Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Conference of the European Society for Engineering Education (SEFI 2025)

B o o k o f P r o c e e d i n g s f o r t h e 5 3 r d A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e o f t h e E u r o p e a n S o c i e t y f o r E n g i n e e r i n g E d u c a t i o n T ampere Univ ersity , 15 - 18 Sept ember 2025 Engineering and Society Co Organised by T ampere University , Finlan d and the European Society for Engineering Education (SEFI) ISBN: 978 -2-87352- 029 -8 Editors: Riikka Kangaslampi, Greet Langie, Hannu-Matti Järvinen & Balázs Nagy Online Digi tal Repository Editors and Repository Management : Aada Myllys, Riikka Kangaslampi & Hannu -Matt i Järvinen The manuscript was closed on 20 December 202 5. 3 S u m m a r y T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Conference Organising partners 5 Sponsors of SEFI 2025 6 Conference Organising Comm itte es 7 Chair ’ s Greetings 9 Conference Theme 10 A Word from the SEFI President 11 SEFI 2025 in Brief 13 In du stry Insights 14 European Society for Engineering Education – SEFI 16 Keynotes 17 Awards 22 Tables of Contents for Papers and Workshops 25 Research Papers Detailed Table of Content s 25 Practice Papers Detailed Table of Contents 30 Workshops Detailed Table of Cont ents 35 Research Papers 39 Practice Papers 10 63 Workshops 1956 Reviewers 226 8 4 C o n f e r e n c e o r g a n i s i n g p a r t n e r s T ampere Univ ersity , F inland Eur opean Societ y for Engineering Education (SEFI) C ongress Office – T alo Even ts PC O 5 S p o n s o r s o f S E F I 2 0 2 5 D i a m o n d s p o n s o r s D a s s a u l t S y s t è m e s P l a t i n u m s p o n s o r s B e n t l e y C L E E R & A r c h i m e d e a n O a t h G o l d s p o n s o r s A n s y s E D R M e d e s o M a t h W o r k s M a t r i x S i l v e r s p o n s o r s E l s e v i e r S i e m e n s 6 C o n f e r e n c e O r g a n i s i n g C o m m i t t e e s I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i s i n g C o m m i t t e e ( I O C ) • H a n n u - M a t t i J ä r v i n e n , c h a i r , T a m p e r e U n i v e r s i t y • G r e e t L a n g i e , c o n i n u o u s c o - c h a i r , K U L e u v e n • B a l á z s N a g y , S E F I p r e s i d e n t , B u d a p e s t U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y a n d E c o n o m i c s • K l a r a F e r d o v a , S E F I s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l • A l e x a n d r a G l i g a , S E F I o f f i c e r • R i i k k a K a n g a s l a m p i , T a m p e r e U n i v e r s i t y • K l a r a K ö v e s i , E N S T A B r e t a g n e • E u a n L i n d s a y , U n i v e r s i t y o f A a l b o r g • P a t r i k M o t t i , C z e c h T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y i n P r a g u e • Johanna Naukkari nen , L a p p e e n r a n t a U n i v e r s i t y o f T e c h n o l o g y • E i j a P a j u n e n , T a l o E v e n t s • E m a n u e l a T i l l e y , U n i v e r s i t y C o l l a g e L o n d o n • R o l a n d T o r m e y , E c o l e P o l y t e c h n i q u e F é d é r a l e d e L a u s a n n e • R a m ó n V i l l a n o v a , U n i v e r s i t a t A u t ò n o m a d e B a r c e l o n a • J a n V r b a , C z e c h T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y i n P r a g u e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S c i e n t i f i c C o m m i t t e e ( I S C ) • Riikka Kangaslampi , T ampere University • Greet Langie , KU Leuven • Hannu-Matti Järvinen , T ampere University • Jan V rba , Czech T echnical University in Prague • Zheying Zhang , T a mpere University • V eli -Pekka Pyrhönen , T ampere University • Hossein Mokhtarian , T ampere University • Jani Hirvonen , T ampere University • Arjan Lock, Th e Hague University • Y uki Kaneko , Sabancı University • Deolinda Dias Rasteiro , ISEC Coi mbra • Christopher Smith , Glasgow Caledonian University • Fiona T rusco tt , University College London • Joelyn de Lima , Ecole Polytechnique F édérale de Lausanne EPFL • Mikko Nurminen , T ampere University Foundation sr . 7 • Aida Guerra , University of Aal borg • Hanne Deprez , KU Leuven • Sofie Craps , KU Leuven • Neil Cooke , University of Birmingham • L ynn V an den Broeck , KU Leuven • Diana Martin , University College London • Mircea T oboșaru , National University of Science and T echnology POLITEHNICA Bucharest • Esther V entura- Medina , T echnische Universiteit Eindhoven • T inne De Laet , KU Leuven • John Mitchell, University College London • Jennifer Griffiths , University College L ondon • Raja T oqeer , The University of Sheffiel d • Jose Carlos Quadrado , ENAEE • Patrik Mottl , Czech T echnical University in Prague • Johanna Naukkarin en , Lappeenranta University of T echnology • Sonia Gomez Puente , Eindhoven Uni v ersity of T echnology • Chika Nweke , University College London L o c a l O r g a n i s i n g C o m m i t t e e ( L O C ) • H a n n u - M a t t i J ä r v i n e n , c h a i r • R i i k k a K a n g a s l a m p i , c o - c h a i r • K l a r a F e r d o v a , S E F I S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l • S i m o A l i - L ö y t t y • J a n i H i r v o n e n • J e n n i H u k k a n e n • T e r h i K a a r a k k a • T e r h i K i l a m o • H o s s e i n M o k t a r i a n • M I k k o N u r m i n e n • E i j a P a j u n e n • T i m o P o r a n e n • V e l i - P e k k a P y r h ö n e n • E r j a S i p i l ä • U l l a - T a l v i k k i V i r t a • Z h e y i n g Z h a n g 8 Chair ’ s Greetings The conference in T ampere took place in September 2025 with the theme “Engineering and Society . ” The theme brought together eng ineering as a skill and the ways in which engineering af fects social development— often unintentionally . Th is unintentional impact is one of the challenges we face; engineers should be more aware of it. At the same time, society influences engineering. For instance, the United Nations’ principles of sustainable development set important goals for humani ty , many of which can only be achieved with t he help of technology . In my opinion, the theme was clearly reflected throughout the conference, as was an equal and inclusive approach, which is also part of the UN principl es. The feedback we received from the conference was very positive, although there are always aspects that can be improved. Th e conference organiser provi des the environment for processing and evaluating the papers and arranges the venue and logi stics, but the content and atmosphere are created by the participants. The atmosphere at the conference was, in my opinion, exceptionally warm and immediate, as it often is at SEFI conferences. I wish to thank all the participants for this; it was y our achievement. My sincere thanks also go to the people involved in organising the conference. Most of the practical work was carried out by the local organi sing t eam, which had already committed to the task at the application stage. Th e conference’s background organization also includes an international committee that makes the final pol icy decisions and decisions on, for example, invited speakers. It is an integral part of organi sing t he conference, and representatives of the upcoming and previous conferences participate in order to improve the event . Naturally , SEFI Headquarters was involved in both committees and ensured smooth communi cation between all parties, including the sponsors, who are an essential part of the conference. This was the second conference that I had the honour of chairing, and I am grateful for the opportunity . Due to my retirement, this was also li ke ly the last one in which I participated. I wish SEFI and all conference participants the very best for the futu re. Hannu-Matti Järvinen Professor , Fell ow of SEFI 9 Eur ope an Societ y for Engineerin g Education – SEFI The European Society for Engineering Education, SEFI, is the largest network of engineering education institutions and educators in Europe. It is an in ternational non - governmental organisation established in Belgium in 1973. SEFI’ s aims and objectives are to contribute to the development and to the improvement of engineering education in Europe, to reinforce the position of the engineering professional s in so ciety , to provide services to our members, to promote information about engi neering education and im prove communication and exchanges between teachers, researchers and students, to develop co-operation between educational engineering institutions and establishments of higher technical education, to promote co-operation between industry and engineering education actors, to be a link between our members and international organizations, and to promote the European dimension in higher engineering education. SEFI serves as a European Forum to its members, composed of institutions of highe r engineering education, academic staff and teachers, students, related associations, and companies in 48 countries. The objectives of SEFI are encountered through a series of activities such as the Annual Conferences, Ad hoc seminars and workshops organised by SEFI’ s special interest groups, T askforces on specific topics, the organization of the European Enginee ring Dea ns Conventions, Publications (incl. the European Journal of Engineering Edu cati on), European projects, Position papers, regular SEFI@work webinars, and European Enginee ring Educators podcast series. A large part of SEFI’ s activities is dedicated to the cooperation with other major European associations and international bodies the European Commission, the UNES CO, t he Council of Europe, or the OECD. The SEFI Annual Co nference is a scientific conference focused on Engineering Education and is the biggest event of this type in Europe. Th e conference is a unique opportunity for professors, students, industry and professiona l organ isations to exchange their vie ws and to meet their peers and create a European network of contacts. SEFI is based in Brussels. For further information please visit our website: www .sefi.be or contact [email protected] e. 16 K e yn ot es Mon day Se pt ember 15, 2025 P olitical pow er of t echnology – should we start t eachi n g political science f or en gin eering students? K arl-Erik Michelsen Professor for Science, T echnolog y and Modern Society , LUT , Finland Karl-Erik Michelsen, Professor (emer .) in science, technology and modern society at LUT University . Michelsen’ s research interests have focused on innovations, large technological systems, and scientific and technological cultures. Michelsen has educated both business and engineering students at LUT University to understand how innovation s are made and how science and technology has become the one of the most powerful force in modern societies. 17 W edn esday Sept ember 1 7 , 2025 T ow ards socially r esponsible, post -n ormal an d refle xive engineering ethics education T om Børsen an d Shannon Chan ce T om Børsen, Associate Professor at Aalborg University , has transformed engineering education by integrating social sciences, humanities, and ethics into technical curricula. As co-developer of the T echno-Anthropolog y program, he has pioneered Problem-Based Learning strategies that prepare engineers to tackle real-world challenges with interdisciplinary insight and ethical awareness. His initiatives, ranging from online onboarding to industry- engaged case wor k, have enhanced collabor ation, adapt ability , and ethical reasoning for over 500 graduates now workin g w orldwide.Through active engagement in SEFI’ s Ethics Special Interest Group and co -editing The Routledge International Handbook on Enginee ri ng Ethics Education, T om’s influence extends internationally , shaping best practices for sociall y responsible and post -normal engineering education. Shannon Chance , Lecturer and Programme Chair at TU Dublin and Honorary Professor at University College London, mentors and builds communi ty across engineering education research globally . In chairing the Research in Engineering Education Network, Shannon expanded representation of the Governing Board to reflect global demographics, established capacity-building programmes, and co-organized innovative community-building activities during the pandemic. She leads researcher development programmes via SEFI, deputy edits 18 SEFI’ s European Journal of Engineering Education, and has spearheaded the publication of four special-focus issues and Th e Routledge Inter national Handbook on Engineering Ethics Education, mentoring others through the publ ication process and bringing focus to pert inent issues: ethics and environmental sustainability , student development, socio -cultural diversity , and teaching abstract concepts to students. As co -developer of architecture degree programmes for both NewGiza Uni versity and Hampton University , Shannon has helped shape the educational landscape for thousands of students across Egypt and North America 19 Thursda y Sept ember 18 , 2025 Reflection r e - en gineered. Don’t ask students t o reflect. Cre at e th e conditions for Reflection ∞ t o emerge Pleun Hermsen Director of the Reflective Engineer programme, TU Delft, the Netherlands Pleun Hermsen is a versatile education professional at TU Delft. Originally , she start ed her career as a trauma surgeon, but her love for education led her to a change of direction. She developed extensive experience in teaching, instructional design as well as educational management in (medical-)technical education. Her non-tr aditional profil e w ithin engineering education has inspired her to focus on reflection for engineers as a catalyst for learni ng deeper , more broadly , and more comprehensive. Her view is to merge disciplinary education with broader development of the students and staff . T o materialize those intenti ons, Pleun f ounded and spearheaded a TU Delft wide program, the Reflective Engineer . There, her team co-cr eated many educational in novations with teachers and students. Reflective Engineer interventions are guided on the principle that reflection is easier said than done. Instead of asking people to reflect we shoul d cr eate the conditions where reflection can emerge. Reflection helps engineers to unravel their own perspect ive, understand, and appreciate other peoples’ perspective for students to become better 20 equipped at dealing with complexity and can become responsibl e eng ineers in today’ s socio - technological society . Goals of these interventions are diverse, ranging from giving and receiving feedback, to study success, ethics, collaboration, etc. One of these interventions is an open-so urce board game called Campfire T alk that f acilitates unsu pervised peer - to -peer coaching. The work in the Reflective Engineer program has resulted in an evidence-informed and practice-based framework that supports educational professional s in creating the conditions for meaningful reflection in their own practice. Pleun’ s work is support ed by two Educational Grants from the prestigious Comenius network. 21 SEFI 20 25 A w ar ds Best Student P aper Anup Shrestha, Julia Sundman, Sudeep Lamsal, Josias L ángritter , Maija T aka, Olli V aris: Ar e Disaster- Prone Countries’ Undergraduate Students Prepared? Insights From a Civil Engineerin g Program in Nepal The paper “Are Disaster-Prone Countries’ Undergraduate Students Prepared? Insights from a Civil Engineering Program in Nepal” investigates how well civil engineering students in Nepal are equipped with Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) knowl ed ge and resilience competencies. Using a survey of 127 undergraduates, the study found that while students show awareness of disasters and basic resilience concepts, their main sources of knowledg e are infor mal (social media, friends, family), with limited academic exposure to DRR courses or training. Although competences gr ow with academic progression, gaps remain in applying resilience thinking to engineering design. Best Rese arch P aper Sandra Ireri Cruz Moreno, S han non Chance: Evolving Gender Dynamics i n T eamwork Experiences Among Female Engineerin g Students i n PBL Settings 22 Best Pr a ctice P aper Ruth Fisher , Divya Jayakumar Nair , Javier V idelo Mario, Shamim Aryampa Reviewing Reviews: Using Multi st age Peer Reviews t o Provide Feedback a nd Improve Student Learning Susann e Ihsen A w ard Eva Murphy , Mary Nolan, Mary Carden, Colin Keogh, Lizbeth Goodman: Inclusive by Design: Embedding E DI in Engineering Through Design Thi nking Hackathons 23 Table of Contents P a p e r s T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s Arr anged in Alph abetical Or der by Usin g the First Named A uthor Rese ar ch Papers I. Abuishmais, A. Al-Zoubi, F. Shahroury Students 4.0: Designing Learning Pathways in Evolving Energy Mar ket b y Embedding Sustainability Skills in Capstone Project 40 D. I. Agholor, S. G. Dagit The Imperative of Lifelong Learning for Africa n E ngineers 5 0 M. Alrizqi, A. Godwin Modeling Feedback Dynamics in Learning Studios: A Causal -Loop Analysis of an Undergraduate Mechanical Engineering Curriculum 62 S. Arbi, B. Kloot, C. Shaw Addressing Inclusivity of Women in Engineering Education: Suggest ions from Students in South Africa and Germany 7 5 M. S. Artiles, H. M. Matusovich, J. M. Cruz, S. Adams From Proving to Connecting: The Shifting Nature of Belonging in th e First Year of Minoritized US Doctoral Engineering Students 8 6 M. Asplund, P. Ihantola, L. Malmi Public Organisations' Talk on AI Education and Skills Develop me nt in Finland 100 S. M. Bairoh Gender Differences in Perceived Mental Health and W ellbeing Among Engineering Stu dents in Finland 1 11 E. M. Bakama, Z. Simpson Assessing Student Performance in Tutored vs Non -Tutored Modules: A Case Study in a South African University 1 20 V. Baldasso, D. Peña -Torres, J. Sundman, M . Taka, A. Mikola Circular economy for water education: Job market expectations and high er educational offeri ngs in Finland 1 30 S. G. Bawa, A. Ogunnoiki, H. Chang Transforming Experimental Education: Automation, Robotics, And Progra mm ing for Material Synthesis 1 41 J. Bennedsen, J. Roslöf, B. L. Hansen, G. E. D. Øien , R. A. Berge, B. Andersen Towards Nordic University Collaboration on Lifelong Learning for Engineers: Triangulating Stakeholder Perspectives 1 50 N. Bury, D. Shallcross, S. Male Connections Between Chemical Engineering Principles and Sustain able Development A Delphi Study 16 1 G. Buskes, G. Langie, S. Craps, S. Male, N. Khan Comparing European and Australian Students’ Preferences f or Engine ering Roles Using Prefer Explore 16 9 E. Buten, A. W. Johnson Literature Review of Engineering Student Perceptions of Professional Skills 17 8 P. Caratozzolo, C. J. M. Smith, S. M. Gomez Puente, B. Nørg aa rd, M. Urenda Moris Exploring the Transformative Potential of Pan-Eu ropean Networks to Enhance the Continu ing Engineering Education Ecosystem 201 25 J. Gabková, Š. Gužela, M. Halaj Why Has Mathematics Become a Nightmare at Technical Universiti es? 13 13 M. P. Garcia Souto, A. Nasrollahy Sh iraz, A. Odu nsi, J. Siefker Impact Of Grouping Strategy on Students’ Performance and Satisfa ction with Teamwork 13 22 M. G. Guerne, K. Müller, B. -M. Block, J. Heger Developing Sustainable Concepts for the Textile Industry Using Production Si mu lation A Problem-Based Learning Approach 13 31 L. Guo, J. Jiang Development of an Algorithm for Strategic Group Allocation 13 40 A. M. Gursch, L. Hasse, D. Stober, C. Trinitis, U. Lucke Action-Oriented Learning Design for AI Hardware Courses 134 9 L. J. Haller, M. Boussé, G. Phillips Co -Creating Authentic Learning Experiences in Mathematics: Integrating Sustainability into Engineering Calculus 135 9 L. Heikinheimo, A. -M. Tuomala, M. Varheenmaa OHITE - Adaptive Textile Engineering Learning Imperatives in Response to the Green Tran sition 136 9 R. E. Higbee, T. J. Moore, K. A. Douglas Environmental Justice and Climate Justice in Formal Primary and S econdary Education: A Systematized Literature Review 137 9 A. Hingle, A. Johri Systematic Review of Collaborative Learning Activities for Promoting AI Literacy 13 92 M. Hunter, B. Ruth Pedagogical Partnership as an Unconventional and Valuable Approach in C urriculum Design 1 403 A. Hutchison, C. Abrahamsson Advancing Engineering Students from Capstone to Career with Ser vice Design Methodology 14 12 Y. Jalali, G. Langie, A. Verburgh, A. Dexters Designing Laboratory Sessions in Science a nd Engineering: A Holistic Framework and G uidin g Questions 14 23 B. Jaradat, B. R. Krogstie Developing Sustainability Competencies Thro ug h Design Work in an Introductory Human Computer Interaction Course 143 5 H. -M. Järvinen, J. J. Särkijärvi, J. -P. Teini, U. -T. A. Virta Ethical Challenges and Support for Engineers 144 5 S. K. Jylhä, P. M. Honka Enhancing Communication Skills in Engineering Education: Curr iculum Development for the Green Transition 14 52 M. -S. Kantanen, A. Pikkarainen Development of project- and work-life skills in m ultidisciplinary engineering student project 146 1 O. Kasatkina Mentorship as a Tool for Success for First-Year Students: Approach and Training 14 70 I. Kontro, H. Kuuluvainen Use Of Video Materials on a Flipped-Classroom Physics Course 147 8 J. A. Koskinen Learning Cyber Security or Only Memorizing? 148 7 E. -K. Kurki, V. Laaksonen, P. Alestalo, S . Ali -Löytt y, A. -M. Ernvall-Hytönen, J. Rämö Developing Undergraduate Mathematics Education in a Network of Finnish Universities 149 6 32 I. Le Duc, S. Daniel, I. Josa, K. Lan Hing Ting, R. Saad, V. Rossi, J. Truslove Reflective Tools and Good Practices to Reinforce Ethics, Responsibil ity a nd Sustainability in Engineering Education 1 5 0 3 I. Le Duc, Q. Delval Translating Feminist Analytical Concepts into Operational Tools to Sensitise Engineering Students on Powersplaining and Mansplaining 15 13 C. Lemke, A. -K. Winkens, M. Marie, C. Leicht-Scholten Fostering Reflection in Engineering: An Approach for a Mandatory Fi rst -Ye ar Bachelor´s Course in the Era of Generative AI 15 23 C. Li, C. Almeida, S. Matthews, H. Eskelinen Peer Review Versus Manual Assessment in a Multicultural 3D Modeling Course 15 34 C. Li, H. Eskelinen Bridging the Gap: Implementing Doctoral Stu dy P rocess in a Postgraduate U niversity Cou rse 15 44 S. Lord, C. Finelli Student Response to Sociotechnical Content in an Introduction to Circuits Class at Two Institutions 155 5 T. Lucio Nieto, D. L. Gonzalez-Bañales Bridging The Practical Agile Skills Gap: Immersive Gamification for Enhancing Soft Skills i n Engineering Education 156 5 N. Malečková, P. Mottl, L. Dohnalová, M. Zoula Motivating role of the University Alliance on Engineering Education Reflection of CTU in Prague 157 6 M. Malone, C. Mullan, F. Farrell Shaping Online Student Success: The Power of Scenario -Based Learning on Understandi ng and Confidence 158 3 L. Marin Reflecting On Values in Technological Innovation Through Science Fiction Narrative Map ping 159 4 E. Mas de les Valls, L. Canals Casals, A. Doria-Cerezo, L. Ferrer-Martí, E. Fossas Whole-Institution Approach to Transform Industrial Engineering Studies at ETSEIB -UPC 160 6 M. Mladenovic, J. Olin, A. Johri Centring Sustainability for Curriculum Redevelopment: Case Study of a Joint Spatial Plannin g and Transportation Engineering Program 161 6 A. Moseley, H. Løje, J. K. Jensen Digitizing Mechanical Engineering Education: An Early Review 162 6 E. Murphy, M. Nolan, M. Carden, C. Keogh, L. Goodman Inclusive by Design: Embedding Edi in Engineering Through Design Thinkin g Hackathons 163 5 V. Murto, S. Bairoh, J. -P. Teini Towards Equal Representation in Technology: A Study on Actions in Finnish University Engineering Education 16 44 M. B. Nolan, E. Murphy, M. Carden, D. Mulligan, L. Goodman Reframing Design Thinking through Care: A Pedagogical Intervention to Foster Eth ical Reflection and Epistemic Sophistication in Engineering Education 16 54 L. O’Gorman, A. Gwynne -Evans, L. Ridgway, M. Rebow, S. Chance Accreditation Considerations in Engineering Ethics Education: Brid ging Global Standards and Local Practices 16 63 B. Ogwezi Industry and Academic Partnerships to Bridge the Engineering Skills Gap 16 73 33 L. Pei, M. P. Pessoa, D. Zievinger, M. de Haan Enhancing Continuous Professional Development: Adaptive Learni ng Pathways for Teachers in Technical Universities 168 3 A. Pfennig Reflections - The Need of Close Guidance to Be Supportive in Undergraduate Engineering Education (Practice Paper) 16 93 R. C. Primera, J. I. Blanford, R. L. Lemmens, S. Ronzhin 1 701 17 1 0 17 2 1 17 31 17 43 17 53 17 63 17 73 17 81 17 93 180 5 18 13 18 22 18 31 18 41 A Semantic Approach to Curriculum Development & Management: Integrating a 5 -Phased Redesign, ABC Learning Design, and GeoCo urseHu b Ontology for Multi-Moda l Geospatial Education H. Qi, B . Li, C. Chen Teach Engineering S tudents E xp ert Thinking Through Th inking A loud Du ring Problem -Solving L. M. Ridgway , T. Cox, J. B aneham , T. Westb y, F. Piga reDIRECT - Modernising Concep t Inventorie s. A Case S tudy in E lectrical Circuits L. M. Rieckmann , M. Baumann Adapting Objective S tructured P ract ical Examinations for Summative A ssessmen t in E ngineering and Science : Evaluating P ract ical and P rofes sional Skills R. Saad , R. Toqeer Advancing Electromagnetic Transmission L ine K nowledge Th rough Expe riential Learning R. Saad , D. Polson Enhancing E lectrica l and E lectronic Engineering S kills in Mechanical Engineering Education C. Sandberg The Engineer as a Social and Political Actor: Integrating Film into Engineering Education R. Shinde , I . Josa Bridging the Gap in S ustainab le Engineering Education: E xpert-Driven Re design o f a n Open L CA Tool For Industry-Aligned Learning M. Sierra A ndrés, R. Sachdeva Hex-a-Thon : A Collaborat ive and Crea tive L earning Experience f or Interdisciplina ry Students Through Ha nds-On Innovation L. Simmons, M. A. Lan ga n, R. W . Cullen , F. C. Saunders Embedding Flexib le Active L earning A cross a Faculty o f Science an d E ngineering : A Structured Change Managemen t Approach E. A . Siverling , Y. Wang , J. Swanson Teaching a M aterials Science Co u rse With in Project -Ba sed Learnin g I n tegrated Engineeri ng : A Comparison of Three Approaches S. Suhonen , S. K ojo Enhancing I ndustrial Training : Developmen t o f a VR Grinding S i mulator for Manufacturing Education S. J. Suhonen , R. A. Kankaanpää Tacit Knowledge Tran sfer in Finnish Ma nufacturing Companies E. Sylvestre , C. Mathou , M. Laperrouza , J . Lanarès Use o f an 'I mportance-Performance' Too l to I dentify Te achers' Train ing P riorities K. Tarnowski , J. Prisutova The Impa ct o f a Nove l Integrated 1 st Y ear M echan ical En gineering Curriculum R. Toqeer , C. Omar, N . Rosado Ha u , C. Bron ze , M. W right, A. Garrard Achieving B alance: Wha t Is t he O ptimum Proposition of St aff -Led t o S tudent-Led S ession Du ring a Week-Long De sign P roject 185 0 34 E. Torta, A. Sonawane, F. van Beek, M. Sexton, K. de Vos Evolving ChatGPT Usage in Engineering Education: Insights from a Mo bile Robot Control Course 185 9 F. Truscott, L. Smith Controlled Chaos: How Structure Enables Interdisciplinary Teamwork in Mega Classes 186 9 A. M. Valencia Cardona, E. Bravo, C. Brans, B. Koppelmans, M. T alm ar, I. Reymen Delta Program: Towards Supporting the Personal & Proffesion al Development of Students in Extra Curricular Student Teams 187 9 M. Varheenmaa, S. Mallat Learning Experiences on Continuous Learnin g Education for Adults in Working Life in Textiles and Fashion 188 9 A. Verkuilen, H. Broekhuijsen. van, G. Hooge nd orp, S. W. Hegberg - Go Creating Flexible Learning Paths: Integrating Competencies and Modular Learni ng for Engineering Graduates Addressing Societal Challenges 18 9 6 S. Walpita Gamage, A. Richards Assessing the Assessments: A Case Study on the Relationship Between Theoretical, Continuous, and Practical Evaluations in an Engineering Course 190 6 Z. Wang, J. C. Balder, A. Upadhyay, R. Stark Interdisciplinary Project-Based Learning - A Teaching Study on Modi fying a Wheeled Walker 191 6 A. -K. Winkens, J. Rei ne rt Breaking Disciplinary Silos: Implementing an Interdisciplinary Cours e o n Multi Hazards 192 5 T. -J. Yu, I. Renaud-Assemat, S. Beier, D. D. Li Automated Plagiarism Detection in CAD Modelling Courses: Categori sation of Academic Misconduct 193 6 M. Zhang, E. Lindsay, M. -B. Quitzau, J. Bjerva Scaling Course Evaluations with Large Language Models: Semester-level Digestible Student Feedback for Program Leaders 194 5 W ork shop s F. Babayekhorasani, A. Kálmán, D. Carthy, K. Nizamis, C. Smith, H. Väätäjä Bridging Lifelong Learning in Engineering and Healthcare: Challen ges, Opportunities, and Best Practices 195 7 L. B. Bertel, S. Craps, H. Deprez, M. G. Guerne, I. Jos a, G. Kittou, K. Kö vesi, A. Kranjc Horvat, P. Mottl, C. Simarro Attracting Future Engineers: Students’ Choices and Core Concepts i n Se condary Educatio n 196 7 E. A. F. Brady, S. Basu, A. Tongkaew, C. Va n S oom, S. Craps, J. de Lima, F. Truscott Moving Beyond “Breaking Ice” to “Building Bonds” in Engineering Classroo m s: An Evaluation Framework for Team Building Activities 19 73 E. A. F. Brady, N. Wint, I. Direito Addressing Ambiguous Terminology to Improve Conceptual Underst and ing in Engineering Education 19 80 S. C. Brink, S. Gomez Puente, C. J. Carlsson, E. Keller, R. Rooij , R. Lyng, C. McCartan Curriculum Agility: Strategies for Future-Proofing Lea rning and Teaching 198 8 R. Byrne, L. Pick Developing Sustainable Graduates Equipped with the Critical Skills t o L ead the Transition to a Circular Economy 199 5 35 M. Cairns, L. Pick, C. McCartan, E. Cunningham Exploring Student Co-Design of Final Year Major Project Modules 2002 S. Chance Ethical Engineering: Co-Creating Classroom Innovations 200 9 M. Chen, S. Ramesh Kumar, G. Phillips, K. Schneider, M. Boussé Calculus Legacy: A Ludo Didactical Learning Experience for Mathematics in Engineering Education 201 5 D. Christensen, L. Singelmann Taking the Leap from Traditional to Transformative: Implementing Alte rnative Grading in Engineering Courses 20 24 S. de Jong, S. Riteco Strengthen Student-Teacher Partnerships to Improve Teaching and Learning 20 31 C. Deckert, S. Söhnitz Words Don’t Come Easy to Me Teaching Academic Writing to Engineerin g S tudents in the Age Of AI 203 7 M. Di Benedetti, S. Plumb, M. Polmear, D. Avdic, M. Makramalla, K. Kö vesi, J. de Lima, P. Neal, J. Lönngren, J. Griffiths, N. Hari Building a Community of Sessional Teachers: A Workshop on Mattering, Integration, and Justice 204 5 D. M. L. Dias Rasteiro, B. Suleiman, Y. Kaneko AI -Supported Escape Room Tasks in Mathematics for Engineering 20 51 D. M. L. Dias Rasteiro, C. M. A. Pinto Unlocking Success: Digital Escape Rooms in Math Storytelling, Gamification, and “Inclusive” Engagement 205 8 K. Edström, M. de Andrade, J. Bernhard, S. Chance, T. Björklund, S. Male, G. Tho m pson, R. Broadbent, D. May, J. Mitchell, F. Saunders, E. Ventura -Medina Reviewing Manuscripts in Engineering Education Journals - Ref lections and Advice 20 64 E. Engelbrecht, J. Strobel, R. Rooij Moving Beyond Standardized Metrics: Rethinking Criteria for Evaluating Educational Innov atio ns 20 71 C. Gilbertson, J. Van Portfliet Bridging the Gap Between Software and Engineering Curriculum 207 6 J. Gulikers, K. Fortuin, C. Oonk, C. Tho, C. Ramezzano Assessment of Boundary Crossing 20 80 S. J. Hitt, J. Truslove, C. Cooper Storytelling for Impact: Resources to Support Communication for Globally Responsible Engineering 208 8 T. P. Howard, M. Di Benedetti, G. Saunders, A. G arrard Open Educational Resources (OER) in Engineering Education: Fro m A wareness to Action 209 6 A. Jaberi, C. Lucas, F. Ciri ello General Engineering Non-Technical Skills Behavioral Marking System: Video -Simulation Validation Workshop 2 100 P. Johnson, A. Neagu, M. Messer, K. Lundengard, P. Ramsden How Do We Define and Evaluate “Good” Automated Feedb ack? 210 7 N. Jurado Using Roleplay Case Studies Based on Real Scenarios to Teach R elevan ce of Ethics and Decision Making to Undergraduate Engineering Students 21 14 M. Klomp, C. Claij, G. N. Saunders-Smits Meet MIRTE - Using Affordable Open Science Robots in Engineering Education 21 21 36 A. Kranjc Horvat, J. Groll, R. Tormey CLearinghouse of Engineering Education Resources (CLE ER): Bridging Research and Practice 212 7 J. Kruse Understanding Student Motivation in Engineering Educati on 21 34 J. La Scala, D. Gillet Exploring Collaboration Models for Supporting Ideation with AI A gents 21 40 M. Laperrouza, E. Sylvestre Shared Visions: Uncovering Philosophies Behind Curriculum Development 214 8 F. Lopez Soler, K. Vandenborne Mind the Gap! Students, Society and the Future of Engineering 21 5 5 F. Lopez Soler, M. Correia A Dashboard approach to Engineering Curriculum Analysis 21 61 M. Nolan, S. Mahé, M. de Andrade, N. Barakat, S. Chance, S . Durán, A. Fujiki, A. Gwynne -Evans, S. J. Hitt, R. Kjelsberg, N. Al Kakoun, C. Leão, J. Lonngren, C. S haw, T. Shinya, I. Villanueva, A. Voichita Tebeanu, M. Toboșaru, D. A. Martin SIG Ethics WS: Attending to Care in Responsible and Innov ative Design 21 64 M. Nurminen, A. Garrard Digital Learning SIG Workshop 217 2 D. Peña-Torres, V. Baldasso, J. Sundman, M. Taka, A. Mikola Teaching the Loop: Co-Designing Constructively Aligned Circular Economy Courses for Engineering Students 217 7 R. Prestigiacomo, F. Babayekhorasani The Nitty-Gritty of Theoretical Frameworks 218 5 J. C. Quadrado, R. Toqeer Independence of Accreditation Agencies: Challenges and Implicatio ns fo r Global Engineeri ng Education Quality Assurance 21 91 M. Ravi, M. Besharat How Authentic Are Authentic Assessments in Engineering Education ? 21 9 6 J. M. Rinder Using the Results from Needs Analysis Surveys to Boost Stude nt Engineers’ Language and Communication Skills 2 2 0 3 V. Rossi, A. Kranjc Horvat From Words to Action: Designing Meani ng ful Engineering Oaths with Tangible Objects an d a Digital Support 22 11 J. Sundman, C. Vonk, A. Guerra, A. Bai er Strengthening Sustainability in Engineering Educati on Through Collective Action: SEFI SIG Sustainability Workshop 2025 22 1 6 R. Tormey, N. Kotluk Emotion in Engineering Ethics Cases: How Should Engine ers Respond to Righteous Ange r? 22 1 9 T. V. Vakhitova, N. Martin, P. Ireland Social Sustainability in Engineering Curriculum with Social Impact Audit Tool 22 2 7 L. Van Den Broeck, N. Cooke, M. Di Benedetti, T. Johannsen, E. Till ey, J. Griffiths, A. -K. Winkens, H. Kovacs, R. Manzini, R. Hadgraft, G. Saund ers SIG Engineering Skills - Comp lementing the Conventional: En gineering Competencies and Skills for an Uncertain Future 22 3 5 E. Ventura -Medina, T. De L aet, M. de Andrade, S. Chance, J . Be rhard Decisions, decisions: Methodological approaches in Engineering Education Research 22 41 37 C. Verboven, T. De Laet, L. Van den Broeck, U. Be agon, E. Ventura -Medina, K. Kovesi, C. Van Soom Addressing Social and Academic Integration Challenges of Stem St ud ents: Co -Creating Interventions for First-Yea r Minority Students 224 8 A. Verkuilen Creating AI Personas for Educational Setting s: A Prepared4ed Appr oa ch 22 5 4 R. Waldeck, A. -K. Winkens, C. Lemke, C. Leicht -Scholten, H. Audunsson Identifying Curriculum Disruptions in Engineering Education Through Serious Gaming 226 1 38 Research papers STUDENTS 4.0: DESIG NING LEARN ING PATHWAYS IN EVOLVI NG ENERGY MARKET BY EMBEDDING SUSTAINA BILITY S KILLS IN CAPSTO NE PROJ ECT Ibrahim Abuishmais a, 1 , Abdallah Al - Zoubi b , Fadi Shahroury c a Electrical Engineering Department , Princess Sumaya University for Technology , Amman, Jordan. 0000-0002-7175 -5596 b Communication Enginee ring Department , Princess Sumaya University for Technology , Amman, Jordan . 0000-0002-7267-0519 c Electrical Engineering Department , Princess Sumaya University for Te chnology , Amman, Jordan . 0000-0001-8502-3946 Conference Key Areas : Curriculum development and emerging curr iculum mode ls in engineering . Engineering skills, professional skills, and transversal skills Keywords : Students 4.0, Capstone projects, futu re skills, University 4.0, Experiential Learning. ABSTRACT The advent of Industry 4.0 profoundly tran sformed the globa l energy market and required a workforce wi th a modern technical and s usta inability skill set that alig ns with two goals of th e United Nations Sustainable D evelopment Goals (SDGs), 7 and 16. A new generation of students, trained to acqu ire a wide range of skills to participate actively in the future market, is referred to as Student 4 .0. Capstone proje cts are an efficient tool to e quip e ngineering students with several high -learning skills. An instructional design method of designing and executing a capstone pr oject by elect rical power and ener gy undergraduate students that encompasses conception, design, implementation, vali dation , and dissem ination is propo sed, targeting skills such as problem-solving, critic al thinking, and int erdisciplinary collaboration. Several projects were off ered, and a case stu dy involving the de sign of a solar -powered n anogrid for disaster zon es demonstrated the p ractical application of the p roposed framework. Assessment su rveys that mea sured learning outcomes, career alignment, satisfaction levels, and th e effectiveness of the design learning pathway showed improved attainment of targeted high -orde r skills with an increased satisfaction leve l of 1 7.5%. The p roposed mod el ma y co nsequently effectively p repare students for the dynamic demands of the future energy market, promoting sustainability and i nno vation. 1 Corresponding Author : Ibrahim Abu ishmais i.abuishma [email protected] o DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631818 40 1 INTRODUCTION The Fourth Industrial Revoluti on profoundly influe nced the global economy a s it caused irreversible changes an d transformatio ns to lab or developme nt, t he production environment, the job ma rkets, a nd the skills required by employees (Viswana than & Telukdarie, 2022). In tegrating artificial intelligence (AI) in variou s industries is already causing profound transformation in th e n atur e a nd character o f work (Lokesh et al., 2024). The Industry 4.0 workf orce is now characterized by the ability to a dapt to technological advances, high levels of dig ital literacy, and an emphasis on interpersonal and higher-orde r cognitive a nd interdisciplinary skills (Pontes et a l., 2021). This refle cts the dynamic natu re of modern ma n ufacturing and the integration of advanced technologies such a s automation, artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things (I oT), blockchain, augmented reality, a nd 3D printin g (Caratoz zolo et al., 20 24) . To ensure the quality of workforce training in the c on text of Ind ustry 4.0, it has become par amount fo r countries to p redict future skills, a s this will enable individuals and organizations to ad apt to t he rapidly changing in dustrial environment, remain competitive, a nd th rive. A novel me thod to predict n ew and future skills, a requirement using extensive data a nalysis protocol, has recen tly been introduced (Telukdarie, Munsamy, & Gaula, 2021) . AI has been u tilized to pred ict future technological shifts and the associated tra nsve rsal and technological skills (Lokesh et al., 2024) . Capstone projects m ay be utilized to pre pare students in t he final ye ar of a bachel or's degree prog ram in the Electrical Power and E nergy Engineering (EPEE) p rogram to cultivate high learning skills required i n th e energy m arket. This pape r presents an instructional design approach of a capstone project for undergr aduate stude nts, focusing on achieving two of th e United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), m ainly 7 and 1 6. The work continues the effort s m ade by P rincess Sumaya University for Technology to rea lize the concept o f Student 4.0 by providing students with a firsthand encounter with Industry 4.0 b y using remote labs as an assessment technique to foster v irtual co llaboration, social intellig en c e, an d commun ication skills(Al-Zoubi, San Cristobal, Shahroury, & C astro, 2023) . 2 STUDENTS 4.0 CONCEPT The reality of Indus try 4.0 thus requires unive rsity students and engineering graduates to foster bo th transversal and technical digital skills to develop a universal perspe ctive and cultural awareness to become responsible and sustainable g lobal citizens (García-García et a l., 2023). T he trad itional e ducation systems may n eed to be revise d to provide the workforce with the new skills and competencies necessary in the age of Industry 4.0 (Liu, 2023). Harkins envisioned the fut ure of university ed ucation as early as 2008 a s a transformative sh ift towards innovation -producing education, embodying the new parad igm of Ed ucation 4 .0 (Harkin s, 2008) . This pa radig m emphasizes the continuous production o f new kn owledge and its application through a dvanced technologies. Universities will be come hubs of crea tivity, where students are not just consumers of information but activ e creators and innovators . The learning environment will be highly interactive, leveraging digital tools and collaborative platforms to fo ster a culture of constant innovation. In the future, students must be adaptable, creative, and proficient in usin g emerging technologies. They will be expected to think systemically, conduct simulations, and thrive amidst change and uncertainty. Skills su ch a s critical th inking, problem -solving , an d innovation will be paramount. The job market will dema n d individuals who can produce and apply new knowledge, work collaboratively in diverse team s, and continuously adapt to e volving 41 REFERENCES Al -Zoubi, A., San Crist ob al, E., Shahroury, F., & Castro, M. (2023). The m iddle east higher education experience: Implemen ting remote labs to improve t he acquisition of skills in industry 4.0. IE EE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17 , 982-991. Caratozzolo, P., Cukierman, U., Nørgaard, B. , S chrey -Niemenmaa, K., Azofeifa, J. D., & Rueda-Castro, V. (2024). Fu ture skills forecasting: ensuring quality learning for every segment of the workforce. Paper presented at the 20 24 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conf erence (EDUCON). Fuchs, I., Rajasekharan, J., & Cali, Ü. (2024). Decentralization, decarbonization and digitalization in swarm electrification. E nergy for Sustainable Develo pment, 81 , 101489. García-García, R., Vázquez -Villegas, P., Cant isani, M. I . 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The operator 4.0: Human cyber-physical systems & adaptive automation towards human-automation symbiosis work systems. Pa per presented at the Advances in Production Management Syste m s. Initiatives for a Sustainab le World: IFIP WG 5.7 International Conference, APMS 201 6, Iguassu Fall s, Brazil, September 3-7, 2016, Revised Selected Papers. Tahmina, Q., & Kelley, K . (2024). AB ET Assessment Program for a Bach elor of Science in Engineering Technology Degree – Strateg ies and Best Practices. Paper presented at the 2024 ASEE An nual Conference & Ex po sition. 48 Telukdarie, A., Munsamy, M., & Gaula, M. (2021). Big Data Analysis for Predicting Future Skills. Paper presented at the 2021 I EEE International Conference on Industrial Eng ineering and Engineering Man agement (IEEM). Viswanathan, R., & Telukdarie, A. (2022). The impact of 4IR on the future skills in food and beverage industry. Paper presented at the 2022 Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Tech nolog y (PICMET). Wanasinghe, T. R., Trinh, T., Nguyen, T ., Gosine, R. G., James, L. A., & Warrian, P. J. (2021). Human centric digital transformation and operator 4.0 for t he oil and gas industry. IEEE Access, 9 , 113270-113291. 49 THE IMPE RATIVE OF LIFELONG LEARNI NG FOR AFRICA N ENGINEE RS . DI Agholor a,1 , SG Dagit b , a Pan-Atlantic University , La gos , Nigeria , 00 00 -0002 -4500-2961 b Pan-Atlantic University , La gos , Nigeria , 0009-0007-1590-9267 Conference Key Areas : Continuing education and life-long learning in engineering, Open and online education for engineers Keywords : Lifelong learning, Continuous Learning, Africa n Engine er s, Education and Professional Development ABSTRACT A sturdy foundation for lifelong learning is necessary due t o t he rapid p ace of technological innovation and the evolving needs of the engineering profession. Many engineers in Africa grapple with several challenges with regards to continuou s learning, such as lack of financial support. A literature review was employed in developing this paper, leveraging database s such as Google Scholar & EBSCOhost , including articles from Engineering Journals . This stud y emphasised the significance of lifelong learning for engineers in sub-Saharan Africa. It further stressed the importance of problem-based learning, self-directed learning, and combining formal and informal education leveraging online courses , workshops, and professional conferences. It concluded that in addition to the already acq uired skil ls from higher institutions of learning, continuou s learning off ers African engineers better opportunities to meet industrial demands. Hence, relevant stakeholders need to collaborate in fostering lifelong learning amon g e ngineers in the region . 1 DI Agholor [email protected] DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631882 50 1 INTRODUCTION The imperative of continu ing learning is increasingly evident due to the int ricate challenges confronting engineers today, such as societal expectatio ns, technological upheaval, and climate change (Axelithioti et al, 2023). Continuing education is crucial for African engineers seeking to maintain their influence and relevance in society (Naimpally, Ramachandran & Smith, 2011). Mne imneh and Ramakri shn a (2023) assert that, notwithstanding th e surge in technical progress, the engineering profession stays dynamic. Thus, highlighting the importance of ongoing knowledge and skill development t o mee t industrial expe ctation s (Mustafa & Lle shi, 2 024). Al Masoud, Naoumov and Kirstukas (2013) be lieve that professionals who embrace ongoing education are better positioned to develop their technical competency, critical thinking skills, and inventiveness for creative problem -solving. Moreover , the fact that today’s engineering problems are multidisciplinary highlights the importance of teamwork. Similarly, Rawa (2024) argues that engineers should s tay cu rrent on emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence to improve their problem -solving skills and keep a competitive edge in the job market. Furthermore, Froehle et al. (2024) noted that engineers who work with experts from other fields , includ ing environmental science, economics, or social sciences, usually provide solutions that address complicated issues. Together, Africa n e ngineers and profes sion als fr om other fields need to welcome diverse viewpoi nts, b roaden their area s of expertise, and promote results -driven innovation through lifelong learning. Also, it is interesting to note that the advantages of lifelong learning exte nd beyond personal development, as engineers who actively pursue continuing education significantly improve their career progression and employment security (Mustafa & Lleshi, 2024). More importantly, professionals who pursue lifelong learning report feeling more empowered to innovate and make meaningful contri butions to their industry, which leads to employment contentment (Mustafa & Lleshi, 2024). Given the amount of existing li te rature highlighting the value of continuous lea rning for organisational and professional advancement, th is stud y seeks to answer the following questions to suggest solutions for encouraging continuous learning among African engineers : RQ 1: What obstacles must African engineers overcome to put in place successful programmes for contin uous learning ? RQ 2: What tactics are available for incorporating lifelong learning skills into engineering curricula in Africa ? There is a rapid rise in tech nological advancement in industries toda y , and the needs of corporations are changing as well, which speaks volumes about the need for employees to pursue lifelong learning (Ying et a l., 2023). Regretfully, many organisations within Afri ca still struggle to est ablish a cultu re that pr om otes continuous improvement (Rodrigues da Fonseca et al., 2019). This has probably led to Yusof et al. (2024) proposing looking at how aspects like work -life qu ality may inspire people to pursue professional development and ongoing education. Hence, the motivation behind this Paper. At this year’s SEFI Annual Conference, we as engineers need to criticall y e xamine the impact and potential benefit of promot ing li fe long learning in our profession across other regions of the worl d p articularly in Africa where the technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, nanotechnology, 3D printing, blockchain, and digital healthcare are yet to be fully adopted. Also, this study draws our attention to not only improving tec hn ical proficiency but also developing reflective leaders who can confidently and creatively navigate the complexity of our environment. This 51 should further guarantee that African engine ers a re prepared to handle existential issues while looking forw ard t o new opportunities . Establishing an engineering ecosystem that values lifelong learning and skill development in Africa and other parts of the world is now a ne cessity. 2 . Literature Search/Selection A systematic review was emp loyed in this stu dy u sing the title to search for reviewed articles from 2010 to 2025 in Googl e S cholar, which produced 19,100 results (0.42 sec). Anothe r search was carried out, changing the keyword Lifelong Learning to Continuous Lea rning. This resulted in 19,100 reviewed articles ( 0.0 5 sec). In EBSCOhost , while the title search pro duced n o results, ch anging the word for African Engineers to Engineers yielded 1 result. Furthermore, other related articles were sourced f rom Naimpally et al (2012) . The Google Scholar search produced 82 results (0.05 sec). Thereafter, the abstracts of the 83 reviewed articles were examined and 29 full tex ts were selected based on their relevance to the subject matter . Other available materials from journal articles such a s th e European Journal of Engineering Education, Global Jou rna l of Engineering Education, including proceedings from SEFI conferen ces, provided insights into the issue of lifelong learning, specifically about the challenges bedevilling the continuous education of African engineers and how innovative learning methods can help address them. 3 RESULTS 3. 1 Statistics and Tre nds in Continuing Education in Engineering. There are some cases of the impact of lifelong learning among engineering students and professionals in Europe and America. Based on a mixed-methods evaluation by Osterhus et al (2023), the Europe -wide challenge-based learning (CBL) initiative had positive impact on the participant’s social a wareness and problem -solving skills. The authors identified continuous learning as one of the core elements of the program me . In addition, using both survey and econometric analysis , Volo et al (2019) argued for ongoing education in Europe as the right appr oa ch for knowledge and skill tran sfer among engineers and other professionals across different generations. Be yond developing a skilled workforce, they believed that it h as mea surable benefits for the region’s economy. Discussing global trends in university-based continuous learning and its application in the European Union, Chakrab arti et al (2017) highlighted how the International Association of Continuous Engineering Education (IACEE) is fostering collaborations between academia and industry. The study further emphasised the need for upskilling engineers and supporting th eir career transitions to enable them to stay adaptable and employable across Mexico, A ustralia, Norway and the USA. Furthermore, studies show that lifelong learning for engineers and other professionals is crucial in America’s te chnolo gical a dvancement. For example, Johri (2022) in his digital ethnographies of two early-career soft ware engi ne ers in the United States illustrated ho w lifelong and lifewi de le arning can expedite expertise among engineers by affording them opportu nities to gain new knowl ed ge and skills beyond the classroom. Apparently, the shift to online learning environ m ents has become es sen tial for continuing education in this day and age due t o t heir capacity to help engineers advance their knowledge and abilities despite all ob stacles (Abumandour, 2022). According to the World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs study, 44% of workers’ talents will change over the next half-decade; hence, this brings to the fore the need 52 for continuous engineering education (Frontiers, 2024). It also argued that the primary barriers to pursuing engineering education are the effec ts of clima te change, shifting skill requirements, and the underrepr ese ntation of minoritie s in e ngineering. Furthermore, it recommended that curr icula be mod ified to provi de professionals with the skills they need to thrive in an increasingly digita l world. Many organisations and professions have recently adapted this trend to conform to international standards (Frontiers, 2024). In a bid to address the issue of underrepresentation of minorities in engineering, Žnidaršič and Jereb (2011) opined that divers ity, e quity, and inclusion (DEI) received more attention in continuing engineering education programmes at many institutions, indicating that creating inclusive envir on ments can improve the capacity for creativity and problem-solving within engineering teams. This can provide equal access to opportunities for professional growth for all en gineers. Unfortunately, studies show gender dispari ty, environmental degradation, and corruption as some key factors affecting engineering education and, by implication, continuous learning among African engineers (Preece, 2014). Some scholars have argued that a major factor affecting engineering educa tion is the emigration of established engineers to other countries, particul arly Europe and America, in search of better opportunities. In fact, Mashiyane et al. (2024), citing Lawless’ survey report, posited that 40% of professional engineers in Sub - Saharan Africa strongly believed that th e necessary skills required b y g raduates cannot be delivered through engineering ed ucation. This points to fu nd amental issues such as an inappropriat e curriculum, lack of essential learning infrastructure, among other things . However, there have been suggestions for lifelong learning to be co nce ptualised within the African context (ubuntu) to reflect its value syste m and the need to merge academic knowledge, local wisdom, and experience thro ug h community - focused learning (Hoppers & Yekhlef, 2012). This could be an area for further research. 3.2 The Landscape of Continuing Education in Africa As previously said, many industries now adapt to technolo gical a dvances through sustained lifetime learning to maint ain competitiveness and stimulate innovation (Žnidaršič & Jereb, 2011). Salama and Hinton (2023) a ssert that this change is evident in higher education institutions, where there is a growing need for acce ssible and flexible learning choices, especially during the COVID -19 pandemic. Until recently, most African countries were ignorant of incorporating tech nology in education. For instance, integrating prompt engineering, a f ace t of AI engineering, has experienced redun dan cy due to the rich t ap estry of cultures, languages, and traditions (Murungu, 2024). Despite the UNESCO (2019) report showing a n increase in the gross enrolment ratio in basic education across Sub-Saharan Afri ca f rom 58% in 1990 to 79% in 2018, discou rses around lifelong learning appears scanty . Given recent advancements in technology, scholars believe that p rofessionals, including African engineers, can now expand their knowledge and skills through continuous learning, online platforms while juggling work and home obliga tions (Teich, Loock & Rummel, 2024). Hoon (2018) noticed that the flexibil ity given by online courses allows individua ls to increase t heir skills and knowledge at their own speed, which is particularly appealing to mature students and engineers who struggle with many commitments. More so , to satisfy learners’ different requir em ents, online education offers previously unavailable chances for professional dev elopm ent 53 (Abedini, Abedin & Zowghi, 2021). Several experts, including engin ee rs in sub- Saharan Africa, will improve their kno wledge and abilities to satisfy market expectations if the proper environment is created. Hence, calling for collaboration amongst critical stakeholders . Despite their recognition of the value of continuing education, most African institutions usually face challenges in implementing these program me s, ranging from inadequate financing and outdated curriculum to inadequate infrastructure (Mashiyane et al, 2024). This lack of support may hinder workers’ ability to seek lifelong learning, which could ultimately impa ct th eir professional growth and job satisfaction. 3.3 Challenges African Engineers Face in Getting Continuing Education Opportunities i. Time Restraints: In a recent survey, 68% of participants found work-related responsibilities as the main reason limiting their engagement in cont inuing professional education (Liodaki & Karalis, 2024), while dealing with other personal commitments, such as household ch ores. ii. Financial Restrictions: Some African engineers may not be awar e o f employer - sponsored programmes or scholarships that may aid the m in covering these costs . Often, financial constraints p revent them from obtaining proper education, which restricts their capacity to pursue lifelong learning (Liodaki & Karalis, 2024). iii. Lack of Institutional Support: Lack of information about educ ational programmes, as well as insufficient workplace support, can be signi ficant barriers to engineers’ participation in continuing education (Liodaki & K aralis, 2024). As a result, communicating and motivating engineers will inspire a lot of them to en gage in continual learning. iv. Opposition to Change: Anti-change cultures are still present in some educational institutions until date (Clark, 2019). This cultural inertia affects engineers’ employment of innovative techniqu es f or learning and engagement (Shuman, 2016). Additionally, some academic s ob served that these engineers may become hesitant to embrace a novel concept du e to their experience with conventional teaching techniques. This worry m ight be brought about by their inexperience with the new tools or their conviction that their pr ese nt methods wo rk well. v. Insufficient Representation in the Programme : Women and other minority groups in the professio ns a re often alienated f rom participating in co ntinuous education due to the prevalence of some cultural norms that prioritise the majority, especially in engineering and other technical fields (Singh et al., 2013). Hence discouraging women's participation in continuous learning, as many of them may feel the need not to take part in activities or programs that barely recognise them. . 3. 4 Why Peer Learning and Mentorship in Professional De ve lopment? To bridge the gap between academic knowled ge and practical application, mentorship might be helpful (Kaul, 2019). The author went on to suggest a triangulated mentorship strategy to improve the entire support network for students and engineering pro fe ssionals by combining i nstructo r supervision with peer mentoring. Conversely, peer mentorship program me s enable fresh engineering students to succeed by providing them with a network of support at an early stage (Budny, Paul & Newborg, 2010). It is expecte d t hat these first-year students will be able to handle academic challenges and deal with the pressures of engineering school during this programme. Peer mentorship has been shown to promote academic achievement an d retention rates, which in turn lead to more happiness 54 and confidence. This could be an area for African engineers t o pursue continuous learning leveraging some traditional learning methods such a s community -focused learning, which engenders participatory decision-m aking as earlier mentioned. Other 21st Century Innovative Learning Methods a) Online courses : Engineers experiencing demanding careers or families may learn at their own pace and in their own time on unpar alleled flexibility and fast platforms (Reginaldo & Ching, 2021). This will provide engineers with access to learning opportunities outside of the conventional classroom. Furthe rmore, these technologies might be utilised to create personalised learning experiences that cat er to each person’s needs. For example, an engineer m ay try out new engineering concepts from the comfort of their own home by taking part in a virtu al lab (Azofeifa et al., 2024). It ensures that experiential learni ng of this kind is relevant to current industry norms. b) Workshops: Although online courses are immensely helpful, practical experience is just as crucial in engineering education since it gives engineers the chance to f ully explore tools or techniques that are pertin en t to their work (Pusca, Bo wers & Northwood, 2017). These interactive s essions encourage peer coop eratio n and creativity. As stated by Lavado-Anguera et al. (2024 ), project-based learning workshops allow participants to work together to solve real -world challenges, improving their technical and collaborative skills. Additionally, workshops can be a venue for experts to network and exchange ideas to address th e issues of contemporary engineering. c) Professional Conferences : Research shows that attending and pa rticipating in professional conferences is another crucial w ay e ngineers may stay current on the latest advancements in their field (Berchin et al, 2018). Practitioners, educators, and industry experts come together to discuss modern technologies and best practices. Conferences also provide a unique networking opportunity for engineers to m ee t potential mentors or collaborators who could develop their careers. According to Žnidaršič and Jereb (2011), conferences usually include sessions on innovative teaching techniques in engineering education. As a result, by discussing effective methods that improve academic pe rformance and increas e st udent engagement, educators may share the best practices. 4 DISCUSSION &CONCLUSION. 4.1 Discussion As we adapt to the world around us, especiall y in te chnological advancement a nd shifting industry needs, lifelong learning for Afri can engineers becomes more crucial in producing innovative engineers who are sk illed in problem -solving, among other things, across all age groups (Osterhus et al., 2023). They are expected to address peculiar cha llenges affe cting the engineering ecosystem in the region but are confronted with myr ia ds of challenges such as ac cess to infrastructure, limited awareness about continuous learning platforms, among others. Therefore, this study highlights the need for lifelong learning in preparing engineers in Africa to innovate in their domains, adapt to new difficulties, a nd have a substantial impact on society. By doin g so , they will be able to promote a culture of continuous improvement and professional progress within the engineering community to o vercome these challenges. 55 1. Together, employers and educational instit utio ns should create robust support systems that increase access to continuing education for African engineers. This includes offering lea rning options that ar e f lexible enough to accommodate the busy schedules of working professionals, such as online courses , h ybrid models, and evening programmes (Snyman & Kruger, 2020). 2. For staff members who want to continue their education, organisations should consider introducing and enhancing financial aid or spons orship programme s (Noe et al., 2014). Reduction in the cost of continuing education through scholarships, grants, o r t uition reimbursement schemes can inspire more engineers to pursue lifelong learning. 3. Setting up structured peer mentorship pro gramm es can foster a co llaborative learning environment where more seasoned African engineers aid less seasoned ones (Sw art et al., 2019). This will improve their learning interest a nd offer better insights into so lving pr ob lems peculiar to the region. 4. Furthermore, utilising d igital platforms for tr ainin g and development can significantly increase the a ccessibility of lear ning resources. Online courses, webinars, and virtual workshops can reach a wider au dience, particularly those in remote or deprived areas (Esco bar-Castillejos et al., 2024) . Engineering societies and other critical stakeholders could help in providing the right infrastructure to facilitate learning in this regard . 5. To keep training programmes current and in line with the skill s needed in the workforce, educational institutions should regularly review and update their curricula to reflect current industry trends and technolog ical advanc ements . Involving industry experts in curriculum design helps ensure that training programmes sta y relev an t (Ferreira et al., 2024; Sabri, 2023). 6. Employers and educational institutions in Afri ca sh ould foster a culture that emphasises lifelong learning as a cru cial part of professional growth (Mahlalela et al, 2021) . Workshops, seminars, a nd awareness campaigns can he lp engineers at all career stages adopt this mindset. Therefore, the availability of adequate learning infrastructure for African engineers will help address the challenges face d in getting continuous education. As in the case with many institutions in Europe and America, where these infrastructures facilitate problem-solving and innovation through lifelong learning , African engineers will be able to address evolving challenges in the regio n when the necessary infrastructure is put in place to encourage lifelong learnin g based on their innovative learning methods. 4.2 Conclusion This study demonstrates the importance of lifelong learning in supporting engineers’ professional growth, innovation, flexibility, an d development. It highlights pertinent barriers such as inadequa te financing, insufficient facilities and outdated curricula as so m e major contributing factors affecting the interest for continuous learning among African engineers. It also contributes to the discussions on lifelong learning for engineers from an African perspective. It recommends effective strategies, including the use of flexible digital platforms, the integration of problem-ba sed and self-directed learning, the promotion of peer 56 cooperation and mentoring in integrating life long learning into engine ering education, awareness of the value of continuous learning and practice across Africa. Consequently, employers, educationa l institutions a nd professional engineering societies must collaborate to foster a culture where lifelong learnin g serves as the foundation for both in dividu al development and the continent’s future of engineering. 57 For educ ation stak ehol ders, mapping thes e relati onships betwee n fac tors can highli ght new areas for research and co mplic ate the c urr ent EER l andsca pe , there by facilit atin g eff ective c hang e . Althou gh sti ll emer ging, C LDs an d syst em mapping are gaining t racti on in EER . For exampl e, on e study d emons trate d how CLD s capt ure i nterdep enden cies in s ocial - ecologi cal sys tems, rei nforcing their v alue in mod eling ed ucatio n dynamic s (Gra y et al., 2 019). Another s tudy appli ed CLDs to fac ulty m otivatio n, fi nding 13 feed back loops t hat aff ect t eachi ng innovati on and no ting t hat many chan ge init iatives f ail du e to ign ored sys tem - w ide inter conn ections (Cru z - Bohor quez et al., 2 024) . T hese studies illus trate how C LDs offer a hol istic lens on educat ional c omplexity , guidi ng more eff ective in terven tions. Despi te these advanc emen ts, a s ignific ant ga p remai ns in the holi stic modeling of the und ergrad uates ' exper ience us ing a sy ste ms appro ach. In this study, w e bri dge the gap by ev aluati ng engin eering students ' experienc es in a newl y desig ned lab , LS, thr ough a dyna mic system approac h, CLDs. O ur a im in t his pa per i s to disc uss how we used C LDs to explore st udent exper iences and of fer this appr oach as a potent ial way to c onsider complex , interr elat ed data i n en gineeri ng educati on. 1.2 Learning Studi os Model In the Fall of 20 2 2, t he mech anical an d aer ospace engi neering (MAE) depar tment at a U.S. N orthe astern R 1 U niversi ty intr oduce d Learni ng Studi os ( LS ) to enha nce hands - on, real - worl d lear ning acr oss mul tiple courses. U nlike traditi onal pr oject - base d learni ng, LS i ntegr ates ful ly op eratio nal engi neerin g syste ms ( e.g., combus tion e ngines , drones , fork lifts) into the core c urric ulum, e nsuri ng all st udents gain progr essiv e, hands - on exper ience r ather than li miting i t to elec tives. Thes e LS are spr ead acr oss th e enti re thr ee year s of th e MAE cur riculu m and integrat e cross - cutti ng conc epts ac ross courses i n th ese appl icati ons. Thi s appr oach is unique — most progr ams tha t int egrate hands - on labs do s o with a single cour se o r system . The L S approac h brid ges t heory a nd pr actice using f our key compon ents: re al - world engin eering syste ms, adva nced an alysi s tools , simplif ied models, a nd struc tured learni ng modules . 1.3 Obj ective an d Rese arch Question s In this paper , we us e a pi lot of s tude nt inter view dat a tra nslate d into CLDs to c apture the mul tifac eted i mpact of LS on st udents’ exper iences . This w ork c an enhanc e our under standi ng of how and why inter ventio ns li ke LS ar e benefi cial, p rovi ding a system- level study t hat c omple ments tradi tion al ed ucational asses sment s. Specifi cally , we ask two qu estions : 1. Wha t are the caus al li nks betw een s tudent engagem ent wit h LS , shifts in se lf - percepti on, and c omm unity f eelings, and h ow do t hese af fect their le arning journey ? 2. Wha t are the mai n driv ing fac tors for the m ain t hemes e mergin g from t he study? 2 M ETHODOLOG Y Our r esearch employs an int erpreti ve, qu alitat ive res earch design c ombined w ith a systems- thinki ng anal ytical approach . 64 2.1 Dat a Sourc e The int ervi ew prot ocol ut ilized t he Ex pectancy - Value - Cost (EV C) mode l (Alrizqi e t al., 2 025; Bar ron & H ull eman, 201 5). Thi s fra mework s uggests t hat stude nts' ch oices in achi evement are s hape d by thei r expec tati ons f or success and t he perso nal v alue they associat e with t as ks, enc ompassin g intri nsic, att ainmen t, and u tili ty values , as well as associated costs. The se mi - str uctured i nter view prot ocol w as cr afted i n adher ence to recog nized qualit ative rese arch m ethodolo gies (Alr izqi et al., 2 025; B orrego et a l., 2009; Cri dland et al ., 20 15; K allio et al., 2 016). Such intervi ews of fer bene fits by h aving a balanc e betw een struc tured ques tions and th e flexibi lity to dive i nto new ly e merging topics (Kalli o et al. , 20 16) . This appro ach al so mir rors th e reco mmendati ons of a previ ous study , which foun d tha t intervie ws are an effec tive w ay to el icit ri ch qualit ative dat a for system s dynamics model s (Luna - R eyes & A nder sen, 200 3) . Also , this w as empl oyed i n simi lar system dynamics studi es ( e.g. , El H alabi et al., 2 012) to gather insigh ts on k ey var iables a nd rel ations hips . 2.2 Partici pant Selection and Sampling Stra tegy A purp osive sa mpli ng method was us ed to s elect p artic ipants with f irsthand experi ence in L S . Select ion crit eria inc lude d e nrolme nt in the MAE degr ee progra m , engage ment in at l east one LS, an d s trati ficati on by class st andin g, g ender, an d race to ens ure di verse p erspec tives. Eigh t mecha nical engine ering st udents met th ese cri teria and v olun tarily partici pated; this sa mple si ze is a ppropr iate fo r a qu alitativ e preli minary expl orati on . App endix 1 presen ts the d emogra phics o f the par ticip ants. Parti cipant s chose t hei r pseudony m s; however , if th ey did no t provi de one, th e resear cher assigne d one to t hem . 2.3 Dat a Coll ection an d Analysi s We pil oted th e inter vie w protocol wit h one pa rtic ipant to e nsure data quality and make refine ments bas ed on feedback . Each s emi - structur ed inter view was then cond ucted an d last ed approxi m atel y 45 min utes. Each in tervi ew too k place i n a priv ate setti ng to ensur e confiden tiali ty and w as audio - r ecord ed with the parti cipant 's conse nt. The I nstit utio nal Revi ew Boar d (IRB ) approv ed the s tudy, ensur ing com pliance wit h ethi cal research s tand ards ( Kalli o et al., 201 6) . Furt hermore, an in ductiv e themat ic anal ysis w as conduc ted f ollowi ng Braun and Clarke' s Braun & Clar ke ( 200 6) six - phase fr amewor k. Thi s appr oach was chosen beca use it al lows th emes to emerge direc tly fr om the data, whi ch i s essent ial wh en explor ing under - resear ched areas (Pat ton, 2014; Sal daña, 2013) . T hese six steps are ( 1) Fami liari zation with the transcr ipts , (2) gen eratin g initial code s ( using MAXQDA s oftware) , (3) searchi ng for p otenti al the mes, ( 4) refi ning th emes to ensur e accuracy and to ensur e coder consis tency , (5) defini ng and na ming themes, and ( 6) organiz ing i nto a c oherent narrat ive. 2.4 Causal Loop Diagr am Develo pmen t After w e cod ed the data, we built t he CLDs . This step invol ved tr ansf orming t he qualit ative d ata i nto a v isual s ystems map il lustrati ng fee dback s truct ures. 65 2.4. 1 Identifyi ng Variables Fir st, we i dentifi ed the main var iables that wo uld a ppear as nodes i n the C LDs. These c orres ponded c losel y to th e them es, subt hemes, and fac tors identi fied throug h the t hematic anal ysis. F or ex ample: • A them e like “ Belongi ng an d Suppor tive Co mmunity ” is r eprese nted as a vari able “Se nse of B elongi ng.” • A them e like “ Enhanc ed Mot ivatio n and C onfi dence” w as split into t wo rel ated vari ables: “M otiva tion” and “Sel f - Confid ence, ” since t hose appear ed as disti nct co ncepts i n the data but were par t of one the me. 2.4. 2 Mapping Caus al Links Next, we revis ited t he i nterview data to map o ut caus al relati onships betwe en these vari ables. We follow ed the approach sugges ted by Newber ry and C arhart (20 23), which invo lve d a “dat a s ource ref erenc e table " for tr acea bility (Newber ry & Car hart, 2023, p . 12) . For ins ta nce, Sar ah said, “we w ould jus t talk about… c ourses we want to tak e in the futur e, or … just giv e advic e to each o ther. T his mad e me f eel more belon g [ in g] to mech ani cal.” F rom such a sta tement, we can derive a caus al link : Peer S upport → Sense of Belo nging→ M echanic al Engin eer Id entity . From the lit erature on engin eerin g identi ty, we connect ed M echanic al Engi neer ing Identi ty → Retenti on (Godwi n & K irn, 202 0) . We docume nted each s uch link and noted its polarity (positi ve or negati ve i nfluence) . A positi ve l ink (“ +”) means that as one v ariabl e incr eases/d ecreases , the other te nds to incr ease/d ecreas e. A ne gative link ( “–”) m eans an i nvers e rela tionshi p wher e an incr ease in on e lea ds to a decreas e in the oth er, an d vice v ersa. I n the ex ample abov e, peer su ppor t had a positive impac t on bel onging , whic h in tur n had a posi tive effect on ide ntity a nd r etention. 2.4. 3 Constructing the Di agram Once we had a list of vari ables and their pairw ise causal links , we s tarted constr uctin g CLDs using V ensim ™ . We first clus tered rel ated v ariabl es, oft en corr espondi ng to t he thema tic grou ps fro m the analysis . To e nhance clari ty, we segment ed our overal l mod el int o three s ub - di agra ms, similar to t he met hod use d by Halabi et al. (2012 ) (El Halabi et al., 201 2) . 3 R ESULTS 3.1 Overv iew of Them es Our fi ndings hi ghlight three key themes w here LS positi vely i mpacte d studen ts’ experi ences: ( 1) Moti vati on, (2) Perso nal Gro wth, (3) Sense of Belo nging , and (4) Ident ity as Mec hanical Engin eers. P artici pant s reporte d per sonal de velop ment throug h their hand s- o n exper iences . Int erview s reveal ed that master ing co urses foster ed a s ense of belongi ng in mechanic al e ngineer ing, w hile str uggles l ed to alienat ion. M oreover , stude nts honed thei r ski lls and ex perie nced pe rsonal gr owth and c ommunity by en gaging with r e al - worl d appli cations . Findi ngs s how that LS was vital in bui lding st udent confid ence, h elping them ov ercome feelin gs of inadeq uacy, and enh ancin g their sati sfaction with l earni ng. Recog nizi ng these impacts is essenti al for crea ting effecti ve ed ucatio nal en vironme nts and practi ces th at enh ance 66 coll aborativ e and h ands - on learni ng, whi ch ar e cri tical for devel oping engineer ing ski lls and fos tering prof essional growt h. 3.2 Causal Loop Dia grams (CLDs) In our case, the thr ee i nterconnec ted s ub - CLDs were : (1 ) Lear ning and Per sonal Growth , (2) Soci al Dyn amics and C ommunity , and (3) Moti vatio n and C areer Aspir ations . Su bsetti ng the models ma de it si mpler t o discuss specif ic loops . Ea ch sub- CLD cap tured a subset of v ariables and their c orresp onding f eedback loops, whic h pertai ned to a speci fic fac et of the stud ent experie nce. 3.2. 1 Experi ential L earning and Se lf - Reinforcement (Figure 1) This CL D ill ustrates a r einforce ment lo op that exami nes how hands - on ex perienc e leads t o a se lf - rei nforci ng cycle. It demonst rates t hat prac tical exper iences and a sense of c ompetence have a s ignific ant infl uence on the l earnin g proc ess, le ading to a deeper under standi ng and i ncre ased en gagement. For ex ample, Cha rlle explai ned her experie nce by s aying, “ It was f un to t ear dow n an engin e and lo ok at al l the p arts. D efini tely h elped m e under stand how engi ne wor ked a lot better ,” show ing h ow direc t mani pulati on of a physical syst em can br idge abstrac t the ory an d practi cal a pplicati on. She continued , " N ow I fee l comf ortable work ing in a lab…I c an tackl e anyt hing,” i ndic ating that i terativ e succ esses b olster self - efficacy. Another s tudent, Z aher, descri bed how appli ed tasks spark ed intr insic mo tivation , Se lf - Deter minati on Theory’s key el ement (Deci & Ryan, 1985) . He sai d, “Com paring th eory t o real Otto c ycle data wa s fasci nating .” These i nsights show t hat LS enc ourage d repeat ed hands - on success es that culti vate st udent success and driv e furth er enga gement w ith c omplex engin eering c hallen ges The p artici pants' des cri ptions illustrate Kolb ’s (Kol b et al., 2001) Expe rienti al Lear ning and Bandur a’s Self - Eff icacy (Ban dura, 1978) t heories . Spe cifically, it aligns with Kolb’s four - stage lear ning c ycle (c oncr ete exp erience, r eflective obser vation, abstrac t conc eptualiz ation, and ac tive exper imen tation) by demo nstrat ing how contin uous, hands - o n prac tice rei nforc es lear ning thr ough refl ection and the ory - buildi ng . Fig 1 . This reinforcing loop (R1) i llustr ates how h ands - on tasks contribute to deeper concep tual understanding, which enhances confidence and e ngagement. This, in turn, ultima t ely increases motivation and enjoyment in the lear ning process ( R2 ), reinf orcing studen ts' sense of competence. 67 3.2. 2 Resil ience T hrough Chal lenge - S upport Dynami cs (Figure 2) The sec ond C LD exam ines h ow acade mic ch allenges inter act wi th peer relati onships and i nstituti onal s uppo rt to f oster res ilienc e. It illust rates h ow peer s upport c an help indiv iduals overco me chall enges, t here by enh ancing thei r resi lienc e and, in tur n, thei r pers onal growth. This aligns with Ti nto (197 5) e mphasis on acade mic integr ation — w hile nor malizing s truggl e in li ne wi th Dweck (2006) growt h mindset, thus motivati ng sust ain ed engage ment in rigo rous en gineer ing c ontex ts. For ex ample, studen ts’ str uggles — s uch as Zaher ’s comment , “ Static s made me rethi nk my p ath” — refl ect Ti nto’s e mphasis on ac ademic in tegra tion a s essen tial for retenti on. Learni ng co mmunities’ col laborat ive envir onments help count eract possi ble disen gageme nt by foster ing social in tegratio n. As Zaher ob served, “Ever yone che ers eac h other on — it’s not cutthroat,” exempli fyin g how nor maliz ed struggl e an d peer su ppor t refra me chall enges as learni ng oppor tunit ies, al igni ng with Dwec k’s grow th minds et fra mework. T hese fi ndings highlig ht how well - struc tured la b spaces s uch as LS can mit igate the ri sk of attri tion by in tegra ting c hallenge and supp ort. 3.2. 3 Collabora tive Identity and Be longing (Figure 3) This CL D cent ers on h ow tea mwork in LS fos ters a profes sional ide ntity a nd sens e of bel onging . It als o emphasi zes t he soci al comp onent of the l earni ng envi ronmen t, such as Coll aborati ve pr ojects, i n sha ping th e mecha nical e ngineer ing identi ty. Group t asks, s uch as tr oubleshooti ng fluid s ystems , refl ect l egi timat e perip heral parti cipatio n , wher e lear ners g ain comp etenc e thro ugh share d pr actic e. Sarah ’s sta tem en t , “He lping o thers w ith th eir pr ojects m ade me feel l ike part of th e team, ” and Charlle’s reflecti on , “Seeing p eers succee d made m e pro ud to b e aMechE, ” both u nders core how s hared prac tice and mutual s uppor t foster mechani cal engi neerin g ide ntity . It a ls o demons trates how rec ogniti on by ot hers reinf orces a n indi vidual 's engin eering identi ty ( Godwin et al., 20 16) . Excl usion fro m tea ms, howev er, can i ntroduc e a bal ancing l oop, as note d by Kwam i : “ I was discoura ged w hen I di dn’t ge t into a proj ect team .” This highl ights t he import ance of foster ing instituti onal belon ging to prev ent pot ential diseng ageme nt. Howev er, Kwam i ’s eve ntual r esilie nce , “Th at definit ely reinfor ced m y positi ve attit ude Fig 2. exhibits how ac ademic challenges interact w ith peer/inst ructor support in a balancing loop (B) that mitigates reduced belonging. A reinforcing loop (R1 ) shows how o vercom ing challenges builds resilience, leading to personal growth and student per sistence (R2), rei nforcing engagement 68 towar ds the mechanic al en gineerin g, ” il lustra tes how situa ted lear ning ex perienc es prom ote the co - cons tructi on of engineer ing identit y. Overa ll, these observe d d ynamics ali gn with theori es suc h as Co mmuniti es of Practice (Lave & Weng er, 1991) Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism (VYGOTSK Y, 1978) , and Soc ial Id entity Theory ( Tajf el & Tu rner, 1979) , which sug gests t hat LS serve as com muniti es of pr actic e that c ontin ually reinfor ce a se nse of membershi p, shared pur pose, an d pr ofession al pride. 4 DISCUS SION A cros s the thr ee mod els , several syst emic ins ights b ecome ap paren t. Tw o of thos e CLDs ' loops are reinf orci ng , indicating that LS can cr eate vi rtuous c ycl es — positi ve feedbac k loops in w hich eac h gai n fuels t he next. Stud ents freq uently descr ibe upward t rends as st arting o ut uncer tain, then gaining skil ls, formi ng friends hips, growi ng in c onfidenc e , and endi ng highly moti vated . This res ult do es not mean the proces s is u niversal or auto mati c; balanc ing l oops (e. g., ac ademic c hal lenges) c an impede t he pos itive cyc les. How ever, the fact that w e identi fied c ommon reinf orcing loops s ugges ts that w ell - des igned i ntervent ions c an pus h a stud ent’s experie nce in to a positi ve, self - sus taini ng trajec tory — w hat sy stems theory calls a n “ attractor stat e,” a stable pat tern that the syst em naturall y tends to maint ain . Our fi ndings al ign s trongl y with establis hed e ducati onal t heories and pri or rese arch. For i nstanc e, the i mportanc e of c ommuni ty an d belongi ng in drivi ng engage ment aligns with Ti nto’s model of stud ent ret ention, as de monstr ated in Mo del 2 (sec tion 3.2. 2) . Rece nt studi es ( Smith et al ., 2 021; Wa lton & C ohen, 2011) Add itiona lly, inter ventions target ing a sense o f bel onging can enha nce aca demic outco mes . O ur qualit ative d ata pr ovide a c ausal nar rative for how these inter ventio ns may work (belongi ng → engag ement → motiv ation → achiev ement) . Simila rly, th e role of hands - on lear ning i n boostin g motiv ation r esonat es wit h activ e lear ning li terat ure (Fr eeman et al., 201 4) . Our CLDs outli ne the mech anism; han ds - on succ esses lead to enj oyment and moti vation, w hich in turn l ead t o deep er enga gement . The s ocial dimens ion is also ca ptur ed, reveal ing how peer suppor t fuels a sens e of bel ongin g, whic h in tur n reinf orce s engage ment an d enh ances the abili ty to fac e aca demic chall enges . A key metho dologic al adva ntage o f CLD - bas ed qualitat ive a nalysi s is its abil ity to make i ndirect c ausal p athways and te mporal dynami cs ex plicit . In o ur model, the primar y int erventio n — han ds - on st udio exp erienc e — has a direct, posi tive imp act on Fig 3 .This reinforcing loop (R) shows how collaborat ive projects enhance peer recognit ion, strengthening engineering identity , belonging, and motivation, which drives fu rt her engagement. 69 learni ng outc omes w hile al so fos teri ng a str onger sens e of b elon ging. This state, i n turn, enh ances motivati on and s ubsequent learni ng. S uch multi step contin gencies are rar ely detecta ble thr ough c onventi onal th ematic coding . Add itiona lly, illus trat ing fee dback loops c larifi es lev erage p oints. Belongi ng ser ves as a cen tral hu b, sugg esti ng that i ncrem ental i mprove ments can initi ate a rei nfor cing cascad e of pos itive effect s, as s hown in M od el 3 (sect ion 3 .2.3). In c ontrast, struggl es, l ike wha t Zaher menti oned in s ection 3 .2.2, c reate a bala ncing lo op, w here their escal ation m ay dimi nish thes e gains. In pract ical terms, thes e syste mic insi ghts co nfirm cal ls f or holis tic s tudent develo pment (Casil las et al. , 2019; Sing h & Mor kel, 20 24) . Our mod el connects acad emic and social f ac tors, il lustrat ing how the S ense of Belo nging (soci al) is linked to Con fidenc e (per sonal) and Eng agement (a cademic) . Thes e conn ections r eson ate wit h the conc ept of l ear ning co mmuniti es in e ngineer ing educ ation , whi ch are oft en prais ed for s upporti ng r etentio n and s atisfac tion. Th e CLD approac h synth esizes contex t - speci fic insi ght s with ge neral educati onal th eory by tying part icipant v oices to establi shed k nowled ge . It cl arifi es the c ausal pathw ays an d also ai ds in ge nerati ng hypot heses for futur e s tudies — e.g., “I ncreasi ng peer supp ort in a class w ill i ndirectl y improv e stud ent ou tcomes by enha ncing t heir sense of b elongi ng, which in t urn incr eases engage ment .” 5 L IMITATIONS While t his st udy o ffers valuable insigh ts int o how ap plying t he syst em dy namic s conce pt to q ualitati ve d ata shows insig htful findi ngs, tw o main li m itati ons sh ould be noted. First , the res ear cher's subjec tivity may aff ect h ow the d ata is i nterpr eted. We int egrated s everal qual ity chec ks to s upport the int erpr etation o f resul ts with th e lived reali ties of parti cipants (Walther et al ., 2017) . Secon d, the s ample s ize of eigh t parti cipants and t he fac t that th e study was c onducted at a sin gle u niversi ty may infl uence th e compl eteness of th ese diagr ams across s tudent exper iences. F uture resear ch coul d expa nd the s ample si ze an d inc lude multi ple i nstitu tions t o refi ne and test the i dentif ied lo ops, potenti ally l eading t o br oader dat a that c an i dentify the impacts of curricula r reform s. 6 C ONC LUS ION Our fi ndings e mphasi ze th e power of a sys te ms perspec tive in und erstandi ng compl ex stude nt ex peri ences. By trans lating qualit ative i nsig hts int o CLDs , we capture d not only dir ect i nfluenc es, suc h as h ow hands - on mast ery pr omotes s elf - confid ence, but also the sub tler f eedbac k loo ps that link motivati on, identity, and a sense of bel onging . Thi s holist ic lens r eveal s how LS interv entio ns c an spark vir tuous cycl es of deep er engag ement an d soc ial supp ort . Pract ical imp licatio ns highl ight the ne ed for integr ative progr ammi ng that addres ses both ac ademi c and s oci al factors , ther eby rei nforcing the be nefits of coll aborati ve learni ng com munities and ex perie ntial t asks. 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Her reflection on this led her to conclude that she wished she had been “more on top of [her] work because then it probably contributed to people undermining [her] when [she] wasn’t doing as well.” In a similar way, Veronica (Germany) said, “You just have to sit down and have an open mind and learn the things you don't know,” to become successful and be seen to be so. From the South African sample, Crystal expressed that women’s own pride can act as a barrier to their success, expressing her thinking that it may be “why we have like such a weak, female force. It’s because, us, we are not united.” This, she believes, can be improved through women showing more support for other women. 3.3 Building and Investing in Support Systems for Women in Engineering From the German sample, Astrid highlighted the importance of knowing more about which engineering courses suited her best. She found it overwhelming to make the choice early in her degree, but felt she benefitted from being able to gain work experience through the mandatory internship semester embedded in her engineering degree. She stated, “I’m really happy that I did my apprenticeship since, there, I already got involved with a few different types of engineers, and my teacher in my apprenticeship kind of helped me and told me, ‘Well, you’re really good in these kinds of things, you should do that afterwards.’” This form of mentorship and tutelage proved to be useful in helping her make the right decisions regarding the discipline of engineering she ultimately chose to pursue. It should be noted that a similar internship program does not currently exist as part of the mechanical engineering degree at the case study university in South Africa . Mbali (South Africa), however, spoke of the mentorship program in which she was involved in her first year of university, which she found beneficial, prompting her to apply for a similar position in the senior years of her degree. She felt it was important to be clear to incoming students about the realities of becoming a woman engineer in a male - dominated field right from the start. She made it clear her advice would be a warning, based on her own experiences, stating: “You will get a lot of mansplaining, you will be undermined, these are the possible things that can happen to you, keep that in mind as you interact, but I will try and say it in a way that would scare [them].” Her experiences with group work and vacation work contributed to her caution among her peers and her hesitance to enter industry. 3.4 Forming Communities with Other Students Students from both samples spoke of finding a core, solid support system and maintaining relationships inside and outside of engineering. In particular, from Germany, Claudia’s advice was , “For me, it really helped that I found my theatre group because they are from different study programs and there are no engineers.” She felt it was important to have a group of friends besides engineers who are also good and supportive to help maintain stability. Keeping a balance was also highlighted by Teresa (South Africa), who said it was important, “not [to] be scared to have fun beyond 80 Engineering. […] Don’t feel like your time is only limited to when you’re on campus.” The idea, Nandi (South Africa) determine d , is to “find a community because it stabilises you,” which she said found through her church’s congregation and has been significant in helping her remain true to herself. While establishing a sense of community outside of engineering was seen to be important, two students from South Africa highlighted the need for women students in engineering to support their fellow women. In particular, Louisa said, “Find the women in your year and become friends with them, because I think women know how to support women best.” Crystal further addressed a phenomenon she experienced where she and other women in her courses made a point of not interacting with one another, though she remained unsure as to why. Her advice, therefore, included, “Support other girls. Let us not pretend like we all don’t exist,” and reiterated that this would be a strength and not a weakness. Mbali (South Africa) mentioned she found it difficult to get “comfortable making friends with people of the opposite gender,” as she attended an all-girls’ high school. She was not prepared to have to set physical and friendship boundaries, and had to be more intentional in looking for friends who view her as an equal. Zahra echoed this, from an academic standpoint, saying, “ Find a solid group of people that you can work with. Find people who are smarter than you or like on the same level of intelligence […] and have the same work ethic.” She acknowledged that the degree wa s already difficult enough without other students holding her back. 4 DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Based on these findings and select literature, several recommendations can be made . By altering the environments within which women students live, learn and communicate, they can benefit from positive and notable steps towards improving inclusivity. These recommendations, while affecting aspects of only a part of their existing social structures, can significantly influence how women students negotiate their expressions of identity and how they experience engineering education. 4.1 Emphasise Mentorship and Other Support Systems By creating avenues for women students to access information and support from fellow students and faculty, levels of academic anxiety can lessen while instilling confidence in their capabilities (Knight et al., 2010) . Heightening oversight of existing institutional mentorship programs or creating social groups within the degree can also help facilitate relationships across the years and introduce women students to one another. Mbali, from the South African sample, specifically highlighted the benefits of having participated in a student mentorship program. Mentorship, however, isn’t limited to the faculty or the university, as significant opportunities for connection and guidance lie in partnering students with graduate women engineers in industry. In South Africa, the Women in Engineering Leadership Association (WELA) operating out of Nelson Mandela University is just one example of a project aiming to empower women students in the field (University, 2023). By offering a range of services in support and leadership development, the presence and stature of women in engineering can continue to grow and advance. At a larger scale, 81 WomEng, a non-profit subsidiary of an even larger organization, facilitates connections and collaborations among students from various universities and partners in industry (WomHub, n.d.). Facilitating access to mentors in industry can significantly improve rates of retention of women by providing role models and visible pathways into engineering as a potential career. 4.2 Increase Visible Representation of Women in Engineering In order to improve representation among students and faculty, efforts can be taken to showcase women’s accomplishments and successes in engineering. This can be done in a number of ways including, though not limited to, posters, newsletters, and acknowledgments from more senior faculty in their respective departments . While it seems simple, even a small acknowledgement of ongoing work and progress can make a difference. In keeping with this directive, inviting successful women in industry to hold talks or workshops can significantly contribute to students’ persistence, as Seymour et al. (1997) found to be the case in programs where women are highlighted as role models. This can also be achieved by hiring more women in senior faculty positions, as mentioned by Kaya (Germany) and Yusra (South Africa). 4.3 Facilitate University Community Building Hosting social events targeted at women in engineering can help students find one another and more easily create communities for themselves from early in their degrees. By giving students the space and opportunity to meet one another in an informal setting, their sense of belonging and perceived loneliness can be positively affected (Martin et al., 2013) . In disciplines with such low numbers of women students such as mechanical engineering, it would also benefit them to interact with students outside of their immediate fields. By opening up these events to more than just engineers, students can establish more balance in their peer groups, as was highlighted by Claudia from Germany and both Nandi and Teresa from South Africa. Martin et al. (2013) also noted that participants who formed study groups that included other women and joined student organizations displayed greater motivation to continue with engineering. 4.4 Adjust the Content of the Degree By including a more comprehensive internship component in the South African degree, as they do in Germany, students can garner a more informed understanding of their disciplinary and career interests before graduati ng and joining the workforce . From the German sample, Astrid was especially vocal about how important this experience was for her. Through partnering with engineering industry, firms and workplaces are more prepared to teach and mentor incoming students, which not only improves the experience for students but also offers potential employers access to the graduating workforce in South Africa. Incorporating targeted coursework to address discrimination or prejudice in the classroom and industry into the curriculum of the degree can increase awareness not only for women, but men as well. From the South African sample, Mbali’s suggestion of incorporating mandatory women studies into the degree could contribute towards educating students on the ongoing experiences of women. This could allow for new 82 and inclusive practices to be adopted and facilitate a shift in the culture of engineering. Making significant changes to the curriculum can, however, be a complicated and timeous process, but adjusting existing modules would be considerably more feasible. 4.5 Introduce Single- Gender Teaching In Germany, some efforts to attract and retain women in engineering and other specialist subjects have even gone so far as to offer unique programs for women only. Universities offering these programs have found success in lowering the pressures of having to meet certain standards in a predominately male field and focusing on smaller classes oriented around practical application of knowledge (Giehle, 2022) . With targeted mentorship and tutorship, it’s expected women students would find such degrees less daunting (Giehle, 2022). This could be to the benefit of students coming from single-gendered secondary schools like Mbali (South Africa), who expressed difficulty in adjusting to this change in her learning environment. Introducing single- gender teaching to existing engineering degrees can be a challenging endeavour when considering venue and faculty allocation and potential backlash, but can go a long way towards raising women students’ comfort levels and, ultimately, their persistence in the degree. 5 CONCLUSION This paper emerges from an objective of an ongoing doctoral study to make recommendations on how to improve the inclusivity of women in engineering. It drew on data collected from the responses in conducted interviews that sought advice from women students in engineering for their counterparts. This was done with the intention of filling a gap in the literature by making recommendations on how to mitigate the less positive experiences of women students in engineering through their own words. Growing mentorship, highlighting women’s accomplishments, organizing social events, adjusting degree content, and introducing single-gender teaching can have the consequence of enhancing women students’ self-confidence, perceptions of women in engineering, support systems and community building. These suggestions , however, d o vary in terms of feasibility, time to implement, effort, and budget, and can be contingent on context. Explor ing the limitations and possibility of transferring the findings from one case study university to the other is particularly interesting, given that expressions of identity are embedded in cultural, institutional and societal norms. Documenting the advice and using the suggestions offered by women students in engineering in both Germany and South Africa can contribute significantly towards addressing the inclusivity of women in engineering education. 83 REFERENCES Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M., & Barnett, S. M. (2009). 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Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education , 8 (1), 5– 23. https://doi.org/10.1080/0951839950080103 Seymour, E., & Hewitt, N. M. (1997). Talking About Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences . Westview Press. Stryker, S., & Burke, P. J. (2000). The Past, Present, and Future of an Identity Theory. Social Psychology Quaterly , 63 (4), 284– 297. University, N. M. (2023). Women in Engineering Leadership Association . https://wela.mandela.ac.za WomHub, W. A. non-profit subsidiary of. (n.d.). About Us . WomEng: A Non-Profit 84 Subsidiary of WomHub. Retrieved January 21, 2023, from https://www.womeng.org/about- us Yin, R. K. (2014). Case Study Research Design and Methods (5th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. 85 FROM PROVING TO CONNECTING: TH E SHIFTING NATUR E OF BELONGI NG IN THE FIRST YE AR OF MINORITIZE D US DOCTORAL ENGINEERING STUDENTS. M.S. Artiles a, 1 , H.M. Matusovich b , J.M. Cruz c , S.G. Adams d a The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA, 0 000 -0 001 -7 604 -0 410 b Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, 0000 -0 003 -4 335 -6 122 c Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, USA, Country, 0000 -0 001 -7 426 -6 82X d University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, USA, 0 009 -0 002 -5 540 -4 750 Conference Key Areas : Diversity, equity and inclusion in our universities and in our teaching, C ontinuing education and life-long learning in engineering Keywords : doctoral students, sense of belonging, minoritized students ABSTRACT The first yea r of doctoral stud y is a critical period fo r students’ academi c formation and persistence, especiall y in engineering discipline s where earl y integration into research and advising relationship s is expected. In the US, fo r Black and Latiné stud ents —group s historically underrepresented in engineering—thi s period can be critical a s they navigate systemi c inequities and social isolation. Thi s longitudinal qualitative stud y explores how a sense of belonging manifest s and evolve s for minoritized engineering doctoral student s during thei r first yea r in U.S. programs. Drawing on focu s group data collected acro ss eight session s with sixteen students fro m a national summe r bridge program, we identif y two dominant fo rms of belonging: merit-contingent belonging, characterized b y a need to demonstrate competence and legitimacy, and relational belonging, fostered through supportive adviso r and pee r relationships. Finding s show that while merit-contingent belon ging dominate s early experiences, it graduall y gives way to relational fo rms of connection a s students gain confidence and build community. We call for equity -focused intervention s that humanize students, clarif y merit, and build trust. 1 Corresponding Aut hor MS Arti les Artiles. [email protected] DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631851 86 1 I NTRODUCTION In the US, the first year of a doctoral program represents a critical point in a student’s journey since they navigate new academic structures, form faculty/ peer relationships , and build researcher identities (Weidman et al., 2001). For doctoral students in engineering, these challenges are often intensified by need to integrate into research groups early and develop solid advising relationships that will often outlast their doctoral journey (Artiles et al., Forthcoming). Additionally, within engineering doctoral degree contexts, advisors often fund students, creating layered roles—as mentors, supervisors, and instructors. (Artiles et al., 2023). Th ese layers create complex dynamics to master particularly because the development of a sense of belonging— a student’s perception of being accepted, valued, and supported within their academic community— is key predictor of doctoral persistence and success (Strayhorn, 2018; Weidman & DeAngelo, 2020). While all students face hurdles during this formative stage (Golde, 1998), minoritized students in US engineering doctoral programs often encounter additional layers of difficulty stemming from systemic inequities, social isolation, and a lack of cultural representation within their departments, leading to their marginalization (Curry & DeBoer, 2020; McGee & Martin, 2011). In the US marginalized and historically underrepresented groups in engineering include Black, Latiné, Native American, Hawaiian, and Pacific Islanders. As a result of marginalization, students from historically underrepresented backgrounds may question whether they truly belong, regardless of their academic capabilities or motivations for pursuing the degree (Burt, Roberson, et al., 2020; Johnson & Strayhorn, 2023). These dynamics underscore the need to examine how belonging is experienced throughout this first year for minoritized students navigating doctoral engineering study. Although research has established sense of belonging as essential for sustained student engagement, academic achievement, and mental health (Baumeister & Leary, 2017; Walton & Cohen, 2007, 2011), less is known about the specifics in how belongingness manifests for minority doctoral students, particularly durin g the high - stakes first year. Existing studies have often taken a retrospective approach to understanding belonging, missing the opportunity to capture its real time development as students experience their introduction to graduate school (Stachl & Baranger, 2020a; Strayhorn, 2022). In engineering, where vis-a-vis faculty advising, research group dynamics, and department culture play central roles in academic progress, understanding how belonging develops is essential for identifying meaningful points of in tervention and support (Artiles et al., 2025). This study addresses this gap by exploring the following research question: How does sense of belonging manifest and evolve in minority doctoral students during their first year in engineering Ph.D. programs in the US? Drawing on longitudinal focus group data from a cohort of Black and Latiné engineering doctoral students, this study follows their experiences throughout their first year of doctoral study and examines the ways in their sense of belongingness evolves . Although focused on a specific population underrepresented in the US context , we believe our outcomes and approach provided a foundation for considering how educational systems can best serve all students vs just students who are in the majority. The distinction between merit-contingent and relational belonging offers a framework that may be adapted to other national systems grappling with equity in doctoral education beyond the US. As European and international institutions expand access to underrepresented groups, understanding how belonging evolves during the doctoral transition is increasingly critical. 87 1.1 Minoritized Doctoral Students’ and the First Year Experience The first year of doctoral education is a pivotal transition that shapes students’ experiences and influences their likelihood of degree completion (Gardner, 2009; Weidman & DeAngelo, 2020). In the US, this stage typically includes core coursework and a competency exam before students shift to full-time research. Although research often begins in year one, students are still developing the tools, techniques, and skills needed for their specialization. As they navigate coursework, research groups, and advising, their expectations—formed by prior academic experiences—are frequently tested by the realities of graduate school (Austin, 2009; Holbrook et al., 2014). These expectations, related to rigor, mentorship, and support, are shaped by motivation and earlier exposure to research (Borrego et al., 2018; Mosyjowski et al., 2017). When mismatches occur, dissatisfaction can emerge—a key predictor of attrition (Holbrook et al., 2014; Zerbe et al., 2020). One of the most influential factors in doctoral success is the advisor-advisee relationship, particularly in engineering programs where close collaboration is common (Zhao et al., 2007). Good advising supports disciplinary growth, shapes students’ perceptions of the academic climate, and promotes persistence (Bluestein et al., 2018; Burt et al., 2017; Litalien & Guay, 2015; Zerbe et al., 2023). Students often hope for mentoring that reflects their identities and needs (National Academies of Sciences et al., 2019; Perez et al., 2020, p. 202; Wofford & Blaney, 2021), but a lack of such support can hinder research development (Artiles et al., 2025; Litalien & Guay, 2015). In addition to advising, networks of support—including peers, labmates, and family—help students manage both academic and personal challenges (Golde, 1998; Gardner, 2009). Research groups can provide valuable peer mentoring (Burt et al., 2017; Crede & Borrego, 2012), but without inclusive leadership, these settings may foster harmful comparisons and competitiveness (Rodriguez et al., 2021; Wofford & Blaney, 2021), which can negatively affect belonging and retention (Berdanier et al., 2020a, 2020b). For historically marginalized students, this transition is further complicated by identity and structural inequity. While identity plays a role in persistence, belonging is increasingly recognized as a more critical factor (Bahnson et al., 2018; Ross et al ., 2022). These students often face racism, sexism, and classism that challenge their inclusion in academia (Curry & DeBoer, 2020; Johnson & Strayhorn, 2023; Ramirez, 2017), even when their motivations stem from empowerment and community uplift (Burt, Roberson, et al., 2020; Lewis et al., 2017; Moore et al., 2003). Resilience becomes essential in navigating stereotype threat and opportunity costs (Artiles et al., Forthcoming; McGee & Martin, 2011). Cross-racial advising may offer benefits (Henderson et al., 2022), but often lacks the identity-informed mentorship needed for sustained support (Barker, 2011; Burt, McKen, et al., 2020). When inclusivity is missing in advising or lab environments, students’ progress and career goals may suffer (Crede & Borrego, 2012; Fleming et al., 2016; Rodriguez et al., 2021). Responding to calls for more equity-focused research in engineering doctoral education (Curry & DeBoer, 2020; Holloman et al., 2021), this study examines how Black and Latiné students experience their first year. 1.2 Conceptualizing Sense of Belonging Sense of belonging is a foundational psychological need that strongly influences academic motivation, engagement, and persistence in higher education (Strayhorn, 2018). It involves both cognitive and emotional dimensions—feeling included, 88 supported, and connected within an academic community (Johnson & Strayhorn, 2023; Strayhorn, 2022). For students in marginalizing settings like predominantly white institutions (PWIs), belonging becomes even more critical due to heightened risks of social and cultural isolation (Freeman et al., 2007; Strayhorn, 2019). A strong sense of belonging shapes academic behavior, mental health, and success (Baumeister & Leary, 2017; Walton & Cohen, 2011). In STEM doctoral programs, belonging develops through socialization, identity formation, and validation from faculty and peers (Strayhorn, 2019, 2022). However, underrepresented students—such as Black, Latiné, and Native American doctoral students— often fa ce exclusion, microaggressions, and limited representation, which can fuel doubt, stress, and attrition (McGee et al., 2016; Bork & Mondisa, 2022; Curry & DeBoer, 2020). Supportive faculty and peer relationships are key to fostering belonging (Stachl & Baranger, 2020b), and intentional community-building can help mitigate isolation and promote persistence (Herzig, 2010; Johnson & Strayhorn, 2023). Understanding what support is most effective—and when to provide it—is crucial for designing timely, equity-oriented interventions in the doctoral journey. 2 METHODOLOGY This study explores how sense of belonging develops during the first year of doctoral study for Black and Latiné engineering students in the US. Using a longitudinal qualitative design, we conducted focus groups with sixteen students from pre- matriculation through the end of their first year. The data come from a broader NSF- funded mixed methods project on underrepresented students’ transitions into engineering Ph.D. programs (Artiles et al., 2021). Grounded in Yin’s (2018) case study approach and a constructivist paradigm (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003), the study captures students’ evolving, real-time experiences. This study was approved IRB. 2.1 Participants Participants came from summer bridge program specifically designed for minoritized engineering doctoral programs from across the US, not just the home institutions of the program facilitator. As part of this program, students completed a pre-study survey capturing demographics, prior research, and Ph.D. motivations . (Artiles et al., 2021). We purposely selected s ix teen participants selected to ensure diversity across disciplinary backgrounds, geographic locations, demographic identities, and graduate education experience. We report demographic data in aggregate form to maintain anonymity. The cohort included eight students who self-identified as Black (one also as multiracial) and eight who identified as Latiné (five also as multiracial). Nine participants identified as female and seven as male. Four students held master’s degrees, and one transferred from another Ph.D. program. These demographics align with national data on racial-ethnic minority representation in engineering graduate education (NCSES, 2023). 2.2 Data Col le ction We conducted eight virtual focus group sessions via Zoom between July 2020 and May 2021, approximately every six weeks throughout the students’ first year. 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Case study research and applications: Design and methods (Sixth edition). SAGE. Zerbe, E., Sallai, G., & Berdanier, C. G. P. ( 2020 ). Projections as Preparation for Persistence: Exploring Expectations for Engineering Graduate School. 2020 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.18260/1- 2– 35100 Zerbe, E., Sallai, G., & Berdanier, C. G. P. (2023). Surviving, thriving, departing, and the hidden competencies of engineering graduate school. Journal of Engineering Education, 112(1), 147–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20498 Zhao, C. -M., Golde, C. M., & McCormick, A. C. (2007). More than a signature: How advisor choice and advisor behaviour affect doctoral student satisfaction. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 31(3), 263– 281. 99 PUBLIC OR GANISATIONS' TALK ON AI EDUCATIO N AND SKILLS DEVELOP MENT IN FINLA ND M. Asplund a, 1 , P. Ihantola b , L. Malmi c a LAB University of Applied Sciences , L ahti , Finland b University of Jyväskylä , Jyväskylä , Finland c Aalto University , Espoo , Finland Conference Key Areas : 1 . Dialogue between engineering and soci ety - effects on educat ion Keywords : AI education framework, AI competency education ABSTRACT In this study, we explore what perspectives of pub lic organisations in Finland , especially labour market organisations and p ub lic administration, take on AI skills education. This kind of research on public views related to AI skills education is important as it helps identify societal expectations. Moreover, the results inform education policy planning, curricula developm en t, and the practical implementation of education programmes. The specific rese arch q uestions of the s tud y focus on objectives and key competencies emerging from public documents. Th e results indicate that public organisa tions set distinct expectations for diffe rent stakeholders. Students need practical AI skills for future employment, lifelong learners require motivation and curiosity to engage with AI, an d e ducators need to un de rstand AI deeply to teach it effectively a nd ethically. Key competencies i dentified in clude general AI knowledge, data literacy, ethics, an d p ractical AI usage, w hile t echnical competencies like algorithm development were underrepresented. 1 Corresponding Author M Asplund minna.asplund @lab.fi DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631638 100 1 INTRODUCTION The world is becoming increasingly digitalized and automated at an unprecedented rate. At the heart of this transformation is artificial intelligence (AI), which is revolutionizing both our personal lives and the labour m arket (Lane & Saint -Martin, 2021). The opportunities offered by AI are va st, b ut their utilization requires new skills. The success of any nation in this new, AI-driven e conomy req uires a skilled workforce capable of developing and utilizing AI technologies. New edu cational needs can be identified in many ways. Squicciarini and Nachtigall (2021), for example, studied job postings and observed that AI -related skills were required increasingly often in online job advertisements. One of the probl em s wi th t he previous kind of needs analysis is that it focuses on needs for today – not on what might be needed in the futu re. Thus, curriculum design often includes feedback from various stakeholders. To illustrate , design of the ACM and IEEE CC2020 curriculum (CC2020 Task Force, 2020) involved representatives fro m eleven international professional societies and multiple industry -government members. AI -driven changes in the labour m arket also involve many perspectives and stakeholders. At a very high level, the roles in clud e employers, employees, educational institutions, and government. Eac h st akeholder contributes different insights on business expertise, workforce readiness, and skill develo pmen t. Moreover, in many countries, government pla y s a central role by organizing and allocating educational resources. Understanding the interests and ne eds of education consumers, e.g., employers and employees, is increasingly important as this information provides valuable input on h ow e ducation should be implement ed . In this paper, we report our investigation of th e goals, competencies, and content presented in the public online co m munication of labour market organi sations and public administration regarding AI skills education, with a particular focus on the Finnish context. We selected these target groups as our focus, beca use their role in developing the society, especially workforce, industries and business life, is central. The results of the research can be utilized, for example, in planning ed ucation policy at different educational levels, in the development of higher e du cation curricula, and the implementation of education programs. However, the goal is no t only to develop new curricula. Instead, we want to understand the p ub lic discussion, especially the role of various labour market organi sations in discussing why AI-related skills or competencies should be taught and what thes e skills a nd competencies should be. Moreover, labour market organisa tions are oft en centra l in Scandinavian societie s and this kind of case analysis from Finland might help various public organizations in positioning themselves , for e xample, regarding the level at which the ne w competencies could be discussed. Finally, the research provides val ua ble information for companies and other organi sations that need AI profe ssionals. 2 BACKGROUND AI skills are identified in various policy docum en ts and educational frameworks. Su ch documents guide the definition of educational objectives, curriculum planning, teaching, and competence assessment. As public discussion on AI skills is often at very high level, we will start by introducing three h igh level educati onal frameworks , namely Digital Competence Framework for Ci tizen s framework (DigComp) (Vuorikari 101 et al., 2022), and UNESCO’s AI Competency Framework for Te achers (AI CFT) (Miao & Cukurova, 2024) an d Students (AI-CFS) (Miao & Shiohira, 2024). DigComp focuses on citizens' general awareness and interaction wit h A I, while UNESCO ’s frame works address the needs of teachers and students in e ducational settings. Both frameworks highlight ethical considerations, a human -centered approach, and the responsible use of AI. DigComp is a European Commission project started in 2010. The latest version (v2.2) ad dresses citizens' i nte raction with AI systems, focusing on knowledge, skills, and attitud es. The framework is divided into five dimensions: information and data literacy, communication and collaboratio n, digital content creation, safety, and problem -solving. Additionally, proficiency levels are considered, with each competence divide d in to eight levels, ranging from Foundation to Advanced and Highly Specialized. For example, at th e Fo undation level and with guidance, individuals can recognize the credibi lity and reliability of common information sources and their digital co ntent. AI CFT is designed to support the developme nt o f AI competencies among teachers, enabling them to use these technological tool s safe ly, effectively, an d e thically in their teaching practices. It is based on a hu man -centered approach and points out that meaningful interactions between teachers should remain at the center of the educational experience. The framework comprises human-centered thinking, AI ethics, AI fundamentals and applications, AI pe dagogy, and AI in pr ofe ssional development. AI CFS, on the other hand, focus es on what AI skills shou ld be taught and outlines 12 competencies across dimensions such as human -centred thinking, AI ethics, AI technologi es a nd applications, and the design of AI syst em s. These competencies span three progression levels: understand, apply, and create. As Rigley et al. (2024) state in their systematic literature review on the assessment of AI skills policies in seven countries, the growi ng a nd disruptive impact of AI across various industries and professions means that economic growth and stability depend on maintaining a leading position in AI -driven sectors. The challeng es o f recruiting AI professionals and the discrepancy between t he skills o f new gradua tes and employer expectations point to a skills gap or mismatch . Their findings suggest that comprehensive, national strategies are associated with higher AI rea dine ss indices than more focused, specialist-led strategies. (Rigley et al., 2024) The growing interest towards AI has sparked pub lic discussion on AI literacy, and future skills. G rey litera tu re and public discussion forums have been use d as research data in multiple studies exploring the impact of AI on work life. Merikko et al. (2022) have analyzed the discussion forums and observed how Finnish teachers were not worried about being substituted by new technologies. Ouch chy e t al. (2020) have analyzed how ethical issues of AI have been visible in public media and argue that by examining this, we can better understand the possible effects of these public conversations. Along these lines, this study focus es on how labour market organizations and public administration in Finl an d talk about AI skills edu cation . 3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND MET HODS We set our goal to answer the following questions in the context of public online communication of labour market organisations and public administration in Finland : RQ1: What kind of objectives are set for AI s kills educa tion ? 102 RQ2: What are the key AI competencies and skills mentioned in the docu ments? To answer these questions , we systematically se arched AI related articles from the websites of the biggest Finnish employer and employee o rganisations, ministries and other governmental organisations ; for example, ministries , trade unions, employers' associations, research centers, specialist organisations , funding or ganisations, and European Union. Th e se included key stakeholders from the labour ma rket, education, research and politics. Searches were carried out in Finnish using Google by searching for keyword “tekoäly” (artificial intelligence). From 25 initial call results, 16 discussing AI competence education were selected. AI education did not need t o be the main topic of the article, however. Google searches were conducted b etween February and March 2025. The selected articles were analysed the m atically. The aim of the analysis was to identify key themes related to the objectives (RQ1) and competencies (RQ2). Using grey literature in r esea rch is often justifia ble, e specially when academic literature is limited or lacks certain viewpoints. It prov ides d iverse perspectives and practical approaches for measuring or approachi ng ou tcomes. This is particularly useful when peer-reviewed liter atu re on a topic is scarce. Including grey literature in a review helps ensure comprehensiveness and of fers a more holistic understanding of a phenomenon, whi ch in turn supports conclusions drawn from available information (Benzies et al., 2006). Furthermore, incorporating grey literature in research can broaden the scope of a review with m ore relevant studies by giving a more complete picture of the available evidence, as it can offer rich, contextual details that might not be found in peer-reviewed academic publications (Mahood et al., 2014). 4 PUBLIC DISCUSSION ON EDUCATION OF AI SKILLS IN FINLAND 4.1 Objectives of AI skills education (RQ1) Artificial intelligence (AI) education in Finland addresses diverse nee ds, benefiting both individuals and society. The key target gr oup s of Finland's AI ed ucation are students, teachers, and employees whose co m petence development and the broader benefit of society AI training ai m s to address. Key objective s iden tified in grey literature sources reveal a focus on enhancing work readiness i n higher educat ion. Universities of Applied Sciences 1 (UAS) are expected to equip students with AI tools to strengthen their preparedness for the work force and ensure graduates possess practical AI skills 2 (Arene 2024). Education providers in general are ta sked to increase AI literacy and foster safe, ethical AI u se in teaching and learning, 1 A University of Applied Sci ences is a terti ary level ins titute that brid ges the g ap between academ ia and the profess ional wor ld. Unlike tradit ional universi ties, which ofte n undersc ore theoret ical knowledge an d research, a UAS p laces a strong e mphasis on p rac tical, hands -on learning an d the direct application of knowle dge to rea l -world sit uations. ( Study.eu, n.d.) 2 AI literacy c an be understo od as a mu ltidimens ional sk ill set that includes c omprehen ding AI bas ics, applying it practica lly, evaluatin g it critically, us ing it creative ly, and acknow ledging its eth ical implications (Ng et al., 202 1). 103 supported by materials from the Finnish National Agency for E du cation (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2024a). Advancing AI integration in teaching is essen tial. Te achers should understand AI's potential and adapt their methods. UAS' should train students an d staff in basic AI tool usage (Arene, 2024). This is not possible without adequate reso urces, a s pointed out by the European Commission (2020). Related, the Finnish National Board of Education promotes u se of open edu cational mate rials and encourag es the pedagogical use of the digital environment (Ministry of Education and Cultu re, 2023). As pointed out in the next section, strengthening basic digital skills through AI training is also a priority. Th e Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions state s that developing training for these competencies is vital (SAK, 2024b). Finally, workplace learning cultures must be strengthened to facil itate te chnology adoption (Nousiainen, 2024). Enabling continuous skill development for employees is also vital. Em ployees should cultivate AI curiosity and understand its impact on their roles (Yline n, 2023). Education should facilitate skill enhancement and reduc e re petitive tasks (Ylinen, 2023), with a focus on flexible, on-the-job development (SAK, 2024b). The labour union points out (SAK, 2024b) that adult learni ng is often attended by those who already have a high level of education, while those who would most ne ed additional training are least likely to participate. Therefor e, it is important to create easy and motivating ways to acquire new skills. Moreover, employees need to understand the ethical dimensions of AI and automation (Ylinen, 2023). Moreover, continuou s learning requires that learners first identify potential skill gaps. Related to this, the Technology Industries of Finland, an organiz ation that represents the Finnish technology industry, aims to use AI to map sk ills gap s and connect e du cation w ith employment (Teknologiateollisuus, 2024). Eur opean Digita l Skills Certificate (EDSC) is another initiative with the same goal of hel ping citizens demonstrate their level of digital skills (European Commission, 2020). 4.2 AI -related c ompetencies (RQ2) The studied publications contain limited perspectives on technical c om petencies, focusing instead on general AI knowledge (based on 6 sources), AI ethics and responsibility (2 sources), and the utilization of AI applications (6 sources). While there is also a need to conceptualise competencies from the perspectives of AI application developer edu cation (2 sources) and edu cation on AI -related algorithm and method research (no sources), these are as were ra re. General knowledge of AI is essential for users, who must develop A I literacy skills, understanding that AI reflects its training data and can prod uce biased or harmful information. Therefore, students must critically evaluate AI products, as authors remain responsible for their work (Arene, 2024). Dat a literacy , encompassing data collection, processing, analysis, interpretation, and presentation, is becoming particularly important. This literacy extends beyond technical and inf orm ational dimensions to include legal and ethical principles guiding data use (Y likos ki, 20 24). As publication of Centr al Orga nisation of Finn ish Trad e Unions (SAK 2024b, p. 4 ) states "Technological innovations, including artificial intelligence, will revolutionize human life and the labor market. It has been no ted that technological development creates new jobs but also eliminates old ones, a nd the new jobs requir e d ifferent 104 skills". AI -related education and guidance are crucial, yet only a third of employees have received such education (Nousiainen, 2024). Workplaces need a culture of learning that encourages experimentation an d co ntinuous development of one's work (Nousiainen, 2024). Understanding and communicating one's skills are vital for employment (Ylinen, 2023). Employees shoul d b e curious and sensitive to changes and skill needs in their field (Ylinen, 2023). Le ctu rers at UAS' must understand the possibilities of AI in teaching and learning (Ar ene , 2024). Teaching mu st consider AI's ethical principles and ensure that AI tools' oper ating principles are openly presented (Arene, 2024). Educational instituti on s should evaluate AI's impact on learning processes and theses (Arene, 2024) . Learners must develop the ability to critically approach, filter, and evaluate information (European C ommission, 2020 ). AI ethics and responsibility are crucial for employees, who must understand the ethical dimensions related to AI and automati on (Ylinen, 2023). The use of AI must comply with general ethical principles such as fairness, eq ua lity, and respect. Creators must always consider the ethical implications of AI-ge nerated content, which can be biased and harmful. UAS' should regularly update their ethical and operational guidelines to reflect the latest tren ds a nd best practices (Arene, 2024) . Utilizing AI applications is essential for investing in employees' digital skills, which is essential for Finland's competitiveness (SAK, 2024b). It is important to ensure everyone is equipped to function in the digital societ y and labo ur market (SAK, 2024b). Workplaces need structures and practices that foster curiosity for learning new things, encourage experimentation, and i nsp ire continuous development of one's work (Nousiainen, 2024). Employees should actively engage with de velopment suggestions and participate early in the technology change proce ss (SAK, 2024a). Generative AI may reduce differences between workers by providing weaker workers access to the tacit knowl ed ge of more experienced workers (Ylikoski, 2024). Students must unde rstand AI's possibilities in th eir studies and deve lop t heir skills (Arene, 2024). Educational institutions must be aware of AI's opport un ities and challenges (European Commission, 2020). Education systems must a dapt to digital transformation (European Commission, 2020). Tea ching staff should be given opportunities to use innovative digital meth ods (Europ ean Commission, 2020). Special knowledge and application theme in cludes programming, data ma nagement, analysis, and problem -solving skills that are a ll impo rtant in the futur e (Finnish National Agency for Education). In the future, these skills, which are traditionally seen as core ICT skills, will be needed in va rious disciplines. For example, t he importance of artificial intelligence skills was explicitly mentioned in the context of chemical production (Finnish National Agency for Education , n.d.). Additionally , Business Finland 's publication (2025) highlights that "companies maintain up - to -date expertise, enabling agile market responses" . Similarly , Expertise Foresight Forum (OEF) underscores utilizing Big Data and AI, alongside robotics and coding (Finnish National Agency for Education, n.d.). 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS When looking at the objectives of AI education (RQ1), we fou nd that students not yet in working life, lifelong learners (i.e., those already in working life) an d e ducators 105 1 INTRODUCTION Concerns over the increase in mental health prob lems among young people have intensified in recent years, albeit the causes of the crisis remain de ba ted (e.g., Kurki & Rask, 2025; Asghar et al., 2023). The body of research on the topi c ha s also been growing, exacerbated by the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. This applies also to engineering education, although mental health and wellbeing ( MHW) in engineering education is still an emerging field of research (Asghar et a l., 2023; Jensen & Cross, 2021). Therefore, different studies tend to use varying conceptualizations and measurements of MHW (Kama l et al., 2024). Some U.S. studies indicate that engineering students are particularly susceptible to issues with mental health and wellbeing (e.g., Danowitz & Beddoes, 2022; Jensen & Cross, 2021; Jensen et al., 2023 ). Jensen and Cross (2021) discuss th at engineering students may suffer from particularly high levels of stress, anxiety, an d d epression due to a culture of suffering and rigor. “ By defining h igh stress as the norm, engineering students can perceive a culture of stress that can be passed on to incoming students through their interactio ns and the advice that they provide about courses, instructors, and the departmental n orms ” (Jen sen & Cross, 2021, p. 372; emphasis in the original). Furthermore, a recent U.S. study finds t hat e ng ineering culture is the main ba rrier for engineering facu lty a nd staff to engage in a ctivities supportive of students’ MHW (Sa nders et al., 20 24) . In their review of the international literature, Asghar et al. ( 20 23) identify t hree recurrent themes related to the state of m ental health and well be ing ( MHW) of undergraduate students in engineering. Thes e a re: (1) Undergradua te st udents experience a variety of mental health issues t ha t negatively affect their experiences in engineering education; (2) The MHW of undergraduate students i s aff ected by engineering cultural norms; and (3) The MHW of undergraduate students in engineering may be supported throu gh targeted interventions. Somewhat surprisingly, most studies on MHW in engineering educ ation do not make explicit comparisons between the majority and minority students in engineering , including women and students from racialized m inorities (Asghar et al., 2023). The studies that report such comparisons find that the MHW of women and minorities is poorer than that of (‘white’) men. For example, Danowitz and Bed does (2022) find that women were statistically more likely than men to screen positive for all anxiety disorders and major depression , and Jensen and Cross (2021) find t ha t female students reported higher levels of stress and anxiety than m en. Whilst these findings reflect the general trend, Danowitz and Beddoes (2022, p. 8) h ighlight that “ the magnitude at which women versus men screen positive for these conditions indicates that some aspects of engineering c ulture and campus life are e specially burdensome for women in engineering ” . While approximately half of the studies reviewed by Asghar et al. (2023) originate from the United States, studies on MHW in engineering education ha ve a lso been conducted in several countries in Asia and some countries in Europe. Nonetheless, no such studies (to our knowledge) have been conducted in the Nor dic countries. Therefore, it is of particular interest to see how engineering/technology students perceive their MHW in Finlan d, the ”happiest country in the world” (World Happiness Report, 2025). 112 Besides lack of studies comparing men and women, Asghar et al. (2023) did not come across any studies that provided inform atio n about the MHW outcomes of students identifying as non-binary. As Haverkamp et al. (2021) unde rline, transgender and gender nonconforming students and prof essionals a re often invisible in engineering education research and theory. Hence, this study aims to fill these gaps by investigating the mental healt h a nd wellbeing (MHW) of enginee ring/technology s tud ents in universities in Finland, comparing men, women, and non -binary respondents. 2 METHODOLOGY 2.1 Research questions The main objective of this study was to exami ne gender differences i n h ow university students of engineering/technology in Finlan d experience and perceive their mental health and wellbeing. Further, it was expl ored whether these perceptions have changed compared to previous years. The ob jectives were pursued by seeking to answer the following research questions: Q1. What kind of gender differences can be d iscerned in how engineeri ng students in Finland perceive their mental health and wellbeing ( MHW )? Q2. How have these perceptions changed in recent years? 2.2 Data Data for this study was collected by a professional organization for university- educated engineers in Finland whose m embers also include student s of engineering/technology, computer science, and natural sciences . The data used in this study was derived from the organization’s student surveys from 2019, 2021, and 2024. The student su rvey is an annual onlin e survey, condu cted in September - October, targeting all student members excep t first -year students. The purpose of the student survey is to collect information on wellbeing and coping, employment situation and salaries, and to gather data on timely, va rying topics. The overall number of respondents and response rates were the foll owing: 2,870 persons (20%) in 2019; 3,260 persons (18%) in 2021; and 2, 28 4 persons (11%) in 2024. While the number of respondents and the respons e ra te varies, the number of participants each year was deemed sufficient for sta tistical analysis and for making inferences about student members in general. For this study, only students of engineering/technology were selected (see Table 1 for nu m ber of respond ents). Gender as a binary variable (Male/Female) based on the Finnish ID could be derived from the organization’s membership register, and therefore the gend er distribution of the population was known for 2019 and 2024 surveys . On the other hand, the 2021 survey was anonymous. However, as o f 2021, the respondents hav e been asked to identify their gender on a 4-point scale (Male/Female/Other/Does not want to disclose). Please see Table 1 for the gender distri bu tion for 2019, 2021, and 2024, respectively (without missing answers). Those with mi ssing data as well as those who responded ‘does not want to disclose’ were coded as missing in this study. 113 Table 1. Number (n) and percentage (%) of r esp ondents by gender category in 2019, 2021, and 2024. Year Male Female Other Missing Total 2019* 2099 (70.9) 862 (29.1) - 2 2963 2021 1603 (65.9) 776 (31.9) 11 (0.5) 44 2434 2024 1147 (60.5) 724 (38.2) 24 (1.3) 40 1935 *Only binary data (Male/Fe male) base d on Finnish ID was available . The data selected for this study consist ed of three items measuring perceived mental health and wellbeing (MHW). First item wa s: “Have you been worried about your coping during the last academic year?” with answer options “no”, “y es, rarely”, “yes, several times” and “yes, constantly”. Second item wa s state m ent “I feel like I am in over my head with the amount of work related to my studies”, with responses on a five-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree to 5= stron gly agree). Third item wa s the current state of “Mental wellbeing (incl. mental bala nce)” with answer options “very good”, “good”, “somewhat ok”, “poor” and “really poor”. These three items were selected to obtain an overall understanding of how the students e xperience and perceive their own abilities to cope with the a mo unt of work and stress related to their studies. Spearman’s rank -order correlation showed that the items have a moderate (-.398 – .588) yet highly statistically significant correlation (p<0.001). Data from 2024 represent ed most recent situation and function ed as the starting point of the analysis. Year 2021 was selected to represent the impact of the COVID - 19 pandemic. Since wellbeing and coping as a t opic of inquiry was first introduced to the survey in 2019 and it reflects the situation before the COVID -19 pandemic, data from this year was also selected for the comparison. Albeit some res po ndents we re likely to be the same in two or even three surv eys, the data used in t his stu dy wa s anonymous and thus d id n ot allow longitudinal analysis of individual students. Instead, the data from each year wa s considered cross-sectional and comparisons we re made on gender cate gory level (Man/Woman/Other). 2.3 Data analysis Statistical analyses were done with the sta tistical soft ware SPSS (version 29 ). Kruskal - Wallis tests, includ ing p air-wise compa risons, were u sed to a sse ss differences b y gender category for 2024 data, with significance level of p <0.05. Crosstabulation by gender category (Man/Woman/Other) was used to assess distribu tio n of scores with in 2024 data and means over time. D ue to limitations of space, further analysis of changes over time was omitted from this pape r. 3 RESULTS 3.1 Gender differences in mental health and wellbeing The main results from 2024 data are presented in Table 2. Because the scales and their directions vary, Figures 1 -3 further depic t th e distribution of the scores by gender category. The distribution of the mental health and wellbeing (MHW ) scores were not similar for all groups, as assessed by visual inspecti on of the boxplots. The d ifferences between gender groups were statistically highly significant (below p < 0 .01) for all three items (Table 2). Nevertheless, the effect sizes were smal l, and none reached even moderate level, remaining below 0.06. The small effect sizes presumably 114 reflect the unequal number of respondents in the three gend er ca tegories, as these ranged from 1147 (Man) to 24 (Other). Table 2. Perceived mental health and wellbeing (means) by gender category, 2024. Question item Man (mean , SD ) Woman (mean , SD ) Other (mean , SD ) Krusk.- Wallis H p (asympt.) Effect size MHW1. Have you been worried about your coping during the last academic year? [1=no, 4=yes, constantly] 2.18 0.917 2.62 0.868 3.00 0.834 111.69 <0.001** 0.058 MHW2. I feel like I am in over my head with the amount of work related to my studies [1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree] 2.80 1.048 3.13 1.027 3.54 0. 884 53.49 <0.001** 0.027 MHW3. Mental wellbeing (incl. mental balance) [1=very good, 5=really poor] 2.41 0.911 2.66 0.895 3.00 0.834 45.07 0.005** 0.023 **highly significant differenc e Results in Table 2 and Figures 1 -3 reveal that male respondents per ceived their MHW to be better than women or non -binary respondents. For examp le, 26% of men reported that they have not been worried abo ut their coping during the last academic year whereas the percentage shares w ere 10% for women and 4% for others (Figure 1.). Conversely, 9% of men stated than they are constantly worried a bo ut coping while the same was said by 16% of women and 29% of non -binary respondents. Fig. 1. “Have you been worried about your cop ing during the last academi c year?” ( MHW 1). Dist ribution of scores by gender catego ry, 2024. Similarly, over 60% of non -binary respondents agreed that the amount of work related to their studies is overwhelming whereas the correspondi ng numbers we re 25,9 % 10,2 % 4,2 % 38,4 % 33,3 % 20,8 % 27,0 % 40,9 % 45,8 % 8,6 % 15,6 % 29,2 % 0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 % Man (n=1147) Woman (n=724) Other (n=24) no yes, rarely yes, several times yes, constantly 115 39% for women and 26% for men (Figure 2). Furth ermore, while no ne of the non - binary respondents described their mental wellbeing as really poor, 25% described it as poor, and only 16% perceive d it to be good or very good. On the other hand, 5 9% of men described their mental health as good or very good. Fig. 2. “ I feel like I am in ove r my head with the amount of work related to my studies.” (M HW2). Distribution of scores by gend er category, 20 24. Fig. 3. “Mental wellbei ng (incl. mental balance )” ( MHW3). Distribution of scores b y gender category , 2024. The pairwise comparisons further showed tha t for a ll three items, the re were statistically highly significant differences between respondents in ca tegories “Man” and “Woman” as well as “Man” and “Other”. O n t he other hand, the d isparities between females and others were not significant for any items. 10,4 % 5,4 % 0,0 % 30,1 % 22,6 % 16,7 % 33,5 % 33,1 % 20,8 % 20,7 % 30,8 % 54,2 % 5,3 % 8,0 % 8,3 % 0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 % Man (n=1147) Woman (n=724) Other (n=24) 1=strongly d isagree 2 3 4 5=strongly agree 13,5 % 6,9 % 8,3 % 45,3 % 39,3 % 8,3 % 29,7 % 37,1 % 58,3 % 9,3 % 14,0 % 25,0 % 2,2 % 2,6 % 0,0 % 0 % 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 % Man (n=1147) Woman (n=724) Other (n=24) very good good somewhat ok poor really poor 116 3.2 Changes over time To explore changes over time, main results from 2019 and 2021 su rveys were compared to those obtained in 2024. The findings revealed that gen de r differences for each MHW item appear constant and consistent, despite some fluctuation between years (Table 3). The COVID-19 pandemic, reflected in the results of 2021, was clearly related to a worsening in MHW for all gender categories, while 2 024 scores are close to the pre-pandemic leve ls (Table 3). Compared to women or non -binary respondents, m en reported throughout less concern about coping (MHW1), felt less often that the amount of wor k is overwhelming (MHW 2), and more often descri be d their mental health as goo d (MHW3). Nonetheless, the means for the sc ores in 2024 remained at sligh tly elevated level compared to year 2019. Table 3. Perceived mental health and wellbeing: Means by gender category and year. Question item Gender category 2019 2021 2024 MHW 1. Have you been worried about your coping during the last academic year? [1=no, 4=yes, constantly] Man (mean , SD ) 2.17 0.869 2.30 0.915 2.18 0.917 Woman (mean , SD ) 2.62 0.840 2.79 0.812 2.62 0.868 Other (mean , SD ) . 3.45 0.820 3.00 0.834 MHW2 . I feel like I am in over my head with the amount of work related to my studies Man (mean , SD ) 2.77 1.080 2.90 1.070 2.80 1.048 Woman (mean , SD ) 3.17 1.065 3.37 1.011 3.13 1.027 Other (mean , SD ) . 4.18 0.751 3.54 0.895 MHW 3. Mental wellbeing (incl. mental balance) Man (mean , SD ) 2. 34 0. 932 2. 55 0.931 2. 41 0.911 Woman (mean , SD ) 2. 58 0.888 2. 85 0.892 2. 66 0.895 Other (mean , SD ) . 3. 64 1.120 3. 00 0.834 3.3 Limitations The study has limitations. Th e study covers the situation in one c ountry (Finland ), and the results could be different in other cou ntries. Due to the small number of respondents in the gender category other, an d t his category missing in 2019 dat a, the results for this group can only be considered indicative albeit they are consistent, and the differences in 2024 are statistically significant. Anot he r limitation is that MHW is measured with only three individual i tem s and thus do not a llow com parison with verified instruments (such as those used by Mirabelli et al., 2025 or Jensen & Cross, 2021). Moreover, following the MHW of individual students across time would be advantageous to improve understanding of MHW, but the anonymous data used in this study did not allow that. Finally, limitations of sp ace hindered the possibilities to further analyse changes over time. 117 4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This study contributes to the growing literature on the mental h ea lth and w ellbe ing (MHW) of engineering/technology students by comparing MHW as perceived by men, women and non -binary students in univ ersities in Finland. In li ne with certain international studies and as anticipated, m en perceive their MHW to be better than women or others. There are marked and statisticall y h ighly significant differences between men and women, and even starker disparities between men and non -binary students. However, that does not mean that men do not worry about their coping or experience stress related to studies. Some studies indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic had a deteriorating impact on MHW of engineering/technology students (e.g. Danowitz & B ed does, 2020). The findings of this study suggest that although C OVID -19 caused the perceived MHW to worsen, the effect was temporary. The MHW scores of engineering/technology students in Finland have, in general, regained their pre -pandemic (2019) levels. Nevertheless, the impact of the pandemic mer its fu rther investigation. Overall, the results are worrying and even alarming, particularly pert aining to women and non -binary student s. It is wo rth noting that the items in this study did not measure whether engineering/technology students ever experie nce stress. Instead, the respondents were asked if they have been worried about their coping (MHW1) or feel that the amount of work makes them feel they are in over their h ead (MHW 2) during the last academic year. Moreover, while majority of respo ndents in all gender categories describe their current mental wellbeing (MHW3) at least “somewhat ok”, those describing it as poor or really poor amo un t to 11.5% of men, 1 6.6 % of women, and 25% of others. Hence, our conclusion is similar to Asghar et al. (202 3, p. 14): “ the current condition of MHW of undergraduate engineering is unsatisfactory for supporting academic performance and retenti on in undergraduate engineering programs ”. Asghar et al. (2023 summarize that he avy academic workload, trou ble with sleeping, and engineering education culture hinder MHW in engineering education. Therefore, like for example Jensen et al. (2023) and Sanders et al. (2024), we call for a culture change towards increasing wellness for all who are part of this cultur e. This also means consistent efforts to improve inclusion, b ecause experiences of exclusion are linked to lower MHW (Jensen & Cross, 2021) . A p rior study finds tha t in Finland, women students we re less likely than men to feel they belong in engi nee ring, and the belonging of non-bina ry students wa s even weaker (Bairoh & Naukkarinen, 2023). Our findings corroborate these results an d underline the need to address the MHW of women and non-binary students in Finnish engineering/technology universities. Targeted interventions (see e.g., Asgh ar et al., 2023) as well as supporting the MHW of all students could reduce the likelihood of engineering/technology students being exha uste d by their studies. 118 5 REFERENCES Asghar, M., Miniciello, A., & Shaf, A. (2023). Menta l health and well be ing of undergraduate students in engineering: A sys tematic lite rature review. Journa l of Engineering Education , 2023: 1-30. doi: 10.1002/jee.20574 Bairoh, S., & Naukkarinen, J. (2023). Se nse Of Belonging Among T echnolog y Students in Finland. European Society for E nginee ring Education (S EFI). d oi: 10.21427/D64W-P M75 Danowitz, A., & Beddoes, K. (2022). Mental Health in Engineering Education: Identifying Population and Intersectional Vari atio n. IEEE Transactions on Education. doi: 10.1109/TE.2022.3182626 Danowitz, A., & Beddoes, K. (2020). Effects of COVID-19 on engineeri ng students’ baseline stress. AAEE2020 Conference, Sydney, Australi a. Haverkamp, A., Bothwell, M., Montfort, D., & Dr iskill Q -L. (20 21). Calling for a Paradigm Shift in the Study of Gender in Engi ne ering Education. Studies in Engineering Education , 1(2): 55– 70. Jensen, K: J., & Cross, K. J. (2021). Engineering stress culture : Rela tionships among mental health, engineering identity, and sense of inclusion. Jo urnal of Engineering Education , 2021(110): 371 -392. doi: 10.1002/jee.20391 Jensen, K. J., Mirabelli, J. F., Kunze, A. J. , Romanchek, T. E. & Cross, K. J. (2023). Undergraduate student perceptions of stress and mental health in engineering culture. International Journal of STEM Education , 1 0:30. doi: 10.1186/s40594- 023 -00419-6 Kamal, S. A., Ali, S. F. & Sanchez -Pena, M. L. (2024). Wellbeing of graduate engineering students. ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition , Portland, 2024. ASEE Paper ID #43779 Kurki, T., & Rask, S. (2025). Hyper(in)visibili ty o f Blackness in spaces of whiteness: representations of race, gender an d me ntal distress in the imageries of youth mental health services . Journal of Youth Studies . doi: 10.1080/13676261.2025.2468486 Mirabelli, J.F., Johnson, E.M., Vohra, S.R., Sanders, J. L. & Jensen, K. J. (2025). Stressors and normalized stress in undergraduate engi ne ering education culture: develop m ent of the Engineering Stress Cult ure Scale and Undergraduate Engineering Stressors Questi onnaire. International Journal of STEM Education 12: 19. doi: 10.1186/s40594 - 025 -00540-8 Sanders, J., Johnson, E., Mirabelli, J., Kunze, A., Vohra, S. & Jensen, K. (2024). “Not a therapist”: Why engineering faculty and staff do /n’t engage in supporting student mental health and wellbeing. International Journal of Engineering Education . 40(1): 196-213. https://www.ijee.ie/1atestissues/Vol40-1/20_ ijee4424.pdf World Happiness Report. 2025. https://worldhappiness.report/ (Derived March 25, 2025.) 119 ASS ESSI NG ST UDE NT PERF ORM AN CE I N T UT ORED VS N ON - T UT ORED M O DU LES: A C AS E ST UDY I N A SO UT H AF RIC AN UNIV ER SIT Y EM B akama a, 1 , Z Si mpson b, 2 a Univ ersity of Johannesburg , Johanne s bu rg , Sou th Africa, ORC ID 0000 - 0003 - 440 2- 7566 b Univ ersity of Johannesburg, Johanne s bu rg, South A fr i ca, ORC ID 0000 - 0002 - 126 3 - 3812 Co nferen ce Key Are as : Im proving higher eng i neeri n g education t hr ough researching eng i ne er i ng educati on ; B ui l di ng t he capac i ty and strengthening t he education a l compet ences of engi n eering educ ators. Key words : Tutoring , Eng i neering Edu cat i on, Student P erf ormance A nal ys is, Academi c S up port Str ategies ABSTRA C T Thi s st udy examine s t he impact of tu tor i ng on st udent per form ance by comparing pass r ates in t utor ed and non-tut ored modules wi th i n t he Faculty of E ngi n eering and the Bui l t E nvi ro nment at U ni versity X f rom 2021 t o 2023. U si ng a quantitative research approach, dat a on pass rat es, enrol ment numbers, and t ut orial sess i ons were collect ed and anal y sed t hrough descr i ptiv e st atistics, w i th findings presented usi ng t abl es an d graphs. Resu l ts cons istently ind icate t hat modul es wi th tut ors outperf orm those wi thout , w i th pass rat e gaps rangi ng f rom 18 t o 23 percentage poi nts over t he st udy period. N otably, depa rt ments such as Mechani cal Eng ine eri ng Sci enc e (M ES ), Urban and R egional P l an ni ng (U R P ), and M etall urg y (M ET AL) exhi b ited t he m ost si gni fican t i mprovement s in t u tor ed modules. Whi l e pass r ates i n non -t utor ed modules show e d sli g ht improvem ent ove r time, they re maine d consi stent l y lo wer t han t hose w ith t utor support , unde rscor i ng the ef f ectiven ess of 1 EM Ba ka ma ba ka mae @uj.a c.za 2 Z S impso n zsim p so n @uj.ac. za DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631750 120 tut oring intervent i ons. D espi te t he se f i nd i ngs, the study acknowl e dg es t hat multipl e fact ors, incl udi ng modul e complex ity, l ecturer con sul tat i on, and student en gagement infl uenc e pass rates. Although t he data sugge st a st rong cor relation between tut oring and improved student perfor mance, further research i s r ecommended t o explore ind i v i du a l module perf ormance, st uden t att endance , and t eachi ng m ethodol og i es t o understand the i nterplay of addi tiona l var i ab l es bet ter. These findi ng s emphasi se t he need f or cont i nued inve stm ent i n t utoring pr og ram s, particul arly f or at -risk st uden ts , while al so cons i der i ng compleme ntary acade mic support st rat egi es to fur ther enhance st udent success in eng i neer i ng educati on. 1 I N TR OD U CTI ON Tutoring in educat ion r efers to the p ractice of pr ovi di ng ind ivi du alize d academic support to st udents, typical l y f aci l i tat ed by a tr ai ned tut or. Thi s pr ocess ai ms to enhance st udents' compr ehe nsi o n and perf ormance in specific sub ject areas whe re addi tion al ass i stance is r equi red. While var i ous t utoring mode l s exist , on e - on - one and group tut oring sessions are among t he most implemented appr oaches (Nation al Student Sup port Accel erator , 2023). These sessi on s can be conduct ed either i n person or onli ne, with i n -person tut ori ng of ten bei ng m ore ef fect i ve d ue to hi gher student engagement and att endance r ates. Accordi ng t o Truckee M eado w s Community Co l l e ge (n. d.) , t he ef fect iven ess of t utoring is influence d by several fact ors, incl udi ng cons istency in t utor-st udent inter actions, adequate tut or t rai ni ng, and t he f requency of sessi ons. In-person tut o ring of fer s advantages such as st ronger tut or- student relati onships and a bet ter un derstanding of the i nstitut i onal envi ronment . C onverse l y, onl i n e t utoring expands accessibili ty by al l ow i n g t utors to part i ci pate from diverse geographic l ocations, pot entia l l y in creasi n g t he pool of avai lable t utors (N ationa l Student Support Accelerat or, 2023). Al though t heoretical perspectives suggest that tut oring enhance s st udent perfor mance ( McFarlane, 2016), i ts actual ef fect i veness in improving acad emic perfor mance r emai ns an open question. Si nce 201 7, the Facu lty of Engine erin g and t he Bui l t E nv i ronment at Uni versity X has centr al l y m anag ed t he al l ocatio n and appo i ntment of t u tors th rough the Dea n ’s Of fice. This syst em aims to distribute tut or funding based on ident i fi ed academic needs across variou s m odu l es. Initially, tut or appo i ntm ents were primaril y allocat ed to modules w ith histor i ca l ly l ow pass r ates (below 85 %) . H ow ever, over the pa st five years, t he f acul ty has expande d t utor support across multipl e modul es to enhance student lea rning thr ough st ructured consul tations and teach i ng assis t an ce. Desp i te these eff orts , fina nci al const rai nts pose a sign i fican t challeng e, l imi ti ng t he f acul ty’s abi lit y t o provide t utors fo r al l r eq uested modul es. A s a result, t he all oca tion of tut oring resources must be justified by cl ear, evi dence -base d asses sments of i ts impact on st uden t perf ormance. Whil e tut oring is generall y perce i ve d as bene ficia l , ther e rem ai ns a ne ed f or empi rical investigat i on into its actual ef fectiveness in improving pass rat e s. Thi s st udy seeks t o address this gap by comparing st uden t success r ates in t utor ed and non-tut ored m odul es, provi di ng crit i cal insights to i nform fut ure resource alloca tion deci si ons w i thi n t he f acul ty . To achieve t hi s a i m, t he f ol low i ng ob j ectiv es have been id entified: ( 1) t o compare student pass r ates i n t utored and non -t u tored modul es wi thin t he Fa cul ty of Engi n eeri ng and t he Bu i l t Environm en t at Uni versity X , and (2) t o an al yse t he ext ent 121 These observatio ns suggest a posi tive asso ci atio n between t he pres ence of t utors and improved student perfor mance. Table 2 S t ude nts ' per f or mance in module s with/without t utors Modu les Pas s ra t e With/ without Tutors Pas s ra t e With/ without Tutors Pas s ra t e With/ without Tutors 2021 2021 2022 2022 2023 2023 1 70% Withou t t utors 67% With t utors 76% With t utors 2 100% Withou t t utors 97% With t utors 100% With t utors 3 86% Withou t t utors 90% With t utors 96% With t utors 4 84% With t utors 91% Withou t t utors 85% Withou t t utors 5 88% Withou t t utors 100% With t utors 85% With t utors 6 89% Withou t t utors 100% Withou t t utors 100% With t utors 7 80% Withou t t utors 94% With t utors 98% With t utors 8 95% With t utors 81% Withou t t utors 75% Withou t t utors 9 95% With t utors 96% Withou t t utors 100% With t utors 10 77% Withou t t utors 81% With t utors 91% With t utors 5 C ONC LUSIO N S Thi s st udy’ s descr ipti ve ana l ysi s of pass rates fr om 2021 t o 2023 r e veal s a consi stent t rend: modules supported by t utors tend t o exhi bi t hi gher st udent succe ss rat es compar ed to those without tut or suppo rt . Speci fically, in a sample of t en randomly selected m odules, seven experi enced improve d pass r ates f ol lowing t he introduction of t utors, whi l e thr ee showed a decline in perf ormance a f ter tut or suppo rt was w ithdra w n. The se f i nd ing s al i gn w ith pr i or research, such as Mc K ay ( 20 16), who found that regul ar t utor i a l at tendance signi ficantly i mproves academic ou tcom es. Mor eover, tut oring not only enhances academic perf ormance but al so contr i butes t o increased st udent enga geme nt , an import ant fac tor i n ret ention and ove rall aca demi c success. In a cont ext like South Af rica, where t he G ross E nrolment R atio (G ER ) i n ter tiary educa tion r emai ns low an d st uden t dropout rat es are hi gh (C ouncil on H i g her Educati on, 2010 ; K hu l uvhe & G anya up fu, 2023), st ruct u red t utoring programs represent a potential l y impact ful intervent ion to address these systemic cha llenges. How e ver, it is i mport ant to acknow l ed ge t hat student perfor mance is influenced by multipl e f actors beyond tut or presence, such as m odul e di ff i cul ty, acce ss t o lectur er consul tat i ons, and the theoret i cal or pract ical nat ure of t he cont ent. T he eff ectiveness of tutor i ng also depend s on the traini ng and support t utor s r ece ive, whi ch ca n var y signi fica ntly across insti tut ion s. No ne theless, t he pr ese nt study provides valuabl e insight s into t he ef fect i veness of tu tor i ng in engi ne ering educat i o n, addressing ga ps i n South African resear ch. It aids uni versities i n m aki ng dat a -driven deci sions on t utoring r esource all oc ation, ensur i ng su pp ort is directed w here m ost needed . By enhanc ing st udent succe ss r ates and the l earning exp erien ce, the findi ngs cont rib ute t o t he continuou s impr ove ment of engi neering ed ucation RE F E R E NCE S Badat, S. (2010). The chal l enges of tr ansform ation in high er educa ti on and traini ng insti tut ion s in S ou th Africa. Paper commissi on ed by the D evel o pme nt Bank of Southern A fr i ca. R etr i eved February 22 , 20 25, fr om 128 www.r u.ac.za/ media/rhodesuni v ersity/ content/ vc/documents/ The%20C ha l l en ges%20 of% 20T ransfor mat i on%20i n%2 0Higher%20 Edu catio n%20and% 20T raini ng %2 0Instit utions%20in% 20 So uth%20Afr i ca.pdf Cl arenc e, S. (2016). Peer tut ors as lea rning and t eachi ng part ne rs: A cum ul ative approach t o buil d i ng peer tut oring capac i ty in hi gher educati on . C riti cal St udi es i n Teaching and Le arni ng, 4 (1), 39–54. ht tps: / /doi.org/ 10.14426/cristal.v4i1.69 Coa tes, H. (2007). A model of onli ne and gene ral campus -b ased student engage ment . Assessment and E va lua tion i n Hi g her E ducatio n, 32 (2), 121–141. htt ps://doi.org/ 10.1080/026029306 00 8018 78 Cou gh l an, F. (2006). A ccess f or success. Sou th African Journal of Hi gher Educati on, 20 (2) , 209 –218. Cross, M . , & Carpentier, C . (2009 ). “ N ew st uden ts” i n South African hi gher ed ucati on: Inst i tut i onal culture, st udent pe rf ormance and the chal lenge of democrat i sation. Perspect i ve s in Educat ion , 27 (1), 6– 18. Cou nc il on H i gh er Edu c ati on. (2010). A ccess and t hroughput i n Sou th A fr i can higher education : T hree case studies. H i gher Educ ation M oni tor, 9 , 1 –21 8. R etr i eved February 3, 20 17, fr om htt p://ww w .che. ac.za/ documents/ d000 20 6/Hi g her_Ed ucation _Mo ni t or_9.pdf Faroa, B. D . (2017). Consi deri ng t he role of t utoring in st uden t engage ment : Refl ectio ns f rom a S outh A fr i can universi ty. Journal of Student Aff ai r s in Afr i ca, 5 (2), 1–15. ht tps: / /doi.org/ 10.24085/jsaa.v5i2.269 9 Hu, S. , & Kuh, G. D. ( 2001, April ). Bei ng dis enga ge d in educati on all y purposeful activi ties: The infl uence s of st udent and i nstitut i ona l charact eristics. Paper presented at the American Educationa l Research A ssociat i on Ann ual C onferen ce , S eatt l e, WA. Khul u vhe, M ., & Ganyaupfu, E . M . (2023). Access to tertiary education: C ountry comparison usi ng gross enrolment ratio . Dep art ment of H igh er E duc ation and Training. R etr i eved February 22, 20 25, fr om htt ps :/ /www .dhet. gov.za McFarlane, K . J. (2016). Tutoring t he tutor s: Supporting ef fect i ve personal tut oring. Active Learni ng in H i gher Educ ati on, 17 (1) , 77– 88. htt ps://doi.org/ 10.1177/146978741 56 1672 0 McKay, T. M. (2016). Do t u tors matter? Assessi ng t he impact of t u tor s on f i rst-year academic perf ormance at a South Af rican university. Journal of Stud ent A ff ai rs i n Afr i ca, 4 (1) , 53– 64. ht tps://doi.or g/10.14426/jsaa.v4i1.144 Nati ona l St uden t Suppo rt Acce l erator. (2023). T ypes of tutor i ng: Eff ectiveness and equi ty . Retrieved February 22, 2025 , fr om htt ps://st udentsupportaccelerator .or g/briefs/ types- of -tutor i ng Staf f R eporter . (2023, N ovember 10). 9 reasons why st uden ts drop out of university in Sou th Africa. FundiConnect . ht tps:// fundi connect. co.za/st ud ent-dr opou t- causes/ Truckee M eado w s Community C o l le ge . (n.d. ). T ypes of t u toring . T ut oring and Learning C enter . R etr i eved February 22, 2025, from htt ps://ww w .t mcc. edu/t utoring/t ypes - of -t u toring 129 Circular economy for water educati on : Job market expectations and highe r educat ional offerings in Finland V. Baldasso a, 1 , D. Pe ña T orres b , J. Sundman c , M. Taka d , A. Mikol a e a Aalto University , Espoo, Finland , ORCID 0000-0003-4107 -1078 b Aalto University, Espoo, Finland, ORCID 00 00 -0002-1705-0018 c Aalto University, Espoo, Finland, ORCID 0000 -0003-2590-632X d Aalto University, Espoo, Finland, ORCID 0000-0002 -6147-9137 e Aalto University, Espoo, Finland, ORCID 0000-0002 -1629-9276 Conference Key Areas : S ustainability and society in engineering , and Engineering skills, professional skills and transversal skills. Keywords : Education for circular economy , engineering education, circular economy competencies, curriculum design. ABSTRACT The tra nsition to a cir cular econo m y (CE) is c rucial for s ustainability, particularly in the water and environment sectors . This study investigates the alignment between CE competencies required by the job ma rket and those provided in highe r education curricula in Finland using a mixed methods approach. The sta keholders survey revealed that CE competencies, such as problem -solving, critical thinking, and knowledge of water and en vironmental services, are highly valued by the market. It a lso revealed that graduates lack proficien cy in a reas like economic aspects and best available technologies. In addition, the analysis of master ’s -level course offering on CE identified significant gaps in specific th ematic areas, such as water education, and CE competencies . While gener al CE p rinciples and communication skills we re well co vered, knowledge of best avai lable technologies and economic principles , among others, were insufficiently addressed. These findings highlight the need for stronger CE curriculum integration to better prepare graduates for evolving market demands. By implementing holistic CE courses that blend interdisciplinarity with disci pline -specific needs, higher education institutions can equip graduates with the necessary skill s to contribute effectively to the CE transition. 1 Corresponding Author V. Baldasso veronica.baldass o@aa lto.fi DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631654 130 1 INTRODUCTION The transition t o a circ ular economy (CE) is widely recognized as a viable strategy for building a m ore sustainable society in response to escalating climate, resource, and environmental concern s (Geissdoerfer e t al., 2 017) . CE represents a paradigm shift from the traditional li near “take -make/use-disp ose ” to a more sustainable m odel based on three principles: (i) designing out waste a nd pollution, (ii) keeping products and materials in use, and (iii) regene rating natural syst em s (Ellen MacArthur Foundation , 2024). As this tra nsition reshapes how societies produce, consume, and manage resources, it a lso poses new d emands to curr en t and future professionals across sectors – pa rticularly e ngineers , who play a central role in designing systems, technologies, and infrastructures that enable innovative and sustainable solutions. Higher education institutions a re crucial in preparing these professionals by equipping them with the necessary theoretical knowledge and practi cal skills (Giannoccaro et al., 2021; Paullet, 2020) . In t he conte xt of CE transition, curricula must be re structured to foster the competencies required by the evo lving job market (Acerbi et al., 2024; Ho et al., 2024; Janssens et al., 2021) . Although sustainability and CE concepts have been increasingly integrated into higher educ atio n curricula over the past decade (Mesa & Esparragoza, 2021 ; Sanchez-Romaguera et al., 2016) it often lacks a cohesive method or a comprehensive und erstan ding of their holistic implications (Garcia-Saravia Ortiz- de -M on tellano et al., 2023; Renfors, 2024; Waite et al., 2024). Our existing efforts are fragmented and limited in scop e (Mesa & Esparragoza, 2021) and on ly limited studies document how CE com petencies can effectively be taught in engineering education , with pedagogical frameworks for this purpose remaining limited (Kirchherr & Piscic elli, 20 19). This ca lls fo r furth er exploration of how CE competencies are addressed in engineering e duca tion , particularly in fields like water and environmental engineering, wher e circularity is closely tied to professional practice. 1.1 Circular economy for water education CE principles are particularly relevant to the wat er secto r, where increasing pressure on freshwater resou rces and growing wa stewater volumes demand more sustainable and resource-efficient approaches (Lazarova, 2 022; Man nina et al., 2022) . For example, in the urban water systems , CE involves rethinking wate r management a nd treatment strat egies to develop d ecentralized networks, enable digitalization f or sm art water systems, maxim ize resource efficiency by reducing, reutilizing, and recovering resources (Avellán e t al., 2021; Rebello et al., 2 024) . This m odel has be come stro ngly supported by political leaders and a uthorities worldwide (European Commission, 2020; European Co mmission , 2019; P rieto -Sandoval et a l., 2018 ; Ministry of th e Environment, & Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment , 20 21). In fact, this shift is expected to enhance environmental sustainability , resilience and robustness of water infrast ructures (Korhonen et al., 201 8) . For this reaso n, professionals are expected to have a solid foundation in CE , an d its integration in th e current water management and tre atment strategies (Degerman e t al., 2 023; Giannoccaro et al., 2021; Sitra, 2021; The International Water As sociat ion, 2016) . The importance of CE proficien cy for p rofessi ona ls , e specially engineers, in a rapidly evolving job market is internationally acknowl ed ged and su pported (OECD, 2019; UNESCO e t al., 2016; W orld Economic Fo rum, 2025) . Even though th ere is still li ttle understanding on the t ype of workforce that CE implementation will require (Burger et al., 2019), the key CE competencies focus on (i) eff icient resource management and 131 impact assessment, including efficient materi als a nd resource r e/use, evaluating alternatives and the ir impact on the environment ; (ii) systems thinking, referring to a systemic approach for investigating the complexity of CE associated challenges (systems and their interactions) ; and (iii) circular bu siness models, including the identification, design and development of custom business models (Giannoccaro et al., 2 021; Ja nssen s e t al., 2 02 1; Renfors, 2024) . However, the ge ographical and field- sensitivity of relevant CE competencies reflects the need t o identify an d assess case- specific CE requirements, a s is do ne in this paper (Acerbi et al., 2024; Aranda -Usón et a l., 2018; Nikitae va et a l., 2024) . Nevertheless, te chnical proficiency co ntinues to be critical and should rem ain inta ct, with CE skills and competencies serving as an added value, enriching one’s expertis e (Janssens et al., 2021). 1.2 Circular economy in higher education curricula Today, given the g rowing pressures for the CE transition, there are strong e fforts to identify the best frameworks and strategies to develop holistic CE courses for targeted fields (Kirchh err & Piscicelli, 2019; Whalen et al., 2018) , especially in engineering education (Mesa & Esparragoza, 2021). This field specific knowledge and technical skills education should be targeted at the master’s level (Nikitaeva et al., 2 02 4; Wang & V an Bueren, 2018). Fu rthermore , it is essential to evaluate current educational offering togeth er with the job ma rket expectations and pinpoint existing gaps. To the authors’ knowledge, there are only a few studies that h ave inv estigated higher education offerings related to CE a nd whether th ey adequately m eet the demands of the current and future job market (Ace rbi et al., 2024; Gian noccaro et al., 2021) , primarily focusing on selected countries . In th e Finnish context, however, no stud ies h ave addressed this issue . G iven the Finnish government ’s sup port towards education and CE transition , it is im perative to address th is research gap in Finland, especially conside ring the potential for developing specialized CE co urses tailored to the Finnish context. Thus, this study aims to a nswer the following resea rch questions: 1. What are the CE needs and expe ctations o f the Finnish job m arket in th e field of water and environmental engineering? 2. How a re CE-relate d need s and expectations of th e job m arket addressed in master’s level education in water and environmental engineering in Finland ? 2 METHODOLOGY This study is part of a broader on-go ing int erdisciplina ry research project that focu ses on de veloping effective integration of CE concepts into engineering education, with a particular focus on the wat er and e nvironmental sector. The research adopts a m ixed methods desi gn to gain a n understanding of t he alignment be tween jo b market expectations and educational offe rings related to the CE in th e field of wat er and environmental eng ineeri ng . We used the same competency lists for b oth su rvey and course offering mapping. 2.1 Data collection Survey of stakeholders To gain a holistic understanding o f the CE needs and expectations within the Finnish job market for water and environment professionals, an electronic survey was developed and administered to selected sta keholders. The participants were sou rced 132 from a pool of stakeholders fro m the research group’s n etwork using purposive sampling (Pat to n, 2002). This ensured the inclusion of professionals involved in water and en vironment fields , potentially dealing with CE aspects, within Finlan d-based companies and/or organizations. The survey comprised five sections: (i) de mographic and professional background information, (ii) current CE skills and competencies required in the job market , (iii) proficiency o f recent graduated professionals in CE skills and competencies, (iv) fu ture expectations of CE skil ls a nd competencies for the job market, and (v) the role of higher education institutions in facilitating the transition towards a CE . The survey was developed utilizing Webropol survey tool and shared via email with th e p articipants , together with the study’s information, ethics a pp roval and privacy notice. (This is an ongoing study; thus, the po ol of potentia l participants wil l expand to inclu de members of the Finnis h Wate r Association and other profe ssionals identified through snowball sampling.) The 19 survey respondents represented professionals including engineers, consultants, managing directo rs, CEOs, a nd gove rnment officials. The respondents were aged from 25 to o ver 65 years old (with 64 % be ing 35 –54 years o ld), with 79% being m ale . They a ll held a higher education degree (63% m aster’s degree and 32% a do ctoral degree ; 9 5% related to engineering and technology disciplines ), and over 50% of participants had more than 20 years of experience in the field of w ate r and environment, while the rema ining had between 6 to 20 years of experience. All participants stated th at their work was fro m minimally ( 2 1%) to highly (32 %) relate d to CE, with their involvement in CE projects e ither be ing constant (16%) or increasing (84%) throughout the past 5 years. Online data collection on course offering To systematically identify and analyse course offering related to CE, we reviewed publicly ava ilable course catalogues on the official websites of Finnish high er education institutions. The scope of the search was li m ited to master’s level course offering within scien ce and technology fields, either completely dedicated to CE o r included CE -content in their curriculum , including related tools and software . Each institution's official course catalogue website was systematically explored and courses fulfilling the research criteria were selected for further analysis . To ensure consistenc y, a standar dized template was u sed to record inf orm ation for each course (e.g. course contents, in tended l ea rning o utcomes, teaching and assessment methods) , an d the fi nd ings were discussed within the research team. 2.2 Integrated data analysis T he quantitative su rvey da ta co llected through survey were analysed with de scriptive statistics using the Webropol reporting too l and E xcel . The data collected from the higher education institutions’ website s were analysed with basic initial content analysis, involving categorization followed by qualitative assessme nt. The data were categorized based on the ke y thematic featur es rela ted to course content and learning outcomes. Intended learning outcomes were classified/clu stered by literatu re-based CE competencies and skills . The qualita tive assessment focused on evaluating the frequency of these features and identifying potential gaps in the master’s level offering on CE for the field of water and environment al engineering. 133 3 RESULTS AND DIS CUSSION CE competencies: needs and expectations in the job market This subsection p resents insights from profe ssionals on the i m portance of CE competencies in the current job market and the p roficiency o f recent graduates in water and environment sectors (Tab le 1). All CE competencies and skills were cons ide red important, wi th a verage scores exceeding 3 out of 5. T he three most valued CE competencies for the cu rrent job market were problem solving (4.6), cri tical t hinking (4 .4), and k nowledge on water a nd environmental servi ces (4.4). The most v alue d CE skills were transversal skills, specifically communication, team work, and lifelong lea rning ( each 4 .3), a ligning with recent literature o n CE comp etencies (Jan ssens et al., 2021; Ren fors, 2024) . Ot her key comp etencies i ncluded k nowledge of best available technologies (4.3), knowledge of clim ate change, water scarcity and resource scarcity (4.3) , a nd basic economic principles (4.2 ). Despite generally meeting current job market req uirements, professionals identified proficiency g aps among g raduates, particularly in e conomic aspects for the environment/ecology , decision m aking, policy/regu latory awareness, leadership , stakeholder engagement and resource management . However, transversal skills like resource management a nd stakeholder en gagement a re expected to be developed progressively throughout o ne’s career, so recent g raduates are not exp ect ed to b e fully proficient in them in entry-level positions. Looking ahead , ex pected CE co mpetencies l argely align with curr ent CE competency needs. H owever, knowledge of best available technolog ies and the economic aspe cts of the environment/ecology remain critical ga ps. These findings support p revious research in education for CE (Acerbi e t al., 2024; Giannoccaro et al., 2021; Janssens et al., 20 21; Renfors, 2024) , which high lights a growing de ma nd for economic s-related competencies (business models, ec on omic analysis, and economics of environment/ecology), problem -solving and critical thinking skills. CE course offerings: competency alignment and gaps An analysis of 30 higher education institutions in Finland found that only 11 o ffer master ’s -level courses on CE , totalling 52 course s. Du e to po ssible variations in course naming, keywords or rece nt updates, the list may be incompl ete . Figure 1 presents the p rimary thematic areas cove red by these courses, with general CE principles, b usiness, and m aterials and waste being the m ost frequent . However, life cycle analysis and other CE to ols – critical for CE strategy assessment – were less frequently covered. Most notably, there is a la ck of courses on CE f or wate r education, despite the intrinsic circularity of water a nd en vironment system s and the ir global significance. An analysis on the competencies ad dressed by the se courses reveal ed discrepancies between CE competencies emphasized in the courses and those prioritized by stakeholders (Table 1). While co urses effectively co ver CE principles and communication skills, they insufficiently address knowledge of best available technologies, b asic e conomic principl e s, and p olicy/regu latory awareness . These gaps are particularly eviden t in engineering disciplines that ha ve ye t to fu lly int egrate 134 CE into their curricula in a holistic manne r , as shown also by previous studies (Weissbrodt et al., 2020). To meet evolving m arket and societal ne eds, higher edu cation institu tions must strengthen th e integration o f CE into engineering curricula (Tiippana-Usvasalo et al., 2023). This invo lves add ressing current CE co mpetency g aps by embedding interdisciplinary, field -specific courses that reflect the complexity of real -word C E challenges. For example, cou rse design could incorporate modules focused on critical and sca rcely covered CE competencies and skills (Table 1) targeting inte rdisciplinary CE themes and i ncluding c ollabo rative, project -based learning expe riences co - developed with industry partn ers, bringing r ea l case scenarios into the classroom. Accordingly, co urse design should integrate technical knowledge with transversal CE skills, which are esse ntial to tackle CE challenges. These strategies, am ong others ( Mesa & E sparragoza, 20 21) , will h elp prepare graduate s for their professional roles and support the broader CE transition. Table 1 : Average scores (1 – 5) for the significance of CE compete ncies and skills in the current job market and the p roficiency of recent g raduates. There are also the to p- ranking CE competen cies and skills for the future (% of participants , n= 19 ) and the course coverage of these competencies and skills (% of co urses, n= 52 ). Current importance for the job m arket (-) Proficiency of recent graduates (-) Most relevant for future job market (%) Course offerings (%) Competencie s Knowledge of circu lar economy princi ples 4.0 3.9 58 100 Knowledge an d understan ding of best available technolog y in the field 4.3 3.6 53 13 Knowledge on water and environmental s ervices 4.4 3.8 0 13 Knowledge on c limate c hange, water scarcity, an d resourc e scarc ity 4.3 3.9 42 15 Knowledge of t he economi c aspects of the environment/eco logy 4.2 3.2 47 29 Problem-so lving 4.6 3.9 58 40 Systems thinki ng 4.1 3.6 11 60 Circular thinking /design 3.6 3.3 11 65 Circular busines s models 3.7 3.0 16 29 Circular collabora tion 3.4 3.3 11 12 Strategic think ing 4.1 3.4 11 46 Value thinking 3.9 3.4 11 2 Critical thinking 4.4 3.8 58 48 Creativity 3.8 3.8 5 13 Innovation thinki ng 3.8 3.6 37 21 135 Decision-maki ng 4.1 3.1 11 33 Technical skills Knowledge an d applicat ion of circular economy “ Rs” Strategy 3.5 3.3 3.5 19 Environmenta l awarenes s and application of sus tainab ility principles 3.8 3.9 3.8 79 Policy and regu latory awareness 3.8 3.1 3.8 25 Performing L ife Cycle Ana lys is 3.3 3.3 3.3 37 Performing Env ironmental Assessments 3.3 2.8 3.3 8 Knowledge of industrial symbiosis approac h 3.7 3.3 3.7 10 Optimization of process/producti on flow 3.7 3.1 3.7 12 Modelling and si mulation s kills 3.3 3.3 3.3 8 Definition of sys tem and its boundaries 3.5 3.3 3.5 27 Data analysis ( simple and statistical) 3.8 3.6 3.8 6 Basic economic principles/ana lysis 4.1 3.3 4.1 19 Evaluation of u ncertainty 3.7 3.4 3.7 NA Research skills 3.3 3.4 3.3 12 Transversal s kills Planning and i mplement ation 3.8 3.4 3.8 33 Communicati on (oral and written) 4.3 4.1 4.3 100 Leadership 3.8 2.7 3.8 19 Teamwork 4.3 4.3 4.3 25 Multidisciplinary view 3.9 3.7 3.9 15 Sectoral view 3.6 3.2 3.6 27 Resource mana gement 3.8 3.1 3.8 15 Stakeholder enga gement 3.8 3.0 3.8 21 Flexibility and a daptab ility 4.1 3.8 4.1 NA Lifelong learnin g 4.3 4.2 4.3 NA 136 Figure 1: Key contents of the circular economy ( CE ) courses iden tified. Results are represented as a pe rcenta ge (%) of total course s (n=52). LCA = Life -cycle assessment. 4 CONCLUSIONS This stud y underscores the growing importance of CE competencies and skills in the water an d environment sectors while iden tifying key proficiency gaps in economic aspects, best available technologies, decision-making, and policy aware ness. Although some CE competencies are adequately cove red, a m ore h olistic int egration into discipline-spe cific curricula – particularly in water and environmental engineering – is n eeded. S trengthening CE e ducation wi ll better eq uip gra duates for th e job market and enhance their ability to dri ve t he CE transition. 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This resea rch was supported by Profi6 T3 Co-innovating circular syste ms , funded by the Research Council of Finland . 137 axes with different jump sizes (0.1, 1, and 10 mm). Compl eting this process emphasized th e impo rtan ce of refere nce points in automated s ystem s, ensuring reliable an d consistent results. It a lso strengthened students’ troubleshooting skills for calibration-related issues. 2.3 Custom l ogo ex ercise using protocol designer and implementation As pa rt the PBPL methodology, after completing the calibration process, students were involved in a hands-on challenge to develop an efficient liquid -handling protocol capable of writing "UCL" logo o n a 96 -well plat e with the aim to achieve the shortest possible run time. This invo lved tra nsferring liquid from a reservoir into spe cific wells to form the letters U, C, and L. Students were introduced to Protocol Designer, a tool for developing protocols for Opentrons robots as illustrate d in Fi g. 2, allowing them to select the necessary pipettes and labware. Th e decision between single or 8 -channel pipettes and 300 µL or 20 µL volumes e mp hasized efficiency. Using undefined labware could lead to errors, so students ensured accurate placement of hardware in the robot’s deck slots before executing the final protocol. Fig. 2 . Labware defini tion and slot place ment using Proto col designer 2.4 Custom Logo exercise using Python code and visualization While tools like Ope ntrons Protocol Designer simplify proto col development, scripting with the Py thon A PI offers additional e ducational benefits, s uch as programm ing skills and a deeper understandi ng of documentation. Unlike Protocol Design er, whic h requires explicit step - by -step instructions, Pyth on a llows for th e use of loops, calculations, and co nditional log ic (e. g., if-else statements), en ab ling m ore flexible a nd efficient protocols. To reinforce these skills, students were tasked with recreating the same protocol they had d esigned in Protocol Desig ner using the Opentrons Python API. This process involved de fining pipettes and labware, then translating transfer actions into P ython code. This hands -on exe rcise introdu ced s tudents with n o p rior coding experience t o programming in an exp erimental co ntext. The skills lea rned were later applied in an automated gold nanoparticle synthesis experiment. However, the limited acce ss to OT -2 robots, with only three units available fo r six stu dents, made it difficult for all students to test th eir protocols. To address this, the development of an online simulation platform for protocol testing was identified as a solution, offering a virtual environment for students to debug a nd refine their Python scripts , after which feedback was obtained from students. 144 3 RESULTS 3.1 Tables Table 1. Typical members of a g roup for the hand s-on experimental lab session Student First degree discipline Background skill 1 Chemistry Experimental 2 Computer science and artificial intelligence Computational 3 Chemical enginee ring Experimental 4 Information technology and computing Computational 5 Computer science Computational 6 Machinery design and manufacture and its automation Experimental 3.2 Figures Fig. 3 . Labware UC L log o protocol steps Fig. 4. Options in a ‘T r ansfer ’ s tep using Protoco l Designer Fig. 5. Reservoi r used to hold the f ood dye, resulting UC L logo on 96 well plate and Python protocol for UCL logo 145 Fig. 6. V isual si mulation tool v ersion 1, at tw o different poi nts in a p rotocol run Fig.7. Image of develope d visual simulation tool Fig. 8. Automa ted AuNPs synthesis usi ng Python code by the s tudents 4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Students with a c omputational background o ften excelled at coding tasks but s trugg le d with h ands-on expe rimental work. In contrast, students from a m aterials science background, who had primarily fo cused on material synthesis during th eir undergraduate studies, foun d the laboratory e xperiments m ore intuitive bu t faced challenges with programming. To foster collaboration (Bhat et al., 2020; Marra e t a l., 2016) and an inclusive learning en vironment (Ko rthals A ltes et al., 2024) , students 146 were placed in diverse groups that balanced te chnical backgrounds a nd gender a s presented in Table 1. The m ultidisciplinary nature o f each gro up e nsures that members could learn from ea ch other’s strengths. The example group presented in Table 1 consisted of three males and three females, further promoting diversity and equitable participation in the learning process (Mills et al., 2011). After gaining confidence with liquid handling robot through calibration, students were introduced to various design parameters in Protoco l Designer where they have to p lan a strategy a nd iteratively refin e their a pproaches in writing UCL logo. The m ost effective liquid transfer strategy d eveloped by students is outlined in Fig . 3. An example of the inp uts req uired in P rotoc ol Desig ner to perform a transfer from the reservoir to a column in the well p late using the 8 -channel p ipette is sh own in Fig . 4. The source labware and columns are selected, along with the de stination labware. Tip handling se ttings define how tips are discarded —an im portant factor in optimizing waste and protocol efficiency. A poorly de signed protocol would discard tips ‘Before every aspirate,’ whereas an efficient one would use ‘Per source well,’ allowing the same tip to be reused when a spirating from the same source liquid, p rovided m ixing is not required. The final logo developed by the students can be seen in Fig . 5, alongside the reservoir used to hold the dye solution. Th rough this PBPL exercise, students were not only introduced to steps involved in protocol development but also critical design considerations in real world experiments such as tim e efficiency, precision in liqu id handling, and sustainable lab p ractice. Similar PBPL approach extended to the rest of the module, and at the e nd, i n a survey of stud ents , a ll students reported they feel somewhat or extremely bette r prepared to use automation tools in ind ustry/research after the module. In the industry, various liquid handling systems use d ifferent scripting languages. However, the e xperience of scripting in Python with Op entrons bridges th e knowledge gap and equips students with transferable skills (Chadha, 2006) applicable to other environments. Additionally, teaching students to study API do cume nta tion a nd apply it inde pendently en co urag es se lf -sufficiency when working with other system s. The Python API also allows for integration with external da ta and devices, a capability no t available in Protocol Desig ner. Most importantly, it supports the simulation of protocols, outputting e xperiment steps in text fo rmat, which is essential for building the visual simulat ion tool discussed in this study. Fig. 5, shows the code deve loped by a student with comment s (”#Description of what this line of code does”) for ease of understanding. Students hands -on configured the Temperature and Heater -Sha ker Modules, a djusting temperature a nd RPM settings to explore their impact o n experiments. The Temperat ure Module ma int ains a constant temperature, while the Heater-Shaker Module combine s tem perature control with adjustable shaking speed, both useful for isothermal material synthesis. Allowing students to deve lop and r un their own proto cols on the simulation tool improves their ability to create efficient protocols and troubleshoot effectively . There are 17 students in th e postgra duate taught programme from which 85 % reported that the simulation tool helps them troubleshoot o r optimize proto cols before using the physical robot . As they work with hazardous chemicals in mo re complex PB PL exercises like investigating reaction parameters for gold n anoparticle synthesis, testing an d verificat ion become crucial. A n online sim ulat ion platform enables student s to remotely test their protoco ls, ensuring steps are exe cuted correctly. This approach is particularly useful for integrating cu stom labware, whe re u nderstanding the robot’s interaction with new components is essential for preventing damage. By simulating 147 such sce narios, students en joyed benefit of PB PL e xercises under safe r and more protected environment Acco rding to the Mentimeter su rvey, 63% of students found the simulation tool easy to use, while 37% expressed a neutral stance . Notably, no students reported find ing the tool difficu lt to use . Additionally, 76% of the students reported that the simulation tool helped reduce their anxiety and uncertainty regarding the us e of the p hysical liquid handling robot . The Opentrons API allows for simulatio n through tex t-ba sed output, b ut t his can be difficult to interpret. T o add ress this, a web - based sim ulation platform was developed using JavaScript, con verting text outputs into an interactive animation that clearly shows lab ware positions, liquid levels, pipetting steps, and tip usage. The initial version o f the simulator featured a n interface to m odel the full Op entrons OT -2 deck layout, d isplaying well plates, reservoirs, and tip racks, with a nimated volume consumption from the reservoir upon aspiration, shown in Fig . 6. However, this version lacked the ability to sim ulate actions performed with an 8-channel pipe tte, as the Opentrons si mu lation tex t does not specify th e instrument used f or a ctions su ch as aspirate, dispense, pick u p tip, a nd drop tip . Additionally, it was not ab le to si mulate scripts invo lving custom labware. Opentrons provides a tool fo r creating custom labware, b ut its simulation tool does not support custom lab ware protocols. To a ddress this, a Python script was developed to integrate custom labware definition files (.json ) into the Opentrons Python library for simulation. Th is allowed students to create their own labware and test its viability using t he vis ual simulation t ool. Additionally, another Python script was created to improve the simulation o utput b y includin g pipette actio ns in the run log . The final to ol is m odular, supporting the simulation o f custom labware and 8-channel pipette actions as sho wn in Fig. 7 . It tracks tip usage, labels labware slots, and enables color coding in reservoir s for easier identification of transferred liquids. A slider allows users to adjust simulation speed. To learn to integrate Python pro gramm ing into rob otics from PBPL ap proa ch, students were taske d with multifa ceted experimental design problem involving gold nanoparticle synthesis, as sh own in Fig. 8. Using the Turkevi ch method, they conducted 6 4 experiments to investigate o ptimal synthesis condition . They applied skills acq uired in previous classes to program liquid transfer steps in Python, select the appropriate labware, an d ope rate the heater -shaker module for h eating and stirring. The educational value of P BPL in building stud en ts' e xperimental and programming skillsets is supported by survey results. On ave rage, st ud ents reported prior experience levels of 3 .3 out of 5 in Python p rogra m ming and 2.0 in robotics. After completing the module, students reported 3.7 and a n exceptional 4.5 in ho w much t his module imp rove th eir confidence in P ython programming a nd designing liqu id handling protocols. T hese findin gs highlight how the PBPL approach e ffectively equips s tudents with practical skills in programming and rob otics , which are vital co mpetencies for future data-driven optimization in Industry 5.0. This study highlighted the effectiveness of integrating Opentrons OT -2 robotics, Python scripti ng, and simulation to ols in laboratory education. The simulation to ol addressed accessibility cha llenges, en abling students to refine proto cols and troubleshoot before p hysical implementation. The go ld nanoparticle synthesis exercise reinforced automation's advantages, enhancing students’ confidence with robotic systems. This approach bridges computational and experimental skills, preparing students for data-driven research a nd automation industries. Future work will e xpand the simulation tool’s capabilities to support more hardware m odules for teaching and research. 148 REFERENCES Bhat, S., Bhat, S., Raju, R., D’Souza, R., & K .G., B. (2020). Collaborative Learning for Outcome Based Engineering Education: A Lean Thinki ng Approach. Procedia Computer Science , 172 , 927–936. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.05.13 4 Chadha, D. (2006). 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Journal of Machin e E ngineering , 22 (1), 43–69. doi: 10.36897/jme/147160 149 TOWARDS N ORDIC UNI VERSITY COLLABORATION ON LIFELONG L EARNING FOR E NGINEERS: TR I ANGULAT ING STAKEHOLDE R PERSPECTIVES J. Benned sen a,1 , J Roslöf b,c , G. E. D. Øien d , R. A. Berge e , B. Andersen f , B. L. Hansen g a Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark, 0000-0003-3014-7567 b Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland, 0000-0003-2038 -8 11 3 c LAB University of Applied Sciences, Lahti, Finland, 0000-0003-2038-8113 d NTNU, Trondheim, Norway e NTNU, Trondheim, Norway, 0009 -0009-5826-2437 f NTNU, Trondheim, Norway g it-vest, Aarhus , Denmark Conference Key Areas : Continuing education and life-long l earning in engineering, Dialogu e between engineering and society – effects on education Keywords : Lifelong learning, continuing education, barriers, enablers, Nordic collab- oration ABSTRACT This stu dy investigates the potential of Nordic university collaboration in lifelong learning ( LLL) for engineers, focusing on stakeholder perspectives to identify barriers and enablers. A literature review highlight s k ey b arriers such as communication gap s, stakeholder diversity, restrictive legislation, and unstable fundi ng models. Ena- blers include f lexible structures, stakeholder collaboration, and robust digital infra- structu res. The st udy triangulates perspectives from 11 inte rviews with stakeho lder s from ac a- dem ia, industry, and professional organizations across Nordic count ri es. Findings re- veal signi ficant barriers including lack of recognition of qualificat ions, financial con- straints, administrati ve complexities, and m isali gn ment w ith market n ee ds. In terview- ees emphas ize trust a nd clear communicat ion in overcoming these barriers. 1 Correspond ing Author J Bennedsen [email protected] . dk DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631873 150 The st udy advocates for Nordic collaboration to leverag e shared cultural values and edu cational similarities, enhancing cost-efficiency and qua lity of LLL offerings. It con - clude s that Nordic collaboration offers a balanced approach, combining regional syn- ergies with global pe rs pe ctives, de spite added administrative complexity. 1 INT RODUCTION In t he early 1990s, European and U.S. interest in lifelong learning (LLL) was re- newed, d riven by repor ts that populariz ed LLL and its impor tance in the face of glob al competition and shifts towards knowledge-based indu stries, and emphasized the need for continuous, lifelong education (Titz 1995, International Commission on the Development of Education 2013). Today, Nordic countries are still focusing on LLL for competitivenes s, with universities being among the im portant providers. However, Nordic universities face challenges in creating sustainable LLL mode ls for eng ineers (Bennedsen & Øien 2023 ). Transnational collaboration, aided by d igitali- sation, could he lp overcome some of these obsta cles, but might also create new challenges. The aim of the present study has been to systemat ically map interests, barriers, and enab lers connected to Nordic and transnational collaboration within LLL for engineers, as seen through several relevant stakeholder perspectives. N ote that the Nordic countries have a social-democratic welfare r egime compared to the rest of E urope (conservative or liberal); e.g ., unions play a bigger role (Esping-Andersen 1990). However , as Esping-Andersen po ints out “ The Scandinavian countries may be predominantly social democratic, but they are not f ree of crucial liberal elements. Neither are the liberal regimes pure ty pes .(p. 28)” In t he time after 1990 there has been a substantial influence from New Pu blic Man- agement (NPM). NPM-inspired reforms introduced market-oriented governance, per- form ance measurement, and increased manage rial control, reshaping the organ iz a- tion and ope ration of u ni versities ac ross Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland (Holmén & Ringarp 2023). 2 RELATED WO RK A literatur e review was performed to shed light o n the status of engineering LLL, with empha sis on analysing barri er s and enablers for st rengthening LLL provision. To en- sure timeliness an d regional rel ev ance the primary focus was on recent Nordic re- search papers on LLL. Pap ers also had to include the p erspective of formal univer- sity-level edu cation. The result was a list of f iv e pape rs: Lybec ker & Nørgaard (2023 ) emph as ize the importanc e of political actions and support for engineering LLL at Scandinavian universities. It highlights the need for flexible structures in delivery, te aching, and incentives within h igher education institu- tions (HEIs ) to meet market deman ds and discusses the need for better communica- tion with companies and broader society to ensure relevance of LLL activities. T hu- niss en (2023) identifies the complexity and challenges posed by the multiplicity of stakeholde rs in LLL. Di ff erent e xpectations of government, education institutions, employers, and learners create barriers towards finding relevan t LLL op portunities. The paper suggests us ing stakeholder ana lysi s to address the se cha llenge s. Bennedse n et al. (2023) extends the use of a f ramework identifying four types of barriers aga inst LLL: institutional, situational, dispositional, and informational. The 151 paper expl ores commonalities and differences across regions, highlighting, e.g., re- strictive legislation, bureaucratic boundaries, and uns table funding m odels as barri- ers. The stu dy reveals that LLL still plays a minor role in most universities, with insuf- ficient encouragement, despite being includ ed in str ategies. Bennedsen & Øien (2023 ) discusses the importance of LLL in maintaining national compet itiveness through workforce ups killing and reskillin g, identifying ba rriers such as economic constraints, inconsistent student intake, and limited academic resources. The paper also highlights successful LLL examples in the Nordic-Baltic region, em phasizing the impor tance of collaboration among universities. The comparative s tudy of Gomez - Puente e t al. (2023) analyses LLL services a t e ight universities in differ ent coun- tries, identifying key aspects such as t he organization of LLL, the type of courses of- fered, and their alignment with market needs. It highlight s the importance of flexible mechan isms, e.g., short courses, or m icro-crede nt ials leading to qualifications . The findings from the literature review can be summed up as follows: Barriers:  Communi cation and re levan ce: We nee d better communication between universi- ties, companies, and society at large to ensure relevant LLL offerings.  Multiplicity of stakeholders: Diffe re nt expe ctations of involved stakeholders create challenges for workers an d employers when looking for relevant LLL offerings.  Leg islation and capacit y c onstraints: Current legislation and capacity constraints, alon g with bureaucrati c bo unda ries, slow do wn a nd frustrate LLL init iat ives. Un- stab le funding models with few strong i ncentives for universities and staff to en- gage in LLL are also significant ba rriers.  Econ omic constraints: Economic unpredictability and r esource scarcity hinder the esta blishment of sustainable models for LLL. Ena blers:  Flexible S tructures: More flexibility in delivery, tea ching, and incentive structures within HEIs is needed to meet market demands.  Sta keholder Collaborat ion : Stakeholder collaboration, e.g. , nat io na l consortia models and joint marketing platforms, can enhance visibility and enable flexible, modular LLL off erings. 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Rese arch question Our resear ch questions are: Based on triangulation of stakeholder perspectives, i. which b arriers against university-level LLL for engineers can be identified? ii. what are des ira bl e properties in models for university-level LLL for eng ineers? 3.2 Method and data The data of this study con sists of 11 inte rviews conducted in August-December 2024, all but one recorded (the last one had technical issues, but the interviewer took good notes ). Interviewees were selected to cover the stakeholde r perspectives of employers, employees, and academ ia (deta il s in A ppendix 2). Five inte rviewees rep- resented indu stry (employers), two p ro fe ssional organizations/unions (employees), 152 and three university management. In addition, one i nterviewee worked at a non-aca- dem ic LLL provider. Four interviewee s were F inni sh, three Danish, four Norwegian, and one from the UK. The study followed the participat ing institutions’ guidelines for research ethics. The interviewees were provided with background information on the stud y and gave informed consent to pa rticipa te. Before submitti ng this paper for peer review, we also provided a summary of result s an d findings for interviewees to com- ment on. A summary of the semi-structured interview questions is presented in Ap- pendix 1. 4 RESULT S 4.1 Identified barriers for unive rsity-level LLL Add in g to the literature review, inte rviewees representing universities providing high er engineering edu cat ion expressed that a lack of recognition of qualifica - tions ac ross countries, lack of clear a nd acc essible information, finan cial con- straints, adminis trative c omplexity in managing joint p rograms, and difficulty in unders tanding market needs are significant barriers. As one of the university in- terviewee s put it: “ It requi res a lot of trus t between the p artners, otherwise the administration w ill be too heavy, and the students might face that a course taken at another institution might not be accepted at [UNIV ERSITY]. We need to ensure that the “[UNIVER SITY] signa ture” is fulfilling the [UNIVERSITY] standards. This can imply that the universi- ties collaborati ng is more or less on the same level of ranking ”. Ano ther interviewee representing university leadership po ints out: “ There ha ve been many different Nordic collaborative initiatives concerning, espe- cially, de gree-bas ed education. There's always a lot of enthus iasm at first but then the re comes the legislation and the funding parts, and things become very diffi cult ... There ar e, of course, ways to overcome those th ings, but one has to be very aware of how ever ything works so that we don't fall into these pitfalls .” From the industry side, the following barriers were highlighted: Bu reaucratic hur- dles and funding constraints, u nclear offerings, time constraints for emplo y- ees due to busy work schedules and personal commitments, limited access to nec- essary lea rning materials and techn ologies as well as (especially) SMEs not havin g competence develo pment as a focus area. As t wo interviewees report: “ Many companies don 't know they have a need, and LLL is real ly not o n top of mos t of companies ’ agendas. Especially the S MEs h ave difficult ies. Large companies have hu man resources de partments to ta ke c are o f these matte rs…. M aybe the CEO o f the SME is also the one taking care o f a ll kinds of practical problems. And the n, LLL just goes down on the agenda. ” “…what is avai lable for companies to pu rchase should be more clear ly presen ted. Now the message from companies is sometimes that they find interesti ng things, but the y are told that, well, this is not really for you, it’s fo r degree students. But we can negotiate with y ou in the back room about what the r ight package for you would be.” 153 boundaries that might have been seen as obstacles in their initial teamwork interactions. The following experiences are from Middle Eastern students: • Participant ME05 explained the relevance of her credibility within the team: W hen they ask me to compare the results , if we have the same answer, they say, ‘Okay, let's get the things from her.’ ‘Next time, we will ask you to give us the answers, or the lab report, or whatever’ you know? Because from the first time, they sa id , ‘Okay, she's good at Maths, she's good at mechanics, she's doing well, so we can, take, trust her in the following assessments, ’ or whatever.” • Participant ME07 offered a testimony of a powerful interpersonal negotiation that reshaped the social dynamic: For the last year and before that, I fel t like boys, they didn’t want to talk with girls. Maybe they thought we are Muslim, and we don't like to talk with boys because of our religion. They fe lt there was a lin e. But then, when they realiz ed we were fine talking and asking them about anything, then they broke that line. A nd now we can chat and work perfectly. [‘ So, you feel like you dissolved the line for yourself before they d id ?’ the interviewer asked.] Yeah, because you know the problem I find – it's not actually the boys. Our analysis using this lens illustrates how structural, social, and cultural norms intersect ed to shape the students’ self-perception and their engagement in PBL teamwork. Addressing these gender dynamics requires more than individual confidence; it requires challenging norms and deep ly embedded structures as well as policy practices in engineering education. 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS This study examined how gender dynamics influence the experiences of female engineering students in collaborative learning. Using social phenomenology, Gender at Work, and intersectionality, the findings highlight how early education, family backgrounds, and cultural norms influenced participants’ roles in PBL teams. Limited prior technical exposure and the absence of female role models reinforced participants' sense of uncertainty and marginalization. As students progressed through their academic journeys, their self-confidence increased, often supported by recognition from peers and successful teamwork experiences. However, the persistence of subtle biases and cultural expectations highlights how structural and interpersonal power dynamics continued to shape their participation. Students not only challenged externally imposed roles but also redefined their identities as competent contributors to engineering knowledge. These transformations demonstrate the intersubjective nature of learning and identity formation in team environments. In other words, the evolution of the women s tudent s in gaining confidence, challenging stereotypes, and redefining their identities was not just an individual process , but the result of ongoing interactions with both their female and male teammates . The implications of this research extend beyond individual resilience (which has become a predomina nt underlying theme in engineering recruitment activities and diversity research). Additional research on collaborative learning settings is needed – to understand the nature of minoritized students' experiences. Educators and institutions must critically examine power dynamics in curriculum design, team formation, and classroom interactions. Initiatives promoting diverse role models, challenging stereotypes , and ensuring equitable technical experiences are vital for inclusive engineering education. 256 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author s received grant funding from Technological University Dublin to support this research. 7 REFERENCES Aeby, P., Fong, R., Vukmirovic, M., Isaac, S., & Tormey, R. (2019). The impact of gender on engineering students’ group work experiences . International Journal of Engineering Education , 35 (1), 756– 765. Chance, S., & Bowe, B. (2015). 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The Triple Change framework: Merging theories of intersectional power, learning, and change to enable just, equitable, diverse, and inclusive engineering education . Studies in Engineering Education , 4 (2), 38–63. https://doi.org/10.21061/see.87 258 “I am not just a not her n um ber”: Do E ngin eer ing T each ing A ssistants F eel L ike T he y B elong, an d A re T hey R epresentative ? J. de Lima a, 1 , S . Isaac b EPFL, the Sw iss Fed eral Ins titute of Tec hnolo gy in L ausann e, Switz erland a 0000 - 00 01 - 9235 - 9704 b 0000 - 0002 - 15 27 - 85 10 Con ference Ke y Area s : Diver sity, e quity and inc lusion i n our univer siti es and in o ur teachi ng Keywor ds : Bel ongin g, teac hing as sistan ts, re present ation, first - year engin eering ABST RACT Sense of belo nging i s the su bjecti ve feel ing o f bein g valu ed by th e group, and h as been l inked t o stud ents’ academic achieve ment, especi ally i n STEM , and als o to stude nts’ d emogra phic c haracter isti cs. Demo graphic ally si m ilar near - peers (e.g . teachi ng assis tants , TA s) have an eleva ted i nfluence o n st udents' s ense of belon ging an d theref ore th eir acad emic s ucce ss, whic h makes ensur ing that T As are repr esentati ve of t he st udents i n high attrit ion progra ms an im portant point for equi ty. This study ex plores the de mograp hic repr esenta tion and sens e of belonging i n 244 TAs r ecruited to as sist in hig h- enr olment fi rst - y ear courses in physi cs, maths and computi ng at an engi neeri ng university. We fou nd the T As are demogra phicall y repr esenta tive o f the st uden t body f or ma ny aspects (gen der, s exual or ientati on, mi gratio n back ground) but not for fi rst gener ation s tatus a nd countr y of pr evious st udies (migra tion bac kgroun d). TAs repor ted a hi gh sens e of b elongi ng to t he ins tituti on, th eir dep artmen ts and th eir discip line s, m ostly wit hou t cor relation to aspe cts of t heir i dentit y. Sp ecific experi ences t hat aff ect ed their sense o f bel onging f eatur ed themes relat ed to s ocial incl usion and acade mic succ ess. T hese fi ndings ar e rel evant f or im proving t he acad emic exper ienc e of all stude nts, mos t par ticular ly thos e faci ng additi onal barr iers to suc cess . 1 joelyn.de lima @ep fl.ch DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631802 259 1 INT RODUCT ION Sense of belo nging i s the su bjecti ve feel ing o f bein g valu ed and s upported by a group, enge nderin g feeli ngs of inc lusio n and a sense o f ident ity rel ated t o the gr oup. These f eelin gs are dynamic, subjec t to i nflue nce fr om a desi re to b el ong and percei ved ac c eptanc e from the grou p (Mahar et al. , 2013) . Stu dents’ sense of belon ging i n higher e ducat ion has been foun d to play an i mportant r ole in acad emic succes s and persist enc e. Sever al of th e aspe cts pr eviously found to i nfluenc e stude nts’ b elonging, in cluding acade mic reco gnition and soc ial i nteg ration , hav e the potent ial t o come to gether for st udents w ho bec ome teac hing assist ants. T his st udy exami nes the s ense of belo nging i n a grou p of stud ents recrui ted int o their firs t TA roles and th e alignm ent of t heir d emogra phic profil es with t he stud ents for w hom they are near - peer role models. T his ex plor ation i s impor tant to asse ss how w ell TAs are abl e to s upport t he acad emic experi ence of al l stude nts, most p articul arly thos e facing addi tional barri ers to success . His torical ly, many of th e studies that explore d belo nging focuss ed on s tudent behav iours a nd attr ibut es that c ontri buted to their social and ac ademic belongi ng (Ti nto, 1975) . How ever, recogni sing t he limi tations of this appro ach, especial ly f or diver se popul ations i ncludi ng minor itiz ed stud ents, s tudents with di sabil ities, fi rst - gener ation s tudent s, and st udents with divers e gender iden tities, mul tiple ot her framew orks hav e been pr oposed (V accar o & N ewman, 2 022). A dditi onally, c urrent resear chers al so expl o re t he infl uence of inter section al ident ities as w ell as insti tutio nal, com munit y, and l arger s ocial factor s on stud ents’ s ense of belo nging (Bentr im & Hen ning , 2023; Cohen & Viola, 2022; Kahu et al., 2 020; Lee et al., 2024; Museus , 2014; Museu s et al. , 2017 ; Stray hor n, 2018). In hig her educ ation , an inc rease d sense of be longing is relat ed to b etter ment al healt h and e motion al enga gement ( Jensen & C ross, 202 1; Wil son et al., 2 015), stude nt persis tence (Mus eus et al., 2017), improv ed acade mic perfo rmance (Schi nske et al., 20 16), student persis tence ( Museus et al., 2017; Seymo ur & Hu nter, 2019) and im proved ac ademic sel f - effi cacy (C ooper et al., 201 7; Fre eman e t al., 2007) , especi ally for u nderrepres ented s tudent s inclu ding fir st - gene ration s tude nts (Har ackiew icz et al., 2014) , and stu dents w ith l ower inc omes ( Hans en et al., 2024) . Factor s that adversel y affec t a s ense of belon ging inc lude demogr aphic f actor s such gender , being an im migrant, or hav ing par ent s who do n ot hol d univ ersit y degrees . Additi onally , being a ta rget of discri minati on and h arassm ent can inc rease f eelings of excl usion. T his ca n res ult in st udent attriti on fr om STEM or droppi ng out from univer sity (Sey mour & Hunter , 2019). Belon ging is not an immut able char acter istic of th e stude nt, it arises from their li ved experi ences a nd is theref ore mall eable ( Cohe n & Viol a, 202 2; Kah u et al., 2020; Seymour & Hunt er, 2 019; S trayh orn, 201 8). Belongi ng has been sh own to be pos itively infl uenc ed by instruct or beh aviours (C ooper et al ., 20 17; F reeman e t al., 2007) , general ped agogi cal inter venti ons (C ohen & Viola , 2022; Harac kiewi cz et al. , 2014) , as well as int erventi ons spec ific ally t argeti ng stu dents’ sense of bel onging (Good et al. , 2012; Schins ke et al ., 2 016). Among the str ategies that have be en shown to hav e a pos itive impa ct on s tudent sense of belon ging and ther efore retenti on, a re provi ding op portuni ties for st udent - employ ment i ncludin g as te aching assist ants (TAs) (Giacal one & P err elli, 2022; McClellan et a l., 2 023). In STEM , such progr ams are also benefic ial t o the mentees /tut orees ( especi ally mi norit ised st udents) , and l ead to i ncre ased ac ademic 260 perfor mance, facil itate integrati on in to cam pus com munity, persi stence an d ret ention (Aki nla et al ., 201 8; An derson et al., 2 019; K nepp er, 2019; Zaniew ski & Reinh olz, 2016) . Whil e mentor s, suc h as TAs , pri oriti se their s tudent s’ perso nal w ellbeing ( de Lim a et al ., 202 3, 202 4), t heir infl uence on stu dents’ acade mic achie vement and sense of belon ging , and t heir abi lity t o be eff ec tive rol e model s, is e nhanc ed when they are dem ographi call y simil ar to thei r stu dents ( Atkins et al ., 202 0; Denn ehy & Dasgup ta, 201 7; Estra da et al ., 20 22; Mui r, 2018) . As div erse pop ulatio ns ar e influ enced by diff eri ng factor s, it i s impor tant t o imple ment multipl e str ategies that promote studen t succ ess and t o miti gate p otenti al barr iers. To be efficie nt in the c hoice and i mplement ati on of th ese stra tegies , ins titutio ns nee d to under stand the fac tor s that affect s tudent s’ s ense of belongi ng on their c ampuses . In th e past f ew ye ars, t he Swiss F ederal Insti tute of Technol ogy (EPF L), a lar ge engin eering school located in Swi tzerla nd, ha s wor ked to u nderst and thes e barr iers. A recen t ca mpus surv ey rev ealed th at 40% of the s tud ent respo ndent s did n ot feel lik e they wer e a par t of the EPFL communi ty ( Le Duc, 2022; Tormey, 2021) . Additi onally , a rec ent r eport s howed t hat t he percent age of firs t - gener ation st udents at EPF L has dr opped over th e past 1 5 year s, and that f emale f irst - g enerati on stude nts ar e less li kely to choos e EPF L than peers wh ose par ents h old uni versity degre es (Gers ter et al., 20 23, 20 24). A t a nati onal lev el, a r ecent OECD report showed that t here was a 25 - perce ntag e poi nt differ ence i n sens e of belongi ng betwe en nativ e Swi ss st udents and im migrant students (OEC D, 201 8). It is theref ore essenti al to exa mine th e demogr aphic profiles of respon dents i n stud ies of belongi ng in high er ed ucation ( Dias - Broens et al., 20 24). EPFL h as impl emente d several ini tiatives to address these b arrier s by hel ping fir st - year s tudent s with t heir academic trans ition , especi ally f or min oriti sed stude nts, incl uding firs t - gener ation a nd wom en stud ents. O ne lon g - standi ng p rogramme is a near - pe er te aching as sis tantshi p progr amme where stu dents i n seni or bach elor a nd Master levels are tr ained a nd empl oyed t o ass ist in th e large enrol ment fir st - year cours es. As near - peer mentors ’ capacity to suppor t academi c achiev ement and sense of bel onging is st r onger w hen they are demogra phically simila r to th eir stude nts (Atki ns et al., 2020; D enne hy & Das gupta, 201 7; Es trada e t al., 2022; Mui r, 2018) , we so ught t o doc ument the demo graphi c profil e of our TAs a nd sense of belon ging, by inves tiga ting: 1. Wha t are the demo graphi c profi les of s tudents recrui ted into T A roles and are they re presen tative of t he broad er stud ent po pulatio n? 2. How d o st udents’ dem ographi c charac teris tics i nfluence t heir s ense of belon ging at t he st art o f their T A rol es? 2 METHODOLOG Y 2.1 Dat a Collect ion To ad dress t he RQs w e coll ected d ata duri ng t he induc tion pedagog ical t raining for ~ 400 teac hing assi stant s recr uited f or the l arge fi rst year cours es (i.e . calc ulus, physi cs, co mputin g) in fall 20 23. Paper survey was s elected as an ef fi cient mea ns to col lect a nonymo us at s ource i nform ation f rom a large nu mber of peo ple th at typi cally has a high res ponse rate w hen a dminist ered i n person. O pen - ended ques tions about experi ences s tudent s identi fied as impactin g thei r sens e of bel ongin g provid ed qualit ative, d escr iptive i nformati on about stud ents’ exper ienc es. Whil e the natur e of 261 our r esearc h questio n i nvolved quite d etaile d demogr aphic infor mati on, we gr ouped identi ty cate gories toget her in t he surv ey opti ons t o improv e anony m ity a nd als o to produc e a tr actabl e datas et to f acili tate stat isti cal qu eries. F or inst ance, w e provi ded o nly 3 r espo nse opti ons for the q uestio n « Be fore co ming to EPFL, where di d you study? » of C H, EU/UK and ot her. As ther e is ambi guity in the way bel onging in higher educat ion is def ined (Di as - Broe ns et al ., 20 24) and exper ienced ( Lee e t al., 2024) we used multipl e statement s to c aptur e TAs’ sense of bel ongi ng, inclu ding optio ns about feel ing, bei ng a me mber, or par t of a co mmunity with out ascr ibing a hierar chical struct ure bet ween th em. Thi s stu dy was a pprov ed by th e insti tutional resear ch ethics com mittee (HREC 052 - 2023) . 2.2 Dat a Analys is Survey data was impor ted into S PSS for qua ntitat ive anal ysis ( versi on 28.0. 0.0) a nd MAXQD A 2020 (VERB I Softw are, 202 0) for qual itative anal ysis. We us ed a groun ded appr oach for the qual itativ e data c oding, c odin g each res ponse wi thout predefi ned c odes a nd allow ing the mes and c ategor ies to emerg e dir ectly fr om the parti cipants ’ respo nses . This ind uctiv e metho d ensur ed tha t the fin di ngs were refl ective o f the p artici pants' perspec tives and exp eriences . Qu antitati ve anal ysis employ ed stati stic al tes ts incl uding Chi squar ed and Fish er’s Exact t est to determi ne signi ficance diff erences between groups . Inst ituti onal dat a was used to ma ke stati stical c ompar isons about t he demo graphi cs (EPF L, 202 5). 3 RESULT S 3.1 Dem ograph ics and r epresen tativ ity of TAs rel ative t o the g enera l EPFL student popula tion Of th e 314 res ponses coll ected, w e eli minate d data fr om pe ople wh o had previ ously been T As (64 p eopl e) and thos e who did not answ er this i tem ( 6). O ur analysi s was cond ucted wi th the r emainin g 244 s tudents w ho had bee n recr uited i nto th eir fir st TA roles for phy sics ( 67 TAs) , computi ng (45), m aths (7 2) or ot her co urs es (60). We inves tigated the de mogr aphic pr ofile o f our responde nts in c ompar ison t o the ov eral l bach elor and master stude nt body i n sever al aspec ts inc ludin g gend er, migr ation backgr ound an d fi rst - gener ation s tatus . Due t o the n ature of the i nsti tution al data, each of thes e comp arisons w ere ma de inde pend ently a nd ther efore do not ad dress iss ues of int ersec tional ity. Academ ic aff iliat ion & p rogression : Mos t of th e TAs w ere in t hei r second year of studies (71%) . We also had T As in t heir third year of the bac helor progr amme (11% ) and s ome pur suing a master s degree ( 16%) . TAs were dist rib uted ac ross the five engin eering school s pres ent in t he ins titutio n, w ith most of them coming fr om mechani cal en gineeri ng an d computer scie nces . This dis trib ution i s not repr esentati ve of t he in stituti onal po pulat ion. Most TAs were rec rui ted t o accom pany stude nts fro m their own aca demic depart ment (59%). Gender : Our sample is 70% male, w hich is re present ative of the EPFL Bachel or/Mas ter st udent p opulati on of 65% mal e in 202 3 (Chi s quar e, p >0 .1). T o ensure adequ ate an onymity yet all ow TAs to acc urately r eport their gender , we provi ded th em with a thi rd opti on “other ” whi ch was chosen by 2 TA s (0.8% ). Whi le the per cent of male T As var ies si gnifica ntly b etween th e acade mic departm ents, our Chi s quare an alysi s found our st udy pop ulati on remains repr esenta tive eve n at thi s leve l. 262 Sexuality : T As in o ur study pop ulatio n mostl y reporte d heteros exual or ientati on wi th 5.1% ho mosexual and 8.5% choosi ng ‘other ’ design ation. Whil e we do not have compar ative i nstitut ion al data, c omparison w ith th e gener al po pulatio n indica tes that our sa mple is r epresen tative ( Chi sq ., p>. 6) (Ips os, 202 1). Migration ba ckground & First - gene ration : EPFL i s an int ernati onal institut ion, w ith >130 n ational ities r epres ented on campus . O ur study populati on was i dentical to the insti tutio nal stude nt bo dy in t hat 50% of our respo ndents ar rived fro m EU or UK insti tutio ns. Howev er, domestic stude nts wer e under repres ented, and st udents from non - EU/U K cou ntries were ov errepr esent ed (T able 1). T his may be i nfluenc ed by t he relat ive fin ancial b urde n of the cost of l ife i n Swi tzerland f or int ernati onal stude nts compar ed to domestic stude nts. Our study popul ation c ompris ed 42 firs t - generati on TAs ( 18%), whi ch is signifi cantl y lower (Chi s q. (2, 244) = 278.8, p < .001) tha n the 32% fir st - gener ati on stude nts in the overal l in stituti onal po pulati on. Table 1. Distribution of r espondent s’ country of p r ior education as co mpared t o institutional statistics. Switzerland EU/UK Othe r TAs 56 (25 %) 114 (5 0%) 58 (2 5%) Ins titutio n 4545 ( 43%) 5244 ( 50%) 672 (6 %) The ov erall result of o ur demo graphi c analy sis is tha t TAs for fi rst y ear c ourses are repr esentati ve of the stude nt body across mos t aspects , exce pt th at fir st - gener ation stude nts an d domes tic s tudents are under - r epres ented r elative to t heir pr esence at th e univer sity. 3.2 Belonging and influence of demogra phic characteris tics The TAs respond ed to three cl osed/q uantitat ive i tems abo ut their sense of belo nging at the ins tituti on, in t hei r academi c depart ment, and i n their disci pline. Almost al l TAs repor t feeli ng a sense of belo nging at t he ins titution w ith onl y 3% (n = 6) repor t in g t hat they feel l ike an outsi der. TAs rep orted a n i dentical high l evel o f bel onging in thei r disc iplines t o that of t he instit ution, h owever 7% (n = 16) feel li ke outsid ers i n their acad emic dep artments (Fi gure 1). T his diff erenc e is s ignific ant (F isher ’s exact tes t p < .00 1) co mpared to discipl inary a nd ins titut ional bel ongin g, w ith a moderate effec t siz e (Cramer ’s V .36 8 and .345, p < .0 01, res pectively ). Figure 1 . TAs' experience of belonging at the level of t heir academic dep artment and in their discip line In a c onditi on wher e ther e is li ttle var iati on in a sense o f bel onging expres sed by parti cipants , it is unlik ely to u ncover relev ant differenc es rel ated t o TAs’ demogr aphic profi les. We f ound only 2 such fac tors , rela ted to t heir mi gration back ground a nd t he alignm ent of their ow n academic disc ipline w ith th e stu dents f or who m they w ere TAs. T As’ migratio n backgr ound was relev ant to t heir sens e of disc ipli nary 263 belon ging, bu t not t heir bel onging at the instit ution al or d epartme nt l evel, wi th peopl e who h ad at leas t one par ent born outsid e of E U/UK/C H feeling less b elongin g in thei r disc ipline ( Fisher’ s Exa ct test 11.364, p = .00 3), with moder ate effect size ( Cram er’s V 0.232, p = . 003). Being a TA assi gned to cour se wit h stude nts fro m same disc ipline cor relat ed wi th a moder ate i ncreas e in sens e of b elongi ng at EPF L (Fi sher’s Exact t est 16. 082, df 3, p< .001, Cr amer’s V .28 3, p< . 001) but did n ot affec t TAs’ sense o f belo ngin g at the depart ment or disci pline. I n our s tudy populati on, we found n o signi ficant diff erences i n sense of be longing ( Fisher ’s exact tests p > .0 13) base d on TAs gender, sexual ori entation, academi c de partmen t, yea r of stu dy, fir st gener ation s tatus, l oca tion of pr evio us studi es, an d loca tion of p aren ts’ bi rth. 3.3 Exper ience s that co nt ribut e or detract fro m TAs’ s ense of belo ngin g Respon dents w ere as ked t o give t wo spec ific examples of ex perienc es that incr eased an d decr eased t heir sens e of b elongi ng, indi catin g if thi s act ed at t he level of th e instit utio n, depar tment, disci pline or other . Exper iences that in creased belon ging w ere contr ibuted by 191 TAs a nd d etriment al exper ienc es by 1 30 TAs (Tabl e 2), wi th aca demi c success and s ocial i nteract ions as the m ajor themes . Aspects of s ocial b elongi ng inclu ding par ticip ati on in soc ial acti vities (57) , joinin g associ ations (35) and engagin g in pro - soci al acti vities like h elping others (51) dominat ed positi ve exper iences. Ac ademi c su ccess, reco gnitio n and i nterest were ofte n cited ( 55 times ) a s experi ences t hat i ncrease d belongi ng whil e oppos ing experi ences o f acade mic fai lure an d lack of i nterest ( 35) w ere com mon detr imental exampl es. Ex perienc es that were d etrim ental f or social belo nging i ncluded disc riminator y be haviour s from others ( 27) an d isol ation ( 27). Ins titut ional a nd depar tmental belongi ng fe atured most oft en i n studen ts’ exa mples ( Figur e 2). Almos t half st udents indi cated that thei r exa mple, pos itive or de trime ntal, affected more t han one s phere of belongi ng. Table 2. Specific examples of experiences that increased or decreased st udent s’ sense of belonging Positi ve exper i ences Participating i n social activities “Section apéros with all my colleagues” Academic performance and sense of achievement “The CM project made me love my section and sh owed me that I made a good choice. ” “In the firs t week s of my [firs t semes t er], I solved a n analysis exercise by using a dif f erent method than th e 'expected' one. My assistant praised me for that.” Participating i n altru istic a ctiv ities “When the second year s tarted, there were many new s tudents entering the telegram chat of EPFL and I felt good when I was able to answer their questions.” “helping some others and getting help” Positi ve one - on - one inter actions “Gett ing to talk wit h profe ssor s, feeling as they kn ow me, and I am not just another num ber , another student just waiting to be expelled.” “Most of the people I t alk to, whether it be classmates, TAs, teachers, they are all very f r iendly and try to help.” Joining groups, associations “Taking part in an association … made me r eally feel like I was part of the EPFL co mm unity & section” 264 Common experiences, inter ests “During exam period, I s ee every one working hard to pass and [unreadable] I find myself talking to st r angers about how tough it is and how we all must go through it. May see m simple, but it for sure increased my sense of belonging to the [institution] community.” Detrimental experiences Poor academic performance and not liking t he subjects “Not passing the first year at t he first t ry.” “Having a hard time und erst anding physics and maths classes during my first year and not feeling comfortable enough to ask TAs for help” No examples “I don't think of an exper ience that de cr eased my sense of belonging.” Unwanted discrimi natory inter actions “Elitist behaviours. Students, professors or assistants who bring down other students.” “not ALL people are ope n minded, …: still hear h omophobic comments while on ca mpus.” Isolati on “Having to follow classes virtually due to proble ms finding housing near campus during my BA1 semester.” “I felt like I was 'av oided' because I had an accent whi le talking in French + because I stayed at 20km from EPFL people didn't really want to bond.” Figure 2 . Sphere of belonging affected by TAs’ examples of positive and detriment al belonging 4 DISCUS SION AND CO NCLUSIO NS TAs for firs t year c ours es are re prese ntativ e of the institu tion al stude nt popul ation on most de mograp hic cha racter istic s, whic h sho uld have a positi ve im pact o n thei r capaci ty as near - pe er rol e model s. However , domestic stude nts and firs t - genera tion stude nts app ear less lik ely to be TAs. T hat fi rst ge nerati on TAs are und er - repr esented v ersus t he gen eral st udent p opul ation by n early half i s especi ally import ant bec ause the f irst year of st udies a t EPF L is a hi ghly s elect ive year w ith a high f ailure r ate. T his mea ns that w e are not ben efitting from th e capac ity of first - gener ation T As to b etter support peers w ho s hare thi s charac teri stic (Atkins et al., 2020; D enne hy & Das gupta, 2017; E strada et al ., 202 2; Muir , 2018) and th erefore missi ng an i mportant oppor tunity to su pport t he succes s of these s tudent s iden tified as bei ng at i ncreas ed ri sk of att rition. T he pauci ty of dom estic s tude nt TAs may be a 265 adaptation, and verification. They also distinguished more clearly between G enAI’s high utility in divergent phases and its limited relevance in convergent stages requiring technical precision. 1 INTRODUCTION The rapid development of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) t oo ls such as ChatGPT, DeepSeek, and Midjourney presents new opportunities and challenges for design practice and education. While these tools offer unprecedented capabilities for ideation, visualisation, and problem-solving, they also require users to develop new competencies and adaptation strategies. Understanding how engineering students perceive and use these technologies is essential for developing effective educational approaches. A preliminary survey revealed a significant gap: while engineering students frequently use GenAI to assist with homework and general knowledge queries, they rarely apply these tools to design tasks, despite G en AI's growing capabilities and applications in design contexts. Daalhuizen and Schoormans (2018) found that enginee ring students frequently struggle with the ambiguity and openness of design processes, preferring structured problem-solving approaches. This situation raises critical questions about how students with different academic backgrounds understand and implement GenAI tools in design tasks. This situation raises a central question: how do students with different academic backgrounds perceive and implement GenAI tools in conceptual design tasks? Specifically, this study is guided by the followi ng research question: How do engineering students at different academic levels (undergraduate, postgraduate taught, and doctoral) perceive and utilize G en AI tools during conceptual design processes? Why do their perceptions of the ease of use, usefulness, and intention to appl y GenAI tools differ during design tasks, as analysed through the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)? To address these questions, this study adopts the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as a theoretical framework and investigates students’ perceptions of G en AI’s ease of use, usefulness, and their attitudes toward its integration in design processes. 2 CONTEXT AND PRACTICAL WORK 2.1 GenAI in Engineering Design E ducation For the purposes of this st ud y, GenAI is defined as computational systems that can create novel content (text, images, code, audio, etc.) by learning patterns from large datasets and then producing new outputs that reflect t he se patterns while introducing novel variations. These GenAI systems employ complex neural network architectures, such as transformers and diffusion models, enabling them to generate content that often closely resembles human -created work. Studies suggest that AI tools can enhance creativity(Hwang, 2022), reduce cognitive load during ideation tasks(Gandhi et al., 2023), and enable students to explore solution spaces more effectively(Chen et al., 2023). However, concerns have been raised about over- reliance on AI-generated solutions(Zhai et al., 2024) and potential skill atrophy among students who heavily depend on these tools (Morandini et al., 2023). 272 While engineering students frequently use GenAI to assist with homew ork and general knowledge queries, they rarely apply these tools t o design tasks, despite the growing capabilities and applications of AI in design environments. Additionally, the survey highlights that engineering students often demonstrate deficiencies in design skills compared to other disciplines, a finding supported by previous resear ch (Morandini et al., 2023). This suggests a missed opportunity to leverage AI to enhance design learning experiences in engineering education. It is important to note that in UK engineering education, there are significant structural differences between BSc, MSc, and PhD programs, which may influence how students at different academic levels interact with GenAI. Despite these differences in overall program structure, AI education is predominantly delivered through general elective courses that are common across academic levels. These courses typically focus on technical proficiency and understanding of GenAI technolog ies, rather than offering specialized applications for different degree levels. This approach creates an interesting context for examining how students with varying levels of discipli nary expertise engage with similar AI training but demonstrate different implementation strategies in design tasks. 2.2 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) in Educational Contexts Lorem The Technology Acceptance Model, originally developed by Davis (1989) , has been widely used to understand how users adopt new technologies. Perceived usefulness is defined as "the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance," while perceived ease of use refers to "the degree to which a person believes that using a particular syst em would be free of effort" (Davis, 1989) . Subsequent extensions of TAM have incorporated additional factors relevant to educational contexts, including emotional responses, social influences, and self-efficacy (Scherer et al., 2020) . Specifically, in engineering education, research has shown that perceived relevance to future career goals significantly influences technology adoption(Willis et al., 2013). Studies applying TAM to AI adoption in educational settings have f ound that perceived usefulness typically outweighs ease of use in determining adoption intentions (Or, 2025) . However, these studies have primarily focused on general education al applications rather than design-speci fic contexts, leaving a gap in understanding how TAM dimensions manifest in engineering design education. 3 M ETHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design This study employed a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques to understand engineering students' perceptions and use of GenAI in conceptual design processes. The research was conducted in two phases: a preliminary survey (n=30) to understand current AI usage patterns and design challenges among engineering students, and a design challenge study (n=16) with equal representation across academic levels (8 UG or PGT students , 8 doctoral students). This multi-case study approach allowed for exploration of perspectives within each group and enabled comparative analysis of attitudes and behaviours across different groups (Gustafsson, 2017). The design challenge required participants to design an assistive tool for elderly individuals with hand arthritis, completing the entire Double Diamond process from problem discovery to prototype delivery. All participants had access to a suite of GenAI t ool s 273 and were free to use these tools throughout the design process, along wit h traditional free-form search methods. To control for the rapid evolution of GenAI technologies, all experiments were conducted within a condensed timeframe in January 2025, divided into three sessions. This approach ensured that all participants had access to the same generation of G en AI tools with identical capabilities, preventing technological advancements from becoming a confounding variable. The challenge lasted 3 hours, designe d to ensure participants engaged with all phases of the design process, the study flowchart is shown in Fig .1 . Fig. 1. Experiment Flowchart 3.2 Data Collection and Analysis Data were collected through mixed methods including a pre-survey gathering demographic information, design experience, prior AI usage patterns, and design thinking abilities; a custom post-design challenge questionnaire measuring T AM dimensions, AI interaction patterns, and verification strategies; semi -structured interviews based on TAM constructs; and focus group discussions organized separately for each academic level. The semi -structured interviews included questions such as "Plea se describe your experience using GenAI for engineering design," "In what ways do you think GenAI helps your design work?", and "What strategies did you adopt to improve efficiency in using AI?". Qualitative data analysis followed a deductive approach, with three preset perception categories aligned with our theoretical framework: Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU), and Application Intention/Attitude (ATT). Using NVivo 14, two researchers independently performed initial coding t o iden tify preliminary themes and patt ern s, followed by thematic coding based on the three theoretical dimensions while remaining open to emergent themes. Two coders separa tely coded 20% of the data, calculating Cohen's Kappa coefficient (K=0.87) to ensure coding reliability and consistency. We compared themes across cases, first analysing data for each academic level group separately to determine within-group patterns, then conducting cross-group comparisons to identify similarities and differences across academic levels. 274 4 RESULTS AND INSIGHTS 4.1 GenAI Tasks and Applications Data collected from 30 engineering students revealed varied engagement with GenAI across both general capability areas and academic applications. The most frequently reported use was tutoring, which included concept explanations and question answering. This was followed by content generation, reported by 36.7% of students, and research assistance, cited by 23.3%. Creative tasks such as design ideation were reported by 20.0%, while assessment-related app lications, including practice tests and feedback, were less common at 16.7%. Additionally, 30.0% of students reported other uses, indica ting a growing range of informal or personalised interactions with GenAI beyond traditional academic contexts. In terms of academic-specific applications, GenAI was most used for generatin g content for assignments and projects, reported by 50.0% of respondents. This was followed by tutoring to support understanding of complex topics (46 .7%) and obtaining personalised learning support (43.3%). Research assistance, including lit erature review and data processing, was reported by 33.3%, wh ile design simulations were mentioned by only 13.3%. None of the students selected "other" for academic use, which suggests a more clearly defined role of GenAI in conventional educational tasks. These findings suggest that engineering students primari ly use GenAI as a learn ing support tool rather than as a means of simulation or decision -making. The emphasis on tutoring and content generation is consistent with subsequent findings related to perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, particularly in early -phase ideation and knowledge acquisition. At t he sa me time, the relatively limited engagement with assessment and design simulation indicates a need for educational interve ntions to help students develop awareness and capability in these areas. 4.2 Perceptions of GenAI in Engineering Design Tas ks The results of thematic analysis reveal both similarities and differences in how taught students and doctoral students perceive and interact with GenAI tools in engine ering design contexts. These findings are organized according to t he three key dimen sions identified in the coding framework. Due to space limitations, detailed analysis and representative quotes for each code are not presented in this paper . The qualitative data analysis followed a systematic coding approach t o identify patterns in students' perceptions across academic levels . Tables 1 -3 pre sent the coding frameworks developed for each dimension of analysis. Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) Table 1. Coding Framework and Categories for Perceived Ease of Use (EU) Category Code Label Description Summary Interface Interaction EU1 .1 Basic Accessibility Perceived ease of accessing and navigating GenAI tools Initial ease of access and responsiveness of GenAI tools EU 1.2 Response Time Satisfaction Perceived responsiveness and speed of GenAI system 275 Prompt Engineering EU 2.1 Prompt Formulation Cognitive effort required to craft effective AI prompts Skill and effort required to craft and refine prompts EU 2.2 Prompt Iteration Effort involved in refining prompts to improve AI outputs Output Management EU 3.1 Output Evaluation Effort Perceived workload in assessing and verifying AI-generated content Effort needed to assess and adapt GenAI-generated outputs EU 3.2 Output Adaptation Complexity Perceived difficulty in modifying and applying AI outputs to design needs Workflow Burden EU 4.1 Cognitive load Cognitive load imposed by switching between multiple tools Impact of using multiple tools and switching between them EU 4.2 Workflow Fragmentation Perception of AI disrupting the continuity and flow of the design process Table 2 . Coding Framewo rk and Categories for Perceive d Usefuln ess (PU) Category Code Label Description Summary Design Thinking Expansion PU1.1 Creative Quantity Increase in number of design concepts generated with AI Extending idea generation and expanding solution space PU1.2 Creative Novelty Degree to which AI supports novel or unconventional idea generation PU1.3 Design Diversity Perceived expansion of the design solution space through AI Efficiency Enhancement PU2.1 Time Savings Reduction in time required to complete ideation or development tasks Time-saving and faster design iterations PU2.2 Iteration Acceleration Speed of revising and testing design alternatives with AI assistance Quality Impact Assessment PU3 Output Quality Perception Perceived improvement in the technical or aesthetic quality of final designs Beliefs about GenAI's influence on final design quality Technical Limitations PU4.1 Accuracy Limitations Concerns about factual correctness or validity of AI-generated content Concerns about precision and domain knowledge gaps PU4.2 Domain Expertise Gaps Perceived lack of engineering-specific or contextual knowledge in AI Stage- Specific Utility PU5 Phase Relevance Understanding of AI’s differing value across design stages Understanding the varying usefulness across design stages Table 3: Coding Framework and Categories for Application Intention/Attitude (IA) Category Code Label Description Summary Skill Development IA 1.1 Output Inconsistency Concerns regarding variability in AI output quality and relevance Impact of AI use on long-term design ability IA 1.2 Core Skill Erosion Perceived risk of diminished foundational design skills due to AI reliance Ethical Considerations IA 2.1 Privacy Concerns Apprehensions about data safety and transparency in AI systems Concerns over design authorship, transparency, and data use IA 2.2 Design Authenticity Concern over loss of originality and authorship in AI-supported outputs Professional Impact IA 3.1 Career Readiness Perception Beliefs about GenAI’s relevance to future professional roles in engineering Views on how GenAI supports future employability 276 IA 3.2 Anticipated Industry Adoption Expectations of GenAI integration in engineering and design industries 4.3 Key Differences Between Academic Levels Thematic analysis revealed several differences in how students at v aryi ng academic levels perceived and engaged with generative AI (GenAI) tools across the three dimensions of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) . Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) Compared to doctoral students, UG and PGT students consistently reported higher perceived ease of use. While this inverse relationship might seem counterintuitive, it reflects deeper engagement by more experienced students. Specifically, doctoral research participants recognized the complexities involved in le veraging GenAI for sophisticated design tasks such as technical specification, constraint assessmen t, and solution refinement. Their lower ease of use ratings stemmed not from interface difficulties but from awareness of the cognitive and procedural deman ds involved in critically integrating GenAI outputs. In contrast, UG and PG T students exhibited surface-level interactions. They tended to copy-pa ste design queries, rarely engaged in iterative prompting, and frequently accepted GenAI responses without ri go rous verification. This overestimation of GenAI technical accuracy and underestimatio n of its limitations suggests inflated perceptions of ease of use, driven by interf ace fluency rather than deep understanding of the tool. These patterns were particul arly evident in EU3.2 (Output Adaptation Complexity) and EU4.1 (Cognitive load), where doctoral students reported significantly more cognitive burden and verification workload than their less experienced peers. Perceived Usefulness (PU) While participants across all groups acknowledged t he value of GenAI in various design tasks such as ideation and visual exploration, perceptions diverged for more complex stages of the design process. UG and PGT students gene rally held optimistic and unconditional views of GenAI's contribution t o final desi gn quality. Many directly attributed tangible improvements in their outputs to GenAI assi stance, aligning with PU3 (Output Quali ty Perception) and PU2.1 (Time Savings). First, regarding PU3 (Output Quality Perception), UG and PGT students typically believed that AI directly improved the overall quality of t h eir design outcomes. Their reflections indicated strong confidence in AI's value not just for ide ation but for enhancing and elevating resul ts. In contrast, doctoral students expressed a more conditional perspective, emphasizing that any quality improvements depen ded on the degree and appropriateness of AI integration. As one doctoral student expl ained, "AI can suggest interesting ideas, but I must use engineering knowledge to filter and reshape them". Doctoral students also showed differences in their interpretation of AI's role across double diamond design phases (PU5). Undergraduate par ticipa nts generally considered AI equally useful across all tasks, with limited differe ntia tion between divergent and convergent phases. This suggested nascent understanding of design process structure and stage-spe cific tool fit. In contrast, doctoral students demonstrated stronger phase distinction, recognizing AI' s high utility in divergent phases (e.g., brainstorming, visual generation) but explicitly noting its limitations in 277 convergent phases . One doctoral student emphasi zed: "I st op usin g AI at the refinement stage , by then, engi neering judgment and feasibility dominate" . Application Intention and Attitude (ATT) While intentions to use GenAI in future work were similar overall, difference s emerged in the depth and framing of these intentions. UG and PGT students exhibited broad enthusiasm and willingness to adopt GenAI across a wide range of design tasks. Their reflections emphasized its potential to enhance productivity, creativity, and career readiness. Although ethical considerations and design authenticity concerns (IA2.2) were occasion ally mentioned, they were la rgely secondary to perceived functional advantag es. In contrast, doctoral students expressed a more selective and strategic approach. They emphasized responsible integration, preservation of authorship, and concerns about skill atrophy (IA1.2). Many viewed GenAI as a val uable but fallible collaborator requi ring rigorous verification and clear application boundaries. Concerns about inconsistency (IA1.1), over-reliance, and erosion of core design capabilities were particularly prominent. One doctoral student shared: "I worry that dependence on AI might wea ken our design reasoning abilities over time". Privacy an d institutional transparency (IA2. 1) were considered relevant factors across all levels but not primary determinants of adoption decisions. Most st ud ents desired clear responsible use policy guidance from educational institutions but were unlikely to self-regulate in the absence of institutional frameworks. As one PGT student explained, "We definitely need clear policies dictating AI application in education, but I wouldn't st op usin g it solely due to privacy concerns". This indicates that students expect institut ion al guidance but are unlikely to self-limit usage without it. 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS This study employed the TAM as an analytical framework to explore how engineering students at different academic levels utilize G en AI tools in conceptual design tasks. By integrating survey data with qualitative insights from structured design challenges, the research reveals both commonalities and significant differences in perceptions and usage patterns among undergraduate, taught postgraduate, and research postgraduate students. The research establishes a specialized TAM framework for understanding AI adoption in engineering design education. By examining how students across academic levels interact with GenAI tools during structured design challenges. This framework helps bridge the gap between general technology acceptance theories and the specific context of design - focused engineering education. Instructional design should articulate GenAI's variable utility throughout the design process. Educators shoul d clearly distinguish between AI use in divergent tasks and its limitations in convergent tasks. Embe dding this understanding within design curricula can help students strategically integrate GenAI tools without compromising necessary engineerin g ju dgm ent. Educational strategies should focus on students' academic maturity and disciplinary expertise. For undergraduates and taught postgraduate s, emphasis sho uld be placed on developing critical evaluation skills, fostering awareness of GenAI limitations, and guiding prompt iteration strategies. For doctoral students, curricula should support ethical reflection, authorship protection, and integration of AI tool methodologies into research-driven design practices. 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Smart Learn ing Environments , 11 (1), 28. 279 SKILLS FOR TEACHING ASSISTANTS IN E NGINEERING LABORATORIES M Di Benedetti a, 1 , J Bates b , M Jacobs c , P Lazari d , S Plumb e a The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, 0000 - 0001 - 7870 - 1323 b The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, 0009 - 0003 - 8543 - 7796 c The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, 0009- 0009 - 8072 - 0190 d The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, 0009- 0009 - 7169 - 4218 e The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, 0009 - 0002 - 3369 - 7652 Conference Key Areas : Building the capacity and strengthening the educational competencies of engineering educators, Improving higher engineering education through researching engineering education. Keywords : Teaching Assistant, Teaching Skills, Training ABSTRACT Graduate Teaching Assistants (GTAs) play a pivotal role in supporting teaching within engineering laboratories, yet many begin their roles without sufficient pedagogical preparation, potentially impacting teaching effectiveness and student learning outcomes. This study explores key skills necessary for GTAs within engineering laboratory contexts, examining perceived levels of skills proficie ncy by both GTAs and academic staff using dimensions of the UK Professional Standards Framework (PSF). Through structured surveys evaluating 29 identified skills across categories, including facilitating learning, technical expertise, student engagement, assessment practices, and classroom management, significant differences between GTA self-assessments and academic staff evaluations were identified. Prominent discrepancies emerged in areas such as facilitating discussions, managing diverse student needs, and applying effective assessment strategies, suggesting critical areas for targeted professional development. The findings underscore the necessity of aligning GTA training interventions with recognised teaching standards frameworks and feedback from GTAs and academic colleagues to enhance GTA teaching effectiveness and support professional growth. 1 Corresponding A uthor M. Di Benedetti [email protected] c.uk DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17631297 280 1 INTRODUCTION Graduate Teaching Assistants (GTAs) are an essential part of higher education (HE), providing flexible, cost-effective teaching support to meet increasing instructional demands (Chadha, 2012). Yet many begin teaching with little or no pedagogical training, affecting both their confidence and student learning outcomes (Tormey et al., 2019). Targeted training is therefore vital to ensure GTAs can teach effectively (Di Benedetti et al. 2022). Such training is often shaped by frameworks that define teaching competencies and guide professional development. Notable examples include the Professional Standards Framework (PSF), widely used in the UK and adopted in Australia (Advance HE, 2023), as well as institutional models supported by networks such as POD in the US (POD Network). While these frameworks offer valuable guidance, their breadth can limit their util ity for specific roles , such as GTAs in engineering labs, where distinct pedagogical demands apply. As such, they are most effective when comb ined with context-sensitive tools to inform tailored training. Aligning GTA development with frameworks like the PSF requires mapping relevant descriptors to the actual pedagogical skills used in practice, supported by feedback from both staff and GTAs. This approach enables targeted training that addresses current strengths and development needs in discipline-specific contexts. 1.1 Teaching Expectations and the PSF as a Framing Tool GTAs often pursue Associate Fellowship of Advance HE (AFHEA), a r ecognition aligned with the scope of their teaching responsibilities. To achieve this, they must demonstrate respect for individual learners (V1), promote equality of opportunity (V2), and draw on research or scholarship to inform their practice (V3). They are also expected to show knowledge of how students learn (K1), how to teach effectively (K2), and how to reflect critically on their practice (K3). Addi tionally, they must evidence engagement in at least two areas of activity: designing and planning learning (A1), facilitating learning (A2), assessing and giving feedback (A3), supporting learners (A4), or engaging in professional development (A5) (Advance HE, 2023). These descriptors form part of the UK Professional Standards Framework (PSF), which is widely used to benchmark teaching practices in higher education. However, demonstrating competence in these areas goes beyond awareness—it requires GTAs to develop proficiency in applying pedagogical knowledge in practice. The PSF highlights purposeful practice, critical reflection, contextual awareness, and demonstrable impact as indicators of professional growth. These dimensions underpin this study’s framework for assessing and developing GTA teaching skills. 1.2 The Distinct Nature of Lab-Based Teaching While existing frameworks provide broad guidance, they do not always address the unique demands of discipline-specific teaching roles. For example, DeChenne et al. (2017) examined GTA self-efficacy across 15 teaching skills, including motivating students and facilitating discussions, but relied exclusively on self-reported data from GTAs across Science and Engineering. Without external validation or contextual specificity, their findings offer limited insight into the actual pedagogical capabilities required in engineering laboratories. Lab -based teaching presents distinct pedagogical challenges that go beyond those found in traditional lecture formats. GTAs in engineering labs are often the primary facilitators of this environment, supporting practical teaching and skill development 281 REFERENCES Advance HE (2023) UK professional standards framework for teaching and supporting learning in higher education. York: Advance HE. Available at: https://www.advance-he.ac.uk/teaching-learning/professional-standards- framework (Accessed: 22nd May 2025) Chadha, D. (2012). Reconceptualising and reframing graduate teaching assistant (GTA) provision for a research-intensive institution. Teaching in Higher Education, 18(2), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2012.696537 Cho, Y., Sohoni, S., & French, D. P. (2010). Need assessment for graduate teaching assistant training: Identifying important but under-prepared roles. In Proceedings of the 2010 Midwest Section Annual Conference of the American Society for Engineering Education, Lawrence, KS. Deacon, Christopher & Hajek, Allyson & Schulz, Henry. (2017). Graduate teaching assistants’ perceptions of teaching competencies required for work in undergraduate science labs. International Journal of Science Education. 39. 1 -20. 10.1080/09500693.2017.1367110. DeChenne, S.E., Koziol, N., Needham, M. and Enochs, L., 2015. Modeling sources of teaching self-efficacy for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics graduate teaching assistants. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 14(3), p.ar32. Di Benedetti, M., Plumb, S., & Beck, S. B. M. (2022). Effective use of peer teachin g and self-reflection for the pedagogical training of graduate teaching assistants in engineering. European Journal of Engineering Education, 48(1), 59–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2022.2054313 Goodwin, Emma & Cary, Jessica & Phan, Vivian & Therrien, Hayley & Shortlidge, Erin. (2023). Graduate teaching assistants impact student motivation and engagement in course ‐ based undergraduate research experiences. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 1-31. 10.1002/tea.21848. Herrington, D. G.; Nakhleh, M. B. (2003). What Defines Effective Chemistry Laboratory Instruction? Teaching Assistant and Student Perspectives. J. Chem. Educ., 80 (10), 1197- 1205. POD Network. (n.d.). Professional and Organizational Development Network in Higher Education . Retrieved May 22, 2025, from htt ps://podnetwork.org/ Sohoni, Sohum & Cho, Younghee & French, Donald. (2013). A survey to capture needs assessment for graduate teaching assistant training. Advances in Engineering Education. 3. Smallwood, Z.M., Spencer-Briggs, J.L., Xia, X.S., Ward, M.D. and Hyde, J., (2022). Design and delivery of a graduate teaching assistant (GTA) program in a UK university: Experiences and perspectives. Journal of Chemical Education , 99(2), pp.592-602. [Online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00453 [Accessed 25th March 2025]. Tormey, R., Hardebolle, C., & Isaac, S. (2019). The Teaching Toolkit: design of a one -day pedagogical workshop for engineering graduate teaching assistants. European Journal of Engineering Education, 45(3), 378–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2019.1584606 288 [Document text truncated for crawler view.]