Evaluation of fish production, gross domestic product and food security in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea

MARINE REPORTS 4(2) 2025 : 103-115 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.17701021 [email protected] MARINE REPORTS e-ISSN: 2822-5155 Journal homepage: https://scopesscience.com/index.php/marep/ Received: 28 October 2025; Received in revised form: 24 November 2025 Accepted: 24 November 2025; Available online: 21 December 2025 RESEARCH PAPER Citation: Yigit, Ü. (2025). Evaluation of fish production, gross domestic product and food security in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Marine Reports, 4(2), 103-115. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.17701021 EVALUATION OF FISH PRODUCTION, GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND FOOD SECURITY IN COUNTRIES BORDERING THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA Ümüt YIGIT* * Underwater Technology Program, School of Maritime, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Dardanos Campus, Çanakkale 17020, Türkiye Ümüt Yigit: [email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1378-2422 * Corresponding author: Ümüt Yigit, umutyi[email protected], +90-549-5350122 Abstract The aquaculture industry contributes significantly to the economic growth of countries, both in terms of food security and sectoral economic gains. This study examines the relationship between marine fish farming and the economic growth and food security of countries bordering the Mediterranean. Data from 10 Mediterranean countries was evaluated between 2012 and 2022. To ensure co-integration in dynamic forecasts, fish export and import values, gross domestic product, and food security index were examined by countries around the Mediterranean Sea, and the correlation between these data was assessed on a country-bycountry basis. Findings in the present study addressed a strong correlation between marine fish production and gross domestic product for Türkiye (R= 0.91), Egypt (R= 0.93), and Spain (R= 0.91), with moderate correlation for Morocco (0.61), and Greece (R= 0.60). Also, high correlation was found between export and gross domestic product for Türkiye (R= 0.97) and Morocco (R= 0.78), and moderate correlation for Greece, France, Spain, and Italy (R= 0.63, R= 0.61, R= 0.60, and R= 0.55, respectively). Strong correlation between fish import and average dietary energy requirement was recorded for Morocco, Italy, France, and Spain (R= 0.85, R= 0.83, R= 0.82, and R= 0.74, respectively), whereas moderate correlation was found for Türkiye (R= 0.62), and remarkably lower correlation for Greece and Egypt (R= 0.41, R= 0.25, respectively). Results of this study provide remarkable information that may help policymakers and aquaculture managers in promoting new aquaculture investments by economic strategies for improving fish production and achieving long-term food security the Mediterranean, supplying a significant amount of the global food demand. Keywords: Average dietary energy requirement, economic growth, fish consumption, food security, marine aquaculture, Mediterranean aquaculture Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 104 Introduction Global aquaculture production surpassed capture fisheries yield in 2022, with 130.9 million tons and valued US$ 312.8 billion. This accounts for 59% of global fisheries and aquaculture production (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2024a). The fisheries and aquaculture sector employed an estimated 58.5 million people in 2020, working full-time, part-time, one-time, or indefinite responsibility positions. Nearly 21% of the employees were women, and out of the total 35% were involved in the aquaculture sector whereas 65% were engaged in industrial fisheries. While employment in the aquaculture sector has been stable in recent years, there has been a general decline in the number of fishing workers globally (Learnmonth, 2023). While the economic dynamics of aquaculture depend on many factors, the infrastructure, marketing networks, and human resources are important drivers for successful farm operations. Investments in infrastructure and human resources, in particular, may increase production efficiency over time, contributing significantly to business profits and economic growth (Hishamunda et al., 2009). Further, planning and management of production systems in aquaculture operations also depends on long lasting practices and are linked to skilled human resources and the availability of finance for beneficial outcomes (Verdegem et al., 2023). The shortage of manpower has been reported as one of the most significant challenges facing aquaculture producers (Engle et al., 2019; van Senten & Engle, 2017; van Senten et al., 2020a, b). The Covid-19 pandemic, in particular, has impacted employment across all value chains in fisheries and aquaculture. Restrictions on movement and disruptions in trade networks have disrupted markets and distribution systems, causing serious problems for the fisheries and aquaculture sector. Declines in trained human resources and manpower during the recent pandemic of Covid-19, for example, disrupted production processes, that in turn reduced yields and further result in food shortages and declines in food security. Lockdowns and border closures as measures for epidemic spreads, caused severe consequences for the supply chain of the food business (Maqbool et al., 2024). Dolgui and Ivanov (2020) and Mahmood et al (2022) underlined that the pandemic outbreak disrupted the global supply chain with goods shortages due to shipping delays, and increased transportation costs. Interruptions in logistics resulted in decline of manpower that further caused delays in good transportation, which broke the network of trade continuity and export distribution. The aquaculture industry supports global food security via the supply of healthy food for the increasing world populations as well as contributing to the employment. Due, the expansion of fish farming activities may offer new employment opportunities in the aquaculture sector, that in turns can boost the economy and peoples’ houshold incomes, indirectly promoting food security (Khan et al., 2021). For the global food security, marine cage aquaculture industry plays an important role with remarkable economic inputs for Mediterranean countries. Hence, any disruption in the production yields of the Mediterranean aquaculture, either due to manpower shortage, trade restrictions or price fluctuations may have severe impacts on economic indicators, that may impact the global food security. Increasing food production does not stand alone as a pillar for ensuring food securityin a country. Food security is estimated with the combination of factors such as availability, accessibility, quality and safety, and sustainability and adaptation (Roberts et al., 2022). Therefore, these indicators show that fish culture methods or amount of harvest yields are not enough to explain the food security level alone, but also trade flow via imports and exports, as well as consumption levels of communities. showing all the economic growth of the country. The present study aims to evaluate the relationship between marine fish farming and the economic growth and food security of countries with coast line to the Mediterranean. Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 105 Material and Method Data collection and statistical analyses The data set for the period 2012-2022 of 10 countries with Mediterranean coasts, namely Algeria, Egypt, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Morocco, Spain, Tunisia, and Türkiye, was evaluated. The main variables examined in the study were marine fish production amount (MFP, tonnes), fish import value (FIV, USD, 1000), fish export value (FXV, USD, 1000), fish consumption amounts (FC), and macroeconomic variables such as global food security indices (GFSI). Total gross domestic product (GDP, USD, million) was selected as the economic growth indicator. In addition, average dietary energy requirement (ADER, kcal/capita/day) was determined as the food security factor in the study. Among the data set used in the study, data for MFP, FIV, and FXV were obtained from (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2025a, b). The rates for FC, and GDP were obtained from data provided by Food and Agriculture Organization (2024b), while the GFSI and ADER rates followed the data provided by Food and Agriculture Organization (2025c), and Economist Impact (2025a), respectively. The reason for selecting marine fish production volumes for the countries covered in this study is because the Mediterranean Sea constitutes a common marine area for these countries, further all data for the production amount of marine aquaculture is accessible as well. The independent variables in this study are MFP, FXV, and FIV, while the dependent variables are GDP and ADER values. Countries such as Slovenia and Croatia bordering the Adriatic Sea were excluded in this study. Also, instabilities due to wars or regional conflicts may result in irregular data recording. Hence, regions such as Lebanon, Palestine and Syria were also not included in this study. All the variables in this study are presented as means ± SD. Percent increase of marine fish production, gross domestic product, fish export value, fish import value, and average diet energy requirements of countries bordering the Mediterranean over the estimated time span from 2012 to 2022 have been calculated following the equation provided earlier by Yigit and Kusku (2022), Yigit et al. (2023), and Yigit (2025): 𝑃𝐼 =("#$%"#$#) "#$# $𝑥$100 PI: percent increase of variables Vfin: initial value Vini: final value Correlation between population increase and fish harvests for both countries involved in this study, has been carried out with a MacBook Pro, macOS Big Sur (11.7.3), running a Microsoft Excel program for Mac, according to the following formulae: 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑙$(𝑋, 𝑌)=∑()% ` )*(+% ` +* ,-∑()% ` )*!-∑-(+% ` +*! where,`x and`y represents the sample mean values for two different series, set as variable-1 for Serie 1, and variable-2 for Serie 2. Variables of Serie 1 and Serie 2 this study where; (a) marine fish production (MFP in tons) vs gross domestic product (GDP) (b) fish export value (FXV in $US) vs gross domestic product (GDP) (c) fish import value (FIV in $US) vs average diet energy requirement (ADER as kcal/capita per day), respectively. Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 106 Results and Discussion The overall average GDP in 2022 for the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea was recorded as 244,730 US $, with lowest for Morocco (7,360 US $) in 2012, and highest for France (39,080 US $) in 2019. Considering the average dietary energy requirement, the overall ADER level for all countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea was estimated as 24,123 kcal/capita/day, with lowest ADER (2,289 kcal/capita/day) for Algeria in 2019-2020, and highest rate of ADER (2,529 kcal/person/day) for Italy in 2022. Considering the MFP statistics, the overall average for the entire Mediterranean countries involved in this study was estimated as 815,424.7 in year 2022, with lowest MFP recorded for in Morocco (142 tons) in 2016 and highest for Türkiye (368,721 tons) in 2022. Analyzing the economic data of the Mediterranean aquaculture industry, the overall average for FXV was recorded as $15,182,645,900, with lowest of $5,758,000 recorded in Algeria in 2013 and highest with $5,887,865,670 for Spain in 2022. The overall average for FIV was estimated as $29,749,969,300, with lowest of $66,714,000 recorded for Algeria in 2012 and highest rate of $9,539,685,590) for Spain in 2022. Spain is the leading country of both export and import in the Mediterranean, when clustering the export and import data among the 10 countries evaluated in this study. The basic variables and statistical data used in the study are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Basic variables and statistical data for countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea, with correlations between MFP-GDP, and FXV-GDP. Country list in table has been given in alphabetical order. Algeria Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 1,616.90 1,134.6 353.21 3,487.41 FIV (US$,1000) 117,571.66 22,235.8 66,714.0 143,639.24 FXV (US$,1000) 12,862.21 8,120.1 5,759.0 31,664.31 GDP (US$) 13,730.91 371.1 13,090.0 14,200.0 FC (kg/capita) 3.78 0.6 2.79 4.36 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,300.45 12.3 2,289.0 2,325.0 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) -0.365987381 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) -0.395383405 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) -0.713386655 Egypt Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 89,645.91 39,687.80 41,678.00 146,813.00 FIV (US$,1000) 800,670.75 133,357.20 600,332.00 1,089,806.79 FXV (US$,1000) 32,946.54 6,674.70 18,542.80 42,415.00 GDP (US$) 11,782.73 777.90 10,770.00 13,210.00 FC (kg/capita) 21.98 1.90 19.03 25.72 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,333.18 5.4 2,327.0 2,345.0 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) 0.930724917 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) 0.349003978 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) 0.253806815 France Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 17,545.98 4,046.70 13,212.09 26,576.90 FIV (US$,1000) 6,768,860.96 693,525.70 5,802,808.00 8,202,627.54 FXV (US$,1000) 1,867,398.43 222,722.40 1,642,327.00 2,306,766.39 Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 107 GDP (US$) 37,586.36 1,049.20 35,910.00 39,080.00 FC (kg/capita) 33.52 0.70 32.72 34.65 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,492.36 2.40 2,490.00 2,497.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) -0.465644849 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) 0.616691237 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) 0.821239767 Greece Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 120,892.82 12,985.10 101,858.40 140,423.12 FIV (US$,1000) 726,545.52 121,236.40 567,082.00 1,003,704.42 FXV (US$,1000) 805,870.64 93,663.30 661,958.00 987,562.85 GDP (US$) 23,098.18 921.40 21,770.00 25,280.00 FC (kg/capita) 18.44 1.6 15.68 21.07 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,518.82 1.00 2,518.00 2,521.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) 0.606725743 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) 0.651006557 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) 0.414230844 Israel Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 2,326.91 504.20 1,700.00 3,545.00 FIV (US$,1000) 599,639.64 164,734.00 385,798.00 966,633.00 FXV (US$,1000) 27,473.73 5,167.90 21,379.00 37,216.00 GDP (US$) 30,042.91 8,952.7 3,032.00 36,650.00 FC (kg/capita) 23.85 1.30 21.11 25.71 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,290.36 2.60 2,287.00 2,295.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) -0.061169479 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) -0.660312957 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) -0.13948971 Italy Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 72,541.76 5,302.10 61,082.05 78,134.00 FIV (US$,1000) 6,460,459.53 744,976.00 5,537,243.00 7,803,782.27 FXV (US$,1000) 853,593.27 103,349.20 689,929.00 1,050,582.38 GDP (US$) 34,284.55 1,081.9 32,390.00 36,220.00 FC (kg/capita) 28.73 1.30 26.10 29.90 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,522.45 4.40 2.517.00 2,529.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) 0.436685348 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) 0.558130074 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) 0.830125310 Morocco Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 304.48 178.20 142.00 681.97 FIV (US$,1000) 211,687.75 52,981.50 143,670.00 319,463.62 FXV (US$,1000) 2,260,266.99 348,251.70 1,767,536.00 2,889,797.42 GDP (US$) 8,030.00 375.50 7,360.00 8,540.00 Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 108 FC (kg/capita) 18.14 1.50 16.04 20.41 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,375.09 4.10 2,372.00 2,384.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) 0.612478884 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) 0.780261073 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) 0.852406236 Spain Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 37,883.33 4,664.60 31,420.74 46,893.07 FIV (US$,1000) 7,650,029.69 1,042,398.50 6,412,813.00 9,539,685.59 FXV (US$,1000) 4,607,735.40 691,149.10 3,807,001.00 5,887,856.67 GDP (US$) 32,528.18 1,662.10 30,330.00 34,960.00 FC (kg/capita) 41.40 1.50 39.82 44.09 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,500.00 4.30 2,496.00 2,508.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) 0.914505758 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) 0.60187552 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) 0.749852214 Tunisia Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 16,747.42 5,987.10 7,130.00 24,709.57 FIV (US$,1000) 92,099.98 23,950.10 60,376.00 136,147.15 FXV (US$,1000) 194,063.43 37,302.70 159,730.00 281,191.71 GDP (US$) 10,985.45 304.70 10,350.00 11,450.00 FC (kg/capita) 14.20 1.50 12.38 16.75 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,346.82 9.70 2,338.00 2,366.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) 0.051049949 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) -0.129148038 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) -0.537838858 Türkiye Mean Std dev Min Max MFP (tons) 205,998.92 91,724.70 101,248.00 368,721.00 FIV (US$,1000) 469,218.48 124,543.80 321,554.00 809,124.75 FXV (US$,1000) 937,018.09 357,913.40 447,879.40 1,700,787.61 GDP (US$) 22,737.27 2,557.00 18,540.00 27,360.00 FC (kg/capita) 5.41 0.50 4.79 6.72 ADER (kcal/capita/day) 2,405.73 4.70 2,392.00 2,411.00 Correlation: MFP / GDP (2012-2022) 0.941484216 Correlation: FXV / GDP (2012-2022) 0.975395686 Correlation: FIV / ADER (2012-2022) 0.622925160 MFP: Marine fish production in tons; FIV: Fish import value in US$, x1000; FXV: Fish export value in US$, x1000; GDP: Gross domestic product in US$; FC: fish consumption as kg per capita; ADER: Average diet energy requirement as kcal/capita per day. In the present study, a strong correlation between MFP and GDP from high-to-low for Türkiye (R= 0.91), Egypt (R= 0.93), and Spain (R= 0.91), followed by moderate correlation for these variables for Morocco (0.61), and Greece (R= 0.60). Low correlations were found in Italy Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 109 (0.43), while for the remaining countries the correlation was negligible. Some countries exhibited a negative correlation, exhibiting trends in completely different directions, meaning that while MFP increased, GDP declined or vice versa. Regarding the relation between FXV and GDP, Türkiye and Morocco demonstrated relatively high correlation (R= 0.97, and R= 0.78, respectively) among these variables. The results in this study were in close agreement with the report of Elzaki (2024), who addressed that fish exports have a significant impact on gross domestic product. Greece, France, Spain, and Italy however, presented a moderate correlation (R= 0.63, R= 0.61, R= 0.60, and R= 0.55, respectively), and Egypt a remarkable low correlation (R= 0.34) between FXV and GDP in this study. Results also revealed strong correlation between fish import and the country’s average dietary energy requirement for Morocco, Italy, France, and Spain (R= 0.85, R= 0.83, R= 0.82, and R= 0.74, respectively), and moderate correlation for Türkiye (R= 0.62). Positive relationship between FXV and GDP, and a positive relationship between FIV and ADER, which is also in line with earlier reports (Elzaki, 2024). In contrast however, Greece and Egypt showed a low correlation of R= 0.41 and R= 0.25, while the remaining three countries of Israel, Algeria, and Tunisia demonstrated a negative correlation between FIV and ADER. The percent increase of ADER, that is the food security factor and expressed as the kcal unit per capita in a day, was highest in Türkiye (0.79%), followed by Morocco (0.51%), Italy (0.48%), Egypt (0.43%), Spain (0.40%), France (0.20%), and Greece (0.04%). Declining trends for ADER over the last two decades were recorded in Israel (-0.09%), Tunisia (-1.06%), and Algeria (-1.33%). Percent increase of fish consumption as kg per capita, was highest in Greece (23.15%), followed by Israel (19.19%), Tunisia (15.62%), Italy (12.38%), Egypt (7.26%), and Morocco (0.42%). Declining trends for fish consumption over the last two decades from 2012 to 2022 were noted in France (-1.09%), Spain (-1.17%), Türkiye (-20.68%), and Algeria (- 31.62%). Percent increases for variables of ADER, MFP, FIV, FXV, GDP, and fish consumption for the last two decades are given in Table 2. Table 2. Percent increase of variables tested over the time span from 2012 to 2022. Country list in table has been given in alphabetical order. Percent increase rate (2012-2022) ADER MFP FIV FXV GDP Consumption Algeria -1.33 699.27 75.80 444.06 0.90 -31.62 Egypt 0.43 239.15 13.28 64.35 22.66 7.26 France 0.20 -42.93 34.56 29.22 6.66 -1.09 Greece 0.04 28.91 56.29 25.22 11.12 23.15 Israel -0.09 0.61 150.55 -7.51 23.90 19.19 Italy 0.48 4.83 40.93 52.27 6.50 12.38 Morocco 0.51 303.53 122.36 63.49 14.13 0.42 Spain 0.40 49.24 48.76 49.48 11.32 -1.17 Tunisia -1.06 178.75 65.25 49.72 1.49 15.62 Türkiye 0.79 264.18 151.63 279.74 47.57 -20.68 MFP: Marine fish production (tons); FIV: Fish import value (US$); FXV: Fish export value (US$); GDP: Gross domestic product (US$); ADER: Average diet energy requirement (kcal/capita per day) Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 110 It has been reported that population growth directly triggers food demand, including the consumption of fish and fisheries products (Ibrahim, 2015). Changes in behavior and lifestyle as an effect of urbanization for instance may affect global demand for fish, hence the fish consumption patterns in a society. Earlier studies found strong relationship between fish consumption, and behavioral and lifestyle changes, which show variations based on healthy diets (Oken et al., 2008), cultural and social influences (Cornelsen et al., 2015), or sustainability concerns with environmental awareness (De Boer et al., 2014). Increase in fish production may support food security by increasing consumption of healthy fish (Akpalu and Okyere, 2023). It is interesting to see that the Türkiye, as the main producer of marine fish with a harvest of 368,721.00 tons in 2022, showed a relatively low performance in fish consumption rate (5.41±0.50 kg/capita) over the last ten years, compared to the other countries in the Mediterranean. The “availability” pillar of the Turkish GFSI showed an increasing score by 10.8 from 2018 to 2022, a possible reflection of its high export and import values, which however did not increase the national fish consumption rates, a possible indication that most of the Turkish production was linked to export rather to domestic demands. The “overproduction - underconsumption” phenomenon observed in Türkiye can be attributed to factors such as cultural preferences, pricing policy, foreign trade pressures, consumption habits, etc. Here, the consistently increasing export figures over the years indicate a growing demand for Turkish fish in the international market. It appears that factors such as bulk purchasing from foreign demand and the lack of price uncertainty do not provide incentives for the Turkish aquaculture industry to focus on the domestic market. In countries with high production, but sales dependent on exports, like the Turkish aquaculture sector for instance, any disruption due to unexpected shock waves such as the recent Covid-19 pandemic, may cause difficulties in the sales network. Hence, developing strategies to increase domestic consumption is crucial for the sustainability of high production capacity, particularly as government policies. In earlier investigations, E-Jahan et al. (2010) and Obiero et al. (2019) underlined that the fish consumption rate per capita and food security rates could be increased with the increase of the import values and the fish supply from aquaculture activities. Considering the impact of fish production and import on food security, Ghanem et al. (2020) assessed that food security can be increased by increasing the production for the national market as well as imports. Based on earlier reports, it can be underlined that there is a strong relationship between fish production and economic growth, and food security (Elzaki, 2024). The Global Food Security Index (GFSI) addresses four main topics, namely (a) affordability: refers to consumers’ ability to purchase the food, and is a measure of vulnerability of consumers to price fluctuations and the existence of programs and policies that support consumers when price fluctuations occur; (b) availability: stands for the measure of food production and farm capacities and risks of supply disruptions, capacity of the country to distribute food, and research efforts to increase harvest yields; (c) quality and safety: a measure for the average food diversity and nutritional quality, and the safety degree of food; (d) sustainability and adaptation: figures the exposure of the country to climate change impacts, its vulnerability to natural resource risks, and how the country is adapting to these risks at the national level (Economist Impact (2025b). Global food security indexes for countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea in 2022 are given in Table 3. Yigit. Production, GDP, and GFSI in Mediterranean countries Marine Reports 4(2) (2025) 103-115 111 Table 3. Mediterranean country-performance of global food security indexes in 2022. Changes in scores for previous years in comparison to 2022 are given in italic. Country list in table has been given by rank from high-to-low as for the overall food security index for 2022. Global Food Security Index (GFSI) Plummets / improvement Affordability Availability Quality and Safety Sustainability and Adaptation Overall France 2022 91.3 69.0 87.7 70.3 80.2 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 +1.1 +2.2 +2.4 +2.0 +0.2 +5.8 +5.8 +5.9 +3.7 +2.4 +0.2 +0.2 +0.3 +1.3 +1.0 nc nc nc nc +3.3 +1.9 +2.2 +2.3 +1.8 +1.6 Spain 2022 89.0 63.1 81.2 66.4 75.7 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 +0.7 -0.7 +0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -4.4 -0.9 -1.4 -2.6 +1.1 nc -5.5 -5.7 -6.7 -6.8 -0.1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.9 -1.7 -1.5 -2.3 -1.4 Israel 2022 88.6 67.2 87.4 52.2 74.8 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 -1.8 +0.7 -0.7 -1.9 -2.4 +1.4 -2.9 -3.5 -3.7 -2.4 nc +2.3 +2.4 +1.6 +6.1 +8.2 +8.2 +8.2 +8.2 +12.9 +1.7 +1.9 +1.3 +0.7 +2.9 Italy 2022 89.5 68.7 75.9 57.3 74.0 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 +0.5 -0.5 +0.3 +0.9 -1.2 -0.9 +0.2 +1.1 +1.3 +3.5 nc -4.5 -4.5 -3.3 -5.6 nc nc -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -1.1 -0.6 -0.2 -0.8 Greece 2022 88.5 58.3 80.8 57.3 72.2 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 -0.5 -1.8 -0.4 -1.0 -1.1 +2.3 -3.6 -3.3 -4.7 -4.3 nc -5.6 -7.8 -8.7 -9.0 -3.3 -3.4 -3.4 -3.5 -3.5 -0.3 -3.4 -3.5 -4.2 -4.2 Türkiye 2022 58.4 65.3 78.5 61.2 65.3 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 -7.4 +3.7 -3.2 -9.0 -17.5 +5.6 +5.8 +5.9 +10.8 +4.5 +0.6 +4.0 +1.7 nc +0.9 +1.6 +1.5 +0.1 +0.5 +8.2 -0.3 +3.8 +0.9 +0.1 -2.0 Morocco 2022 74.6 42.9 73.1 60.0 63.0 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 +0.2 -1.8 -0.5 -1.9 +1.0 -5.8 -7.0 +3.2 -7.3 -2.3 +0.8 +1.0 +1.0 +5.0 +13.8 -0.4 +1.0 +3.5 +3.9 +10.6 -1.3 -1.9 +1.6 -0.5 +5.1 Tunisia 2022 75.4 54.1 58.8 49.7 60.3 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 -2.0 +0.9 +0.9 -2.2 -3.8 +6.9 +7.1 +4.8 +5.5 +2.3 -6.0 -4.9 -4.8 -0.4 +1.0 +0.7 nc +3.2 +2.4 +1.2 -0.1 +1.0 +1.1 +1.2 -0.1