief review presents theoretical framework and proposes research hypotheses. Then methodological approach is introduced. Data sample is discussed. Third, empiric analysis of quantitative data containing 487 adult respondents is performed. Further, research results, discussion and conclusions are presented. The intended contribution is twofold. First, the research seeks to provide evidence that consumers’ individual determinants, namely health consciousness, self-efficacy and religion importance, may interact with the behavioural intentions and serve as a discouragement factor in alcohol purchase. Second, whereas a vast majority of research is concentrated only on adolescence and the stimuli to consume alcohol, the current research employs a different prospective by investigating adult population. Consumer behaviour is prone to changes over time and adults might demonstrate different personal and social motives that cause stronger versus weaker intention to use alcohol. Thus, it brings additional light to the consumer behaviour related to alcohol. 28 2. Theoretical framework A number of theories are involved in explaining alcohol purchase and consumption behavior. According to Lee et al. (2011), alcohol consumption is described in terms of “consistent process of acquisition, use and disposal.” This research focuses only on the pre-phase of acquisition limiting itself to the intention to acquire. However, the question remains: what are the factors that stimulate and what are the motives that inhibit alcohol purchase intention in the country in transition. Consumer behavior theorists have long argued that people use products as a form of self-expression, highlighting the relationship of one’s identity to a particular behavior. Behavior pertinent to alcohol consumers is varied, but a prominent factor is the inclusion of personal considerations within the consumer’s decision-making process. Aertsens et al. (2009) state that personal motivations are able to shape one’s behavior in a characteristic-congruent direction as far as they are activated during the pre-decisional process. While analyzing and evaluating different research perspectives, it is important to keep in mind that any type of behavior, including alcohol purchasing, contains social, cultural, economic and traditional bonds. Some research focuses on a single or a particular number of factors that might lead to alcohol purchase. However, it is wrong to assume that there is just one single cause that comprehensively explains the intentions behind alcohol purchasing. There is hardly any single factor that would explain why an individual has a higher versus lower temptation to purchase alcohol. The possible impact of one determinant on another is palpable. It has been shown that health consciousness (individual’s overall interest in issues related to general health and health-related consumption) could be negatively associated with alcohol purchase (Bui et al., 2011; Walton & Roberts, 2004). Religion importance as one’s attachment to religion is yet another determinant that is thought to lead to weaker intention to purchase alcohol, since the purchase and abuse of alcohol beverages might contradict religious dogmas and be considered unacceptable behaviour within a particular religious community. Both religion importance and health consciousness are linked to certain personality traits. Results of longitudinal studies on adolescents’ alcohol purchase behavior have also shown that not all interventions designed to increase self-efficacy and to change addictive behaviors have led to the expected changes in target health behaviors or cognitions. However, it is expected that high self-efficacy could enable individuals to resist the intention of purchasing alcohol. Alcohol purchase phenomenon is of multifaceted nature, and the decision to purchase alcohol may vary. Therefore, this research will focus on three specific determinants broadly classified as personal factors: self-efficacy (a conscious effort to say no to alcohol purchase), health consciousness and importance of religion, which depending on the context could be considered as a personal belief. Previous studies of these three determinants had shown either a negative or positive perceived influence towards in- 29 tention. For instance, self-efficacy and personal beliefs demonstrated strong negative effect. These personal variables might interact to either further encourage or inhibit intention towards alcohol purchase. Such interactions and inhibitive influences among the determinants have not yet been largely explored. 2.1. Alcohol purchase intention and health consciousness Lithuania’s rapid transition from planned to market economy, improved economic situation and the increased household income over the past decade ensured that more people can afford not only necessities, but are able to spend more on products related to their health and cultivate healthy lifestyles. Increased health consciousness could change consumers’ view towards products containing alcohol and might be a significant predictor of alcohol purchase intention. Mai & Hoffmann (2012) have discovered that health consciousness determines individual priorities over the choice characteristics. The authors conclude that healthconscious individuals take their health into serious consideration when performing certain actions. The perception towards alcohol purchase may also affect health perceptions, i.e. the idea that alcohol is not healthy, which in turn would affect the intention to purchase alcohol. Such claims are supported by Bui et al. (2011, p. 186) that state “health consciousness is an indicator of individual overall interest in issues related to general health.” The authors claim that health consciousness is stimulated by the intent to protect oneself from harmful products and a wish for social acceptance. Health conscious individuals are more attentive to their personal health and there exists a postulate that health conscious consumers make healthier choices. For instance, Michaelidou & Hassan (2008) state that health conscious individuals are well aware of their health status and seek to maintain or improve their health. According to Hong (2009), health conscious consumers are seeking to maintain or improve their health by undertaking particular actions (e.g. engaging in healthy life activities, consuming organic food, maintaining physical health through sports). Chen (2009) researched individuals’ health consciousness in relation to attitudes towards organic food and found a positive relation. The authors conclude that health conscious individuals take their health into serious consideration. Dong (2010) investigated healthy regular drinkers and found that individuals that were health conscious purchased and used less alcoholic beverages. Gould (1988) hypothesized and found support of the idea that health conscious individuals are better aware of health related information, and health consciousness will serve as a preventive mechanism. Conversely, Yoon et al. (2008) claim evidence that consumers that are health conscious do not necessarily demonstrate healthier lifestyles and better overall health. Healthy lifestyle and alcohol drinking is hardly compatible. Therefore, in this research we hypothese that: Hypothesis 1. There is a negative relationship between the consumer’s health consciousness and alcohol purchase intention. A theoretical analysis of the relationship between 30 health consciousness and alcohol purchase intention has provided some valuable insights claiming that individuals concerned about their health and life quality tend to use less alcohol (Lee & Thomas, 1997; Dong, 2010; Nichols et al., 2012). It has also been proven that health conscious individuals tend to choose healthier, organic, green products (Yoon et al., 2008; Chen, 2009; Mai & Hoffmann, 2012). Therefore, it is hypothesized that health consciousness is one of the personal determinants when it comes to the decision to purchase alcohol. 2.2. Alcohol purchase intention and self-efficacy According to Bandura (1995, p. 2), self-efficacy is “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations.” Bandura (2006) identifies self-efficacy as a foundation of human agency and probably of a higher cognitive mechanism associated with behavioral choice. Self-efficacy is a phenomenon converged with individuals’ beliefs in their capabilities to achieve certain goals or execute particular performances. In contrast, collectivism approach dominated Lithuanian society for a long time. That was one of the core ideas of socialism at the time of the Soviet Union. Individualism, promotion of personal qualities and strong beliefs in one’s capabilities were not appreciated. Over the years in transition these values were prone to change. Individuals seek to be the architects of their own life. The ability to control provides security over undesired outcomes and enables the search for the valuable, desired ones. Self-efficacy reflects on the amount of challenges an individual can overcome. Certainly, challenges may vary widely. It is also argued that the strength of self-efficacy may vary from person to person and it is a personal rather than unified characteristic. Luszczynska et al. (2005) claim that self-efficacy is one’s belief in the ability to cope with a wide range of challenges. Alcohol is referred to as a health-harmful product and it is presumed that consumers are well aware of the harms alcohol might cause. Consequently, individuals that demonstrate high levels of self-efficacy are capable of resisting the temptation to acquire and use many harmful products. Self-efficacy is directly related to health behavior, but it also affects health behaviors indirectly through its impact on goals. Self-efficacy influences the challenges that people take on as well as how high they set their goals (e.g. “I intend to reduce my smoking” or “I intend to quit smoking altogether”). Individuals with strong self-efficacy select more challenging and ambitious goals, they focus on opportunities, not on obstacles. Bui et al. (2011) claim that individuals with high levels of self-efficacy are capable of resisting hunger, thirst and some particular products. The same authors in their research have concluded that self-efficacy has a significant impact on greater health consciousness and both determinants play a significant role in fighting obesity. Kinard & Webster (2010) state that high self-efficacy individuals are able to resist engaging in the behaviour that might be considered harmful to their health. Jang et al. (2013) add that self-efficacy is one of the essential variables for sustaining healthy lifestyle. 31 Self-efficacy could also manifest itself as a risk-related behavior to avoid alcohol purchase. Although a wide range of research has established the existing relation between one’s self-efficacy and the ambitions for better health, it is interesting to investigate if self-efficacy could impact alcohol purchase intention. This research hypothesizes that self-efficacy is a significant negative predictor of alcohol purchase intention. Hypothesis 2. There is a negative relationship between the consumer’s self-efficacy and the alcohol purchase intention. 2.3. Alcohol purchase intention and religion importance It has been widely discussed and demonstrated in literature that alcohol use and religion are negatively associated (Kendler et al., 1997). Religious teachings generally promote a healthier lifestyle with respect to known risk factors and also classify alcohol or drug use as sins since they could possibly harm the body, which is believed to be the temple of the Holy Ghost (Idler et al., 2013). Bjarnason et al. (2005) state that religion is a communal ritual that promotes a common understanding of surrounding world. Desmond et al. (2011) stress the importance to distinguish upon different dimensions of religiosity such as: church attendance and overall religion importance. Lorencova (2011, p. 181) suggests an explanation that “religiosity is participation in collective ceremonies, beliefs and activities of organized traditional religions”. The scholar emphasized that religion is an integral part of certain doctrines: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, etc. According to Martin et al. (2003), there are studies, particularly in the field of psychology, that claim evidence on religion’s influence on one’s mental health condition. Several studies have concluded that individuals’ religiosity and engagement in religion rituals leads to reduction of health risk related behaviours such as smoking and consuming alcohol (Preston, 1969; Idler, 1987; Benda et al., 2006). For instance, Strawbridge et al. (1997) provide evidence that church attendees are non-smokers or tend to smoke less, consume less alcohol, enjoy active social life, are more likely to engage in sports and various physical activities. All the above cases are directly related to active participation in the religious ceremonies and rituals with strong religious confession. Benda et al. (2006) have concluded that religiousness is significantly related to alcohol consumption, use of drugs and delinquency. Similarly, Preston (1969) has concluded that non-drinkers tend to be more religion oriented than the drinkers. Kolstad & Pedersen (2000) research also concludes that individuals that abstain from the purchase and use of alcohol tend to be more religious. This research suggests that religion importance might have a significant impact on the consumers’ decisions. Over 70 per cent of the total population in Lithuania are Roman Catholics. Although the church’s authority and influence diminished over the years of transition, religion importance might still play a significant role in shaping one’s 32 choices and preferences. This research hypothesizes that individuals prone to religion tend to resist alcohol purchase intention. Hypothesis 3. There is a negative relationship between the consumer’s emphasis on religion importance and the alcohol purchase intention. 3. Method Sample There are certain scales that help with the preliminary identification of individuals having problems with the use of alcohol. Since individuals who have alcohol problems are not the object of this research, 47 such individuals were excluded in accordance to the Sorocco & Ferrell (2006) CAGE survey results. CAGE is a four-item questionnaire and serves as the basic alcohol problem indication tool. The four items are: Have you ever felt you should cut down on your drinking? Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking? Have you ever felt bad or guilty about your drinking? Have you ever had a drink first thing in the morning to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover (an eye opener)? Individuals are instructed to answer yes or no to each of the questions. A positive answer scores 1, while a negative answer scores 0. If the total number of scored points equals 2 or more, it is an indication that a respondent might have potential alcohol problems. The data (Table 1) for this research was collected on 2-16 December 2014 based on a contract with the international market research, analysis and consulting company, TNS. The questionnaire items were translated from English to Lithuanian by the author of this research. A pre-test of the survey was executed with a group of 12 colleagues to ensure that all statements were understandable. Further, a professional English-Lithu- anian language translator was used to perform back translation to be able to compare those with the original. After those procedures were finished, the questionnaire was approved and forwarded to the analysis and consulting company. A total of 487 individuals responded to a self-reported omnibus type survey. The research included the following socio-demographic determinants: gender, age, level of education and the level of monthly income. Many authors claim a tendency that respondents underreport their drinking amounts and drinking patterns. However, this research survey did not require any specification of amount, brands or types of alcohol beverages used, therefore it is believed that respondents indicated their true intentions to purchase alcohol in the near future. 39 teract either encouraging or discouraging intentions to purchase. The research can be summarized with these conclusions: This research has revealed that adult consumers who are health conscious tend to demonstrate a lower level of alcohol purchase intention. At first sight this finding could be claimed to be obvious, but not necessarily. There are scientific research based claims that moderate alcohol drinking contributes to a person’s total well-being (both physical and mental). For instance, epidemiological studies have shown that individuals who have the habit of daily moderate wine consumption had lower cardiovascular mortality when compared to cases who abstain from it altogether (German & Walzen, 2000). A cup or glass of red wine is suggested to limit the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis (Szmitko et al. 2005). There are also claims that moderate drinking of other alcohols such as beer and spirits are linked to lower risks of developing or suffering from coronary illnesses (Rimm et al. 1996). However, our research suggests that health conscious individuals do not intend to purchase and drink alcohol to benefit their health. Another interesting observation in this study is the seemingly low influence that self-efficacy plays in deciding whether or not to purchase alcohol. There were claims that self-efficacy could advocate against alcohol purchase and it was noted that the phenomenon is directly related to health behaviour. However, there was no significant evidence found to claim importance of self-efficacy to alcohol purchase intention among Lithuanian adults. Self-efficacy measured in this study could have been inhibited or overpowered by other variables more pronounced in the context of alcohol purchase intention, such as health consciousness. Finally, it was revealed that religion importance serves as a significant stimulus for adult alcohol purchase resistance. Historically, alcoholic drinks were recognized to have played a number of roles in religion. Most religions condemn or inhibit alcohol use in their doctrines. In Christian societies religion serves as a measure to discourage alcohol purchase. These findings are similar to several studies that have shown negative correlation between religiosity and alcohol drinking (Francis et al., 2005). Taking an aging society into account, ongoing changes in demographics requires an increased attention to the alcohol purchase behavior of adults. Although the research was restricted to investigation of only moderate alcohol consumers, it still provided interesting insights of how individuals are influenced by their personal factors and which of those demonstrated an effect on a consumer’s alcohol purchase intention. The research does not only yield insights on the psychology and social understanding of alcohol purchase behavior but also provides opportunities for institutions and concerned individuals to focus on the right agencies to prevent, control or mitigate the use of alcohol. 40 References Aertsens, J.,Verbeke, W., Mondelaers, K., & van Huylenbroeck, G. (2009). Personal determinants of organic food consumption: a review. British Food Journal, 111(10), 1140-1167. Amdam, R. P., Lunnan, R., & Ramanauskas, G. (2007). 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