Athletic identity in climbing: the roles of commitment, enjoyment, and social influence

JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 9(2)/2025 63 OPEN ACCESS Submitted: 22 August 2025 Accepted: 07 November 2025 ORCID Nina Adjanin https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5393-6513 Ilina Arsova https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5177-5838 Anton Schulz https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5988-7736 Gordon Brooks https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2704-2505 Cite this article as: Adjanin, N., Arsova, I., Schulz, A. Brooks, G. (2025). Athletic identity in climbing: The roles of commitment, enjoyment, and social infl uence. Journal of Applied Sports Sciences, 9(2), pp. 63 - 81. DOI: 10.37393/JASS.2025.09.02.5 This work is licensed under a Attribution-Non Commercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) 63 Article Classifi cation: Research article ATHLETIC IDENTITY IN CLIMBING: THE ROLES OF COMMITMENT, ENJOYMENT, AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE Nina Adjanin1, Ilina Arsova2, Anton Schulz2, Gordon Brooks3 1 Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, MO, United States of America 2 University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America 3 Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States of America ABSTRACT Sports climbing, as both recreation and competition, has reached a level of popularity that demands physical and psychological strength, as well as a high level of commitment. This study expands upon widely accepted models of sports identity by testing the prediction of athletic identity from sports commitment and enjoyment, as well as from social constraints for climbers, a relationship well known in sports but rarely tested in climbing. A total of 131 climbers from 31 countries took part in a validated online survey. Using multiple regression and path analysis, the model explained 55% of the variance in athletic identity. Sports commitment was the strongest predictor (r = .72, p < .05; β = .636), while sports enjoyment showed no signifi cant direct eff ect. Furthermore, enjoyment indirectly infl uenced athletic identity through its impact on commitment and social constraints. The model explained 26% of the variance in sports commitment. Climbers who competed reported signifi cantly higher levels of athletic identity, sports commitment, and social constraints than climbers who did not compete, while they reported similar levels of enjoyment. The implications of this study suggest that, in climbing, identity is more strongly linked to commitment than to enjoyment, which could be important for developing athletes. Although this study was naturally limited by its cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported data, it off ers some possibilities and insights into how social and psychological factors infl uence athletic identity in less well-tried sports. There is practical value in the information provided for coaching and outdoor programs designed to foster deeper motivation and commitment among climbers. Keywords: athletic identity, sports commitment, climbing, sports enjoyment, social constraints. INTRODUCTION Climbing as a sport means diff erent things to diff erent people; some see it as leisure, others as a way of life or a serious athletic pursuit, which is why it is important to understand the sense of identity, commitment, and factors that keep people engaged over time. The classifi cation of climbing within the broader context of action, adventure, extreme, or lifestyle sports remains complex, with diverse defi nitions and limited sociological considerations (Breivik, 2010; Cohen et al., 2018; Wheaton, 2015). Furthermore, climbing has been variously framed as sports, leisure, or even a form of conquest (Rak, 2020; Wheaton, 2015). In the context of this study, climbing refers primarily to bouldering, rock climbing, sports climbing, and ice climbing, all of which involve some form of competitive sports (Donnelly & Young, 1988). In recent years, extreme sports such as sports climbing have rapidly grown as recreational activities, while also evolving into recognized competitive disciplines (Hoibian, 2017). Sports climbing had its offi cial Olympic debut N. Adjanin, I. Arsova, A. Schulz, G. Brooks ATHLETIC IDENTITY IN CLIMBING: ... 64 in the 2020 Games in Tokyo, followed by inclusion in the 2024 Paris Olympics. According to the International Federation of Sports Climbing (2018), around 1,000 people in the U.S. try climbing for the first time each day, and approximately 25 million people climb regularly worldwide. This research assessed the relationship between athletic identity and sports commitment among climbers, a growing population globally. By assessing the roles of enjoyment and social constraints, we aimed to understand better the factors influencing participation and identity development in climbing. Athletic identity can be defined as the extent to which individuals identify with the role of athlete and the value they ascribe to their participation in sports (Brewer et al., 1993). In climbing, this includes the extent to which individuals see themselves as athletes and how integral climbing is to their self-identity and the community. Equally important, sports commitment, or the psychological propensity to continue sports participation, can be influenced by factors such as enjoyment, perceived social pressures, alternative opportunities for involvement, commitment of personal resources, and access to participation (Scanlan et al., 1993). As an extension, this study also examined the demographic and involvement variables of gender, experience level, and level of competitive involvement to determine whether any differences exist in athletic identity and sports commitment among climbers. It is important to understand these factors, as they may play a role in the movement from casual involvement to serious competitive commitment among climbers and, in so doing, alter their perceptions of self and commitment. The climbing population is diverse. They range from older individuals who practice a lifelong attitude of sustainability, to the increasingly sports-oriented individuals who appear in climbing-related media, to the younger climber who climbs with a parent rather than watching television or engaging in other sedentary pursuits. The diversity of climbing speaks to its accessibility across age groups and abilities. However, while some may climb for years without significant progress due to inconsistent practice or shifting priorities, others achieve notable improvement in just a year of focused training and commitment. The diversity shown here simply reflects the complexity of the relationship between identity and commitment in a steadily growing climbing community. Climbing from Lifestyle to Olympics Rock climbing, sports climbing, and mountaineering fall in the category of adventure and action sports, also known as lifestyle or extreme sports. They became popular in the 1960s and 1970s, especially among middle-class people who wanted to break away from the traditional, organized, and overly strict sports. Williams and Donnelly (1985) suggested that climbing is unique because it operates differently from other popular sports, highlighting the balance between individual freedom and social limitations. Climbing, along with other lifestyle sports such as BMX and snowboarding, has become well entrenched and mediated within the global sports industry (Arsova & Adjanin, 2024; Wheaton, 2015). Following its debut at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, sports climbing has received significant publicity, and an increasing number of participants have become involved at various levels of participation, ranging from casual leisure to serious leisure to full professional, highly competitive sports (Batuev & Robinson, 2022). With speed climbers again participating in the 2024 Paris Olympics and almost double the number of athletes compared to Tokyo 2020, climbing is increasingly evident and specialised, with events presented as medal events on a standalone basis for both JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 9(2)/2025 65 genders (NBC Olympics, n.d.). Due to the growth of sports climbing as a competitive discipline intended for inclusion in the Olympics, there has arisen an interest amongst researchers across various domains of science, from sports psychology to biomechanics. As stated by Sanchez et al. (2019), researchers have mainly considered motivational and risk bracketing profiles (e.g., Arsova & Adjanin, 2024; Jones et al., 2017), physiological aspects (e.g., Españña-Romero et al., 2012), and biomechanical attributes (e.g., Vigouroux et al., 2011). Moving beyond the psychological and physiological avenues of thought, this study examined how climbers in these situations develop their athletic identity and level of commitment. The area of athletic identity was initially researched by sports psychologists in the 1990s, with the development of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), which has since become a significant tool for assessing athletic identity. The literature on athletic identity is vast, with research on various topics previously covered. The description of the construct of AIMS appeared in the paper entitled Athletic Identity: Hercules’ Muscles or Achilles Heel (Brewer et al, 1993). They explored two main ideas: individuals who are more involved in sports tend to identify more strongly as athletes and therefore score higher on the scale, and athletic identity is linked to both positive factors (such as intrinsic motivation) and negative factors (such as negative emotions). Gould et al. (2002) emphasized that sports commitment, especially in high-performing athletes, is a key driver of athletic success and identity formation. Stryker and Burke (2000) offered three distinct usages of the concept of identity: (a) associating identity with the culture of a people, often overlapping with ethnicity; (b) defining identity as a shared affiliation with a group or social category that fosters collective culture (Bauman, 2000); and (c) understanding identity as parts of the self-defined by the meanings people attach to the various roles they play in society. Taking into account definitions (b) and (c), and in close association with the current study, we refer to the work of Donnelly and Young (1988), who emphasized the multi-layered process of identity construction in action and adventure sports as a subculture. Discussing the concepts of career and identity, they proposed that new members of these subcultures actively adopt specific attitudes, speech, and behaviors to gain social acceptance. Donnelly and Young (1988) also compared climbers and rugby players to illustrate how roles and identities within sports subcultures are not static but continuously shaped by both internal and external influences. Socialization in sports is an ongoing process, and stages of acceptance or rejection often recur. Several scholars have pointed out that social relationships are fundamental to identity construction (Bauman, 2000; Birrell & Donnelly, 2004; Donnelly & Young, 1988). These relationships offer a critical context in which individuals define and negotiate their sense of self. Identity is not formed in isolation; it is shaped by both self-perception and how individuals are perceived within their communities. Accordingly, in this study, we explored climbers’ identity as influenced by their self-image, the climbing setting, and interpersonal dynamics within the sport. Demographic and Involvement Differences Dilley and Scraton (2010) noted that limited attention has been paid to gender identity, social context, belonging, the interplay between sports and personal identity, and motives in extreme sports (Bikker & Fink, 2022). In line with this gap, our study considered gender differences and social constraints as relevant factors in shaping athletic identity and influenc- N. Adjanin, I. Arsova, A. Schulz, G. Brooks ATHLETIC IDENTITY IN CLIMBING: ... 66 ing climbers’ levels of commitment. Tušak et al. (2005) reported studies on the relationship between athletic identity and athlete personality involving 330 athletes at varying levels of performance. Athletic identity was found to be closely related to motivation, especially goal orientation and competitiveness. For males, the strongest predictors of athletic identity were the urge to win and positive motivation, whereas for females, the key factors were competitiveness and negative motivation. They suggested that athletic identity is an important aspect not only for personal development but also for national pride and excellence in performance. Interestingly, their findings suggested that a mutually reinforcing relationship exists: athletic identity leads to motivation and effort, which in turn improve high performance. The social factors associated with status, power, and recognition were associated with identity but were not significant. More recently, research has continued looking at the dynamism and contextual specificity of athletic identity. A systematic review by Knight et al. (2023) notes that athletic identity is dynamic and changes over the course of an athlete’s life, through development, performance, and decline, necessitating ongoing work on identity to enable the acceptance of multiple roles (i.e., student, professional, athlete). This is more evident in non-structured sports such as climbing, where performance histories may differ from those in organised and institutionalised sports. Lifestyle athletes (including climbers) may still maintain a strong athletic self-identity that governs their health behaviors and enables sustained activity regardless of performance outcomes (Helms & Morris, 2022). Martin et al. (2017) found that social identity, particularly with the sports community, emphasises commitment to sports, personal effort, and a sense of belonging. Thus, for example, research on youth sports shows that identifying with the team or peer group increased motivation, enjoyment, and participation (Martin et al., 2017). The expansion of the relationship between athletic identity and experience, as described by Lamont-Mills and Christensen (2006), examined three levels of sports participation: elite, recreational, and non-participants. Their findings showed that non-exponents scored lower overall on athletic identity than elite athletes. Lamont-Mills and Christensen (2006) suggested that if sports are important for elite athletes, they also have a major impact on the lives of the less competent participants. Specific to this study is information on demographics, such as level of experience and competitive factors, as determinants of athletic identity and, in turn, commitment to the sports. Thus, building on the connection between levels of experience and athletic identity, it may be relevant to investigate how identity plays a factor in longterm commitment to such sports. Constructs in Sports Commitment and Athlete Identity According to Horton and Mack (2000), a strong athletic identity can lead to a high level of sports commitment, referring to the factors that support persistence in an activity despite challenges. The Sports Commitment Model, developed by Scanlan and colleagues (1993), adapted this concept from adult-focused contexts like work or relationships to the sports domain, involving both youth and adults. The athlete’s psychological attachment to their sport depended on factors such as loyalty, a desire to excel, and a willingness to make sacrifices for it (Scanlan et al., 1993). For example, climbers’ extended stays and substantial spending in Lander, Wyoming, highlight their strong commitment and enjoyment of the climbing in that specific area (Bradley & Maples, 2024). High levels of sports commitment are often associated with long-term participa- JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 9(2)/2025 67 tion and improved performance. An important predictor of sports commitment is sports enjoyment (Scanlan et al., 1993), which is an indicator of pleasure derived from sports participation (Carpenter et al., 1993) and satisfaction. This concept was confirmed in recent research, such as that by Yukhymenko-Lescroart (2022), which suggests that athletic identity is strongly influenced by enjoyment and passion for sports. Scanlan et al. (1993) defined social constraints as social expectations or norms that create a sense of obligation to remain in the activity. The social constraints construct specifically addressed the sense of social pressure to participate. The more pressure an individual perceives from others to continue, the greater his or her commitment. While there is a significant body of literature exploring athletic identity in relation to commitment to sports, scholarship specific to climbing is lacking. Enjoyment and social constraints are important components influencing sports commitment and participation, which are treated as separate constructs in our current research. Similarly, despite growing research interest in climbing and its inclusion in the Olympic Games, academic attention to sociological perspectives remains limited (Pfister & Gems, 2019). However, despite growing academic interest in sports climbing, no previous study has systematically examined the combined predictive ability of sports commitment, enjoyment, and social constraints on individual athletic identity in climbing using a validated quantitative model. This study fills that gap by applying validated sports identity models to the context of climbing, providing one of the first empirical evaluations based on a global sample. Purpose and Research Questions The objective of this study was to examine the relationships between athletic identity, sports commitment, sports enjoyment, and social constraints within the climbing community. Additionally, this research aimed to explore how demographic and contextual factors such as gender, climbing experience level, and competitive involvement are associated with variations in athletic identity and related psychological constructs. By investigating these factors together, the study provides a more comprehensive understanding of how personal characteristics and social environments shape athletes’ identification with their sports, levels of enjoyment, and perceptions of others’ expectations or pressures. The research also highlights how differences in performance orientation, social support, and climbing participation context (e.g., recreational vs. competitive) may contribute to meaningful distinctions in athletic self-concept across groups. This knowledge has practical implications for athlete engagement, retention, and community-building efforts within the climbing industry and among recreational and competitive climbing organizations. Insights from these findings can support the development of inclusive programming and more effective approaches to fostering long-term sports involvement. The study was guided by two research questions and five hypotheses, detailed further in the Methods section: Research Questions: 1. Is there a difference in athletic identity among climbers based on gender, climbing experience, and competitive involvement? 2. To what extent do sports commitment, sports enjoyment, and social constraints predict athletic identity among climbers? METHODOLOGY This study employed a quantitative, crosssectional survey design to examine relation- N. Adjanin, I. Arsova, A. Schulz, G. Brooks ATHLETIC IDENTITY IN CLIMBING: ... 68 ships among psychological variables within the climbing community. This design lends itself to analyzing interactions among variables and testing five hypotheses about the relationships among athletic identity, sports commitment, sports enjoyment, and social constraints. Participants in the current study were self-identified climbers, including sports climbers, ice climbers, and mountaineers, from an international population. Climbers were asked to participate voluntarily in an anonymous, Google Form-administered online survey through purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The survey was administered in English because it is the common language of international climbing organizations and communities involved in recruitment. Recruitment occurred through various means, including postings in climbing-related groups on Facebook and Instagram, announcements in climbing gyms, and email solicitations from climbing and mountaineering organizations such as the International Union of Alpinist Associations (UIAA) and the Macedonian Climbing and Mountaineering Federations. Inclusion criteria for the research required participants to be over 18 years old and actively involved in climbing. The institutional review board approved the study after ethical approval was granted. Data were collected in the spring of 2024, and 131 climbers from 31 countries completed the survey (Table 1). Participants were from 31 nations because recruitment occurred through international climbing organizations and social media groups with international audiences. The distribution was not meant to ensure country-level representativeness, but to capture a diverse cultural and geographical context of climbers. Thus, the analyses were conducted at an individual level rather than at the country level. Due to Google Forms’ design, only fully completed responses were recorded and retained, limiting insight into partial responses that drop out. Table 1. Frequencies of country Country Counts % of Total Cumulative % Argentina 1 0.8% 0.8% Austria 4 3.1% 3.8% Belarus 5 3.8% 7.6% Bolivia 4 3.1% 10.7% Bosnia Herzegovina 5 3.8% 14.5% Bulgaria 1 0.8% 15.3% Canada 3 2.3% 17.6% Chile 2 1.5% 19.1% China 1 0.8% 19.8% Colombia 3 2.3% 22.1% Croatia 2 1.5% 23.7% Czech Republic 1 0.8% 24.4% Ecuador 6 4.6% 29.0% France 3 2.3% 31.3% Germany 5 3.8% 35.1% Hungary 1 0.8% 35.9% Italy 5 3.8% 39.7% Japan 1 0.8% 40.5% Kosovo 1 0.8% 41.2% Macedonia 7 5.3% 46.6% JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 9(2)/2025 69 Table 1. Frequencies of country Montenegro 1 0.8% 47.3% Netherlands 1 0.8% 48.1% Poland 10 7.6% 55.7% Serbia 1 0.8% 56.5% Slovenia 1 0.8% 57.3% Spain 8 6.1% 63.4% Sweden 1 0.8% 64.1% Switzerland 2 1.5% 65.6% United Kingdom 3 2.3% 67.9% United States 41 31.3% 99.2% Uruguay 1 0.8% 100.0% Instruments To ensure sufficient reliability, we verified the reliability and stability of our measurements. Rather than developing new tests, we studied well-known, well-established psychological self-report tests and made minor language changes to make them more applicable to climbers. These changes were slight and intended to enhance relevance for climbers who use English as their primary language. A pilot study was required to verify that these slight changes would still render claims to content and construct validity, and these claims were confirmed by knowledgeable climbers. Cronbach’s alpha for each of these scales was determined, and for all scales, reliability was found to be acceptable (see Table 1). Insoluble variance due to respondents’ response bias was avoided by using neutral wording throughout this survey, and procedural rules to prevent data-entry errors were adopted. Our survey attempted to measure four main variables: athletic identity, sports enjoyment, social constraints, and sports commitment. The 35 items and question headings made up the four sections of this survey. The first gathered demographic information, while the remaining sections included: the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (Brewer et al., 1993), the Sports Enjoyment Scale (Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991; Scanlan et al., 1993), the Social Constraints Scale (Scanlan et al., 1993; White, 2008), and the Sports Commitment Scale (Scanlan et al., 1993). Athletic Identity Scale To measure athletic identity, we used the original 10-item Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS), developed by Brewer et al. (1993). Many studies (Brewer & Cornelius, 2001; Hadley et al., 2018; Lamont-Mills & Christensen, 2006; Rogen et al., 2021), used a single construct, with reliability that was established through measures of internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .89). For the studies by Hadley et al. (2018) and Brewer and Cornelius (2001) the value was Cronbach’s α = .81. Example questions include and were not limited to: (1) “I consider myself an athlete,” (2) “I have many goals related to sports,” and (3) “I need to participate in sports to feel good about myself.” Following the original model, we employed a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Since the AIMS was developed for athletes in general, we modified some language in the survey instrument to better suit the climbing population. Sports Commitment Scale The Sports Commitment Model (Scanlan et al., 1993) was grounded in commitment theories from social and organizational psy- N. Adjanin, I. Arsova, A. Schulz, G. Brooks ATHLETIC IDENTITY IN CLIMBING: ... 70 chology that explain why individuals maintain relationships or engage in activities. Scanlan and colleagues outlined the development of survey measures to assess the Sports Commitment Model in youth sports. In the Scanlan et al. (1993) study, results demonstrated strong internal consistency for the following scales: sports commitment (α = .88), sports enjoyment (α = .90), and social constraints (α = .87). In this study, Cronbach’s alpha values similarly indicated strong internal consistency: sports commitment (α = .83), sports enjoyment (α = .91), and social constraints (α = .90). In this study the survey instrument measured sports commitment on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). Example questions include and were not limited to: (1) “I dedicate a substantial amount of time to climbing and training” and (2) “I am determined to get better at climbing.” Sports Enjoyment Scale Sports enjoyment is defined as “a positive affective response to the sports experience that reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun” (Scanlan et al., 1993a). The Sports Enjoyment 4-item scale measures the extent to which participants experience enjoyment through their involvement in sports. The positive relationship indicated in the model suggests that as Sports Enjoyment increases, Sports Commitment is also likely to increase. In this study, we have employed a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree), including items addressing the sports enjoyment among climbers, such as: (1) “I enjoy climbing this season” and (2) “I’m happy climbing in my local gym this season.” Social Constraints Scale Scanlan et al. (1993) identified social constraints as expectations that create a sense of obligation to continue in a sport, in this case, climbing. In this study, we used a 4-item scale that recognized that climbers may feel pressure to continue climbing because of expectations from others, such as friends, family, fans, or sponsors. Examining constraints in climbing, our survey instrument included items such as: (1) “I feel I have to climb so that I can be with my friends” and (2) “I feel I have to climb to please my followers on social media/or surrounding” measured in a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Not at all) to 5 (Very much). To maximize internal validity, we offered equal participation opportunities to a diverse international population. We assessed content validity to ensure our survey covered the full range of our topic, and we checked construct validity by comparing our results with related measures. We also considered cross-cultural validity, given that the survey was administered across different cultural contexts. Throughout this study, we continuously refined our survey instruments to ensure accurate and meaningful results. Since the survey was sent out only in English, there were no translations. Therefore, cross-cultural equivalence of meaning was checked during the pilot test, which involved multilingual climbers who said that this item’s phrasing was clear and culturally valid across a variety of settings. Coding After data collection, all survey responses were coded to prepare for analysis. Some of the answers were coded as dichotomous variables (1 = yes, 0 = no), while others were coded as they were presented on the original scale, when appropriate for the analysis. For questions containing multiple answers, each category marked was allotted a score of one, while those not marked were scored as zero (0). The factor scores were derived from the means of these values. Since no responses were missing, all cases were included in the JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 9(2)/2025 71 analysis. The group variables and the variable used to determine respondents’ age categories were coded as nominal variables to facilitate comparisons among groups in the analyses. Data Analysis The analysis of the survey data was directed, first of all, at obtaining the sample means, standard deviations, and distributions for each of the variables under consideration. Second, the correlation analyses indicated the possibility of significant relationships among the variables. A path analysis was employed to determine the degree to which athletic identity in climbers could be predicted from sports commitment, sports enjoyment, and social constraints. Based on the modified scales, a proposed model was developed for the study, and five hypotheses were tested (Figure 1). The analyses of the data were carried out using Jamovi version 2.11.6. Initial checks indicated that the assumption of normality was not warranted. This phenomenon is consistent with the discussion in the paper by Clason and Dormandy (1994), which states that data collected on Likert-type scales usually do not follow a normal distribution. Some parametric tests, such as ANOVA and T tests, are known to be fairly robust to violations of the assumption of normality (Hoekstra et al., 2012; Stevens, 2013), whereas structural techniques are more susceptible to such violations. In the present instance, bootstrapping, a nonparametric resampling method, was used to improve the fit (or accuracy) of the parameter estimates when non-normality was anticipated. Bootstrapping would therefore allow the estimation of a more valid standard error and the derivation of confidence intervals from the parameter estimates, thus making the results more robust despite the distributional limitations of the data. Figure 1. Proposed Model Hypotheses: H1: Sports commitment has a significant direct effect on a climber’s athletic identity. H2: Social constraints have a significant direct effect on a climber’s athletic identity. H3: Sports enjoyment has a significant direct effect on a climber’s sports commitment. H4: Social constraints have a significant direct effect on a climber’s sports commitment. H5: Sports enjoyment has a significant direct effect on a climber’s athletic identity. RESULTS Preliminary analysis In the preliminary analysis of the descriptive data, we examined background information about the population, including age, gender, average climbing level, and preferred climbing activity. There were 131 participants in total, 69 of whom identified as male climbers and 62 as female climbers. The majority of the participants were coming from the U.S., followed by Poland, North Macedonia, and Ecuador. The average age was Mage = 34 (SD = 9.6), N. Adjanin, I. Arsova, A. Schulz, G. Brooks ATHLETIC IDENTITY IN CLIMBING: ... 78 affect sports commitment and athletic identity, future research might well take into account the relationships climbers have within their communities, the social interactions, and the societal influences that can shape awareness of athletic identity. Taking a theoretical perspective, the effect of sports enjoyment and its influence on the development of athletic identity might be a valuable means of developing a more global theoretical model. Also, it might be best to include additional constructs, as discussed in the literature, such as personal investments, to understand better how this condition affects athletic identity. The addition of subscales would likely yield a clearer, more relevant understanding of the factors that affect athletic identity. Lastly, there is space in the research to compare these findings in climbing with those in other sports to determine whether climbing is a unique case or resembles other sports in the development of athletic identity. CONCLUSION Expanding on existing discussions about categorizing climbing as a sport and climbers as athletes, our study highlights a strong positive relationship between athletic identity and sports commitment. Our findings confirm the previous research, which suggests that the more you are involved in any sport of climbing, the greater the sense of athletic identity. Thus, we have identified sports commitment as an essential component for climbers who identify as athletes, especially as they progress through different levels of climbing experience. The findings of this study also show that while sports enjoyment is important for growth as a climber, it is not a direct influence on climbers’ athletic identity. Lastly, no significant gender differences in athletic identity were noted; however, novice climbers did show significant differences in athletic identity and commitment as they progressed to become advanced or professional climbers. These findings allow us to suggest targeted retention strategies in order to improve beginner climbers’ experiences. Recognizing the various factors that impact athletic identity and sports commitment can help create a more supportive, inclusive environment for climbers at all levels, from leisure to pro climbers competing at world championships and Olympic-level games. Ethics Statement Institutional Review Board (IRB) Approval Code: 2223-019 was blinded for review. REFERENCES Arsova, I., & Adjanin, N. (2024). More likes, more climbing: An investigation of climbers’ intention to use social media for self-promotion. Sports — Science and Practice, 13(2), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.5937/snp13-2-51855 Batuev, M., & Robinson, L. (2022). Organizational evolution and the Olympic Games: The case of sports climbing. In The professionalization of action sports (pp. 36–52). Routledge. Bauman, R. (2000). Language, identity, performance. Pragmatics: Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association, 10(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.10.1.01bau Bikker, A., & Fink, M. (2022). How extreme sports make you a better person: A qualitative study of women in extreme sports relating to the concept of self-extension and communication [Master’s thesis, Jönköping University]. DiVA Portal. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/ diva2:1673930/FULLTEXT01.pdf Birrell, S., & Donnelly, P. (2004). Reclaiming Goffman: Erving Goffman’s influence on the sociology of sports. In R. Giulianotti (Ed.), Sports and modern social theorists (pp. 59– JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 9(2)/2025 79 64). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230523180_4 Booth, D. (2020). Nature sports: ontology, embodied being, politics. Annals of Leisure Research, 23(1), 19–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2018.1524306 Booth, D., & Thorpe, H. (2007). International encyclopedia of extreme sports. Berkshire Publishing Group LLC. Bradley, M. J., & Maples, J. N. (2024). The economic impact of climbing in the Lander area of Wyoming. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education, and Leadership, 16(3), 265–283. https://doi.org/10.18666/JOREL-2024-12010 Breivik, G. (2010). Trends in adventure sports in a post-modern society. Sports in Society, 13(2), 260-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430903522970 Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte, J. L., & Linder, D. E. (1993). Athletic identity: Hercules’ muscles or Achilles heel? International Journal of Sports Psychology, 24(2), 237–254. Brewer, B., & Cornelius, A. (2001). Norms and factorial invariance of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale. Academic Athletic Journal, 15(2), 103–113. Carpenter, P. J., Scanlan, T. K., Simons, J. P., & Lobel, M. (1993). A test of the sports commitment model using structural equation modeling. Journal of Sports and Exercise Psychology, 15(2), 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.15.2.119 Clason, D. L., & Dormody, T. J. (1994). Analyzing Data Measured by Individual Likert-Type Items. Journal of Agricultural Education, 35(4), 31–35. https://doi.org/10.5032/jae.1994.04031 Cohen, R., Baluch, B., & Duffy, L. J. (2018). Defining extreme sports: Conceptions and misconceptions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01974 Dilley, R. E. & Scraton, S. J. (2010). Women, climbing, and serious leisure. Leisure Studies, 29(2), 125–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/02614360903401927 Donnelly, P., & Young, K. (1988). The construction and confirmation of identity in sports subcultures. Sociology of Sports Journal, 5(3), 223–240. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.5.3.223 Espanña-Romero V., Jensen R. L., Sanchez X., Ostrowski M. L., Szekely J. E., & Watts P. B. (2012). Physiological responses in rock climbing with repeated ascents over 10 weeks. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 112, 821–828. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-011-2022-0 Evans, K., & Gagnon, J. R. (2019). A structural model exploring gender differences in perceived constraints to competition climbing. Annals of Leisure Research, 21(4), 444–462. https://doi.org/10.1080/11745398.2018.1534598 Gould, D., Greenleaf, C., Guinan, D., & Chung, Y. (2002). A survey of U.S. Olympic coaches: Variables perceived to have influenced athlete performances and coach effectiveness. The Sports Psychologist, 16(3), 229– 250. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.16.3.229 Handley, T., Harris, L. L., & Simon, J. (2018). Changes in athletic identity in high school athletes before and after injury. Journal of Sports Medicine and Allied Health Science: Official Journal of the Ohio Trainers Association, 4(3), 3. https://doi.org/10.25035/jsmahs.04.01.03 Helms, K., & Morris, D. (2022). Relationship of athletic identity to selected health behaviors among college students: Implications beyond formal sports participation. Journal of Physical Activity Research, 7(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.12691/jpar-7-1-4 Hoekstra, R., Kiers, H. A., & Johnson, A. (2012). Are assumptions of well-known statistical techniques checked, and why (not)?. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 137. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00137 Hoibian, O. (2017). A cultural history of N. Adjanin, I. Arsova, A. Schulz, G. Brooks ATHLETIC IDENTITY IN CLIMBING: ... 80 mountaineering and climbing. In L. Seifert, A. Schweizer, & P. Wolf (Eds.), Science of climbing and mountaineering (pp. 1–16). Taylor & Francis. Horton, R. S., & Mack, D. E. (2000). Athletic identity in marathon runners: Functional focus or dysfunctional commitment? Journal of Sports Behavior, 23(2), 101–119. International Federation of Sports Climbing (2018). Annual report on participation in sports climbing. https://www.ifsc-climbing.org Jones G., Milligan J., Llewellyn D., Gledhill A., & Johnson M. I. (2017). Motivational orientation and risk taking in elite winter climbers: a qualitative study. International Journal of Sports Exercise Psychology, 15, 25–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197x.2015.1069876 Kendzierski, D., & DeCarlo, K. J. (1991). Physical activity enjoyment scale: two validation studies. Journal of Sports & Exercise Psychology, 13(1), 50–64. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.13.1.50 Knight, C. J., Harwood, C. G., & Sellars, P. A. (2023). Athletic identity across the athletic career: A systematic review. Sports, 11(10), 203. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4663/11/10/203 Lamont-Mills, A., & Christensen, S. (2006). Athletic identity and its relationship to sports participation levels. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sports, 9(6), 472–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2006.04.004 Lochbaum M, Cooper S, & Limp S. (2022). The athletic identity measurement scale: A systematic review with meta-analysis from 1993 to 2021. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education. 12(9), 1391–1414. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe12090097 Mackenzie, S. C., & Abdulrazaq, S. (2021). Social engagement mediates the relationship between participation in social activities and psychological distress among older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 25(2), 299–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2019.1697200 Martin, L. J., Balderson, D., Hawkins, M., Wilson, K., & Bruner, M. W. (2017). The influence of social identity on self-worth, commitment, and effort in school-based youth sports. Journal of Sports Sciences, 36(3), 326–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2017.1306091 NBC Olympics. (n.d.). Sports climbing 101: Olympic competition format. NBC Olympics. Retrieved July 21, 2025, from https://www.nbcolympics.com/news/sports-climbing-101-olympic-competition-format Pfister, G. U., & Gems, G. R. (2019). Gender and sportsification of mountaineering: case studies. Stadion: Internationale Zeitschrift fuer Geschichte des Sportss, 43(2), 234–249. https://doi.org/10.5771/0172-4029-2019-2-234 Rak, J. (2021). False summit: Gender in mountaineering nonfiction. McGill-Queen’s Press. Rongen, F., Perry, J., Littlewood, M., & Till, K. (2021). Validation of the athletic identity measurement scale in youth academy soccer players. Journal of Athlete Development and Experience, 3(3), 4. Ross, P. T., & Bibler Zaidi, N. L. (2019). Limited by our limitations. Perspectives on Medical Education, 8(4), 261–264. http://doi.org/10.1007/S40037-019-00530-X Sanchez, X., Torregrossa, M., Woodman, T., Jones, G., & Llewellyn, D. J. (2019). Identification of parameters that predict sports climbing performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1294. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01294 Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Lobel, M., & Simons, J. P. (1993). Sources of enjoyment for youth sports athletes. Pediatric Exercise Science, 5(3), 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.5.3.275 Scanlan, T. K., Carpenter, P. J., Simons, J. P., JOURNAL of Applied Sports Sciences 9(2)/2025 81 Schmidt, G. W., & Keeler, B. (1993). The sports commitment model: Measurement development for the youth-sports domain. Journal of Sports and Exercise Psychology, 15(1), 16–38. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.15.1.16 Stevens, J. P. (2013). Intermediate statistics: A modern approach. Routledge. Stryker, S., & Burke, P. J. (2000). The past, present, and future of identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(4), 284–297. Thorpe, H., & Wheaton, B. (2011). ‘Generation X Games’, Action sportss and the Olympic Movement: Understanding the cultural politics of incorporation. Sociology, 45(5), 830–847. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038511413427 Tušak, M., Faganel, M., & Bednarik, J. (2005). Is athletic identity an important motivator? International Journal of Sports Psychology, 36(1), 39-49. Van Raalte, J. L., Brewer, B. W., Brewer, D. D., & Lindner, D. E. (1992). NCAA division II college football players’ perception of an athlete who consults a sports psychologist. Journal of Sports and Exercise Psychology, 14, 273–282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-019-00530-x Vigouroux L., Domalain M., & Berton, E. (2011). Effect of object width on muscle and joint forces during thumb/index fingers grasping. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 27(3), 173–180. https://doi.org/173–180.10.1123/jab.27.3.173 Wheaton, B. (2015). Assessing the sociology of sports: On action sports and the politics of identity. International Review for the Sociology of Sports, 50(4-5), 634–639. https://doi.org/10.1177/10126902145391601. White, D. D. (2008). A structural model of leisure constraints negotiation in outdoor recreation. Leisure Sciences, 30(4), 342–359. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400802165131 Williams, T., & Donnelly, P. (1985). Subcultural production, reproduction and transformation in climbing. International Review for the Sociology of Sports, 20(1-2), 3–16. Yukhymenko-Lescroart, M. A. (2022). Sports-to-school spillover effects of passion for sports: The role of identity in academic performance. Psychological Reports, 125(3), 1469–1493. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941211006925 Corresponding author: Nina Adjanin Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, MO, United States of America E-mail: [email protected]