Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana's national migration policy

Segadlo, Nadine Working Paper Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana's national migration policy Discussion Paper, No. 8/2021 Provided in Cooperation with: German Institute of Development and Sustainability (IDOS), Bonn Suggested Citation: Segadlo, Nadine (2021) : Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana's national migration policy, Discussion Paper, No. 8/2021, ISBN 978-3-96021-145-7, Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE), Bonn, https://doi.org/10.23661/dp8.2021 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/231448 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Discussion Paper 8/2021 Navigating Through an External Agenda and Internal Preferences Ghana’s National Migration Policy Nadine Segadlo m Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences Ghana’s National Migration Policy Nadine Segadlo Bonn 2021 Discussion Paper / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik ISSN (Print) 1860-0441 ISSN (Online) 2512-8698 Except as otherwise noted this publication is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0). You are free to copy, communicate and adapt this work, as long as you attribute the German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) and the author. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. ISBN 978-3-96021-145-7 (printed edition) DOI: 10.23661/dp8.2021 Printed on eco-friendly, certified paper Nadine Segadlo is a researcher on migration and forced displacement at the Institute for Migration Research and Intercultural Studies (IMIS) at Osnabrück University. Email: [email protected] Published with financial support from the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) under the “Contested Mobility” research and advisory project © Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik gGmbH Tulpenfeld 6, 53113 Bonn +49 (0)228 94927-0 +49 (0)228 94927-130 Email: [email protected] http://www.die-gdi.de Abstract In the context of international migration from African countries to Europe, the EU widely applies the strategy of curbing irregular migration. EU efforts focus on combating the root causes of migration and flight as well as achieving African compliance on return and readmission. This approach ignores the interests of the countries of origin. It also undermines what countries of origin do to deal with migration in their own states. In West Africa, the regional organisation ECOWAS strongly promotes migration management, and introduced the 2008 ECOWAS Common Approach on Migration with guidelines for migration governance in the region. Ghana, as one of the first ECOWAS member states, adopted a National Migration Policy (NMP) in 2016. The country has a long history of migration, has experienced different migration trends and is affected by various streams of migration. As little is known about the country’s policy responses to migration, this study investigates migration policy-making in Ghana. It specifically examines the case of the NMP for Ghana and aims at uncovering stakeholder involvement in the policy-making process as well as its determinants. Guided by an analytical framework derived from theoretical considerations of the advocacy coalition framework, the interconnection of institutions, actors and ideas and an extensive literature review, the study uses a qualitative approach. The results are based on 14 weeks of field research in Ghana in which 40 experts were interviewed. Together with an analysis of a plethora of secondary data the study finds that when deciding to get involved in the policy-making process for the NMP for Ghana, stakeholders tend to be led by their interests and the resources they possess, as these are what their power is based on. The research further reveals that the NMP does not primarily address a perceived problem related to migration within Ghana, that is to say the internal migration flows from deprived to less deprived areas. Rather it largely pursues the interests of the EU, who is the main financer of the policy, to foster migration control. The results of the study therefore suggest that in the policy formulation process for Ghana’s NMP, internal interests were outweighed by the external agenda of the EU. Acknowledgements This discussion paper has been supported and inspired by a great number of individuals that I would like to express my gratitude to. The quality of research was made possible through the support given by my supervisor of the master’s degree programme in International Development Studies at Utrecht University, Dr Gery Nijenhuis. She was always available for questions and provided me with very constructive feedback during all stages of the research and writing process. Her comments continuously motivated and challenged me. Likewise, I am very grateful to my second supervisor at the Department of Politics and Public Administration at the University of Konstanz, Dr Sonja Grimm, for her inputs to my research proposal and her great feedback. The field research of this study would not have been possible without the enormous support received from the German Development Institute (DIE). I want to especially express my gratitude to Dr Benjamin Schraven for his trustful, enriching and supportive advice. The quality of this research benefited hugely from his knowledge in the field of migration in West Africa, his personal field work experience in Ghana, his access to information, his contacts and network of migration experts in Ghana. His support opened many doors for me in Accra. Critical for the preparation of the field research was Dr Stephen Adaawen who put me in contact with staff from the Centre for Migration Studies at the University of Ghana that pointed me in the direction of the most important supporter within Ghana: Dr Delali Badasu. Her in-depth knowledge of and great network in the migration landscape in Ghana contributed immensely to the success of this research. Her guidance, trust and care was the greatest possible backing and encouragement I could get whilst in Accra. Furthermore, I am also very thankful to the staff of the Centre for Migration Studies at the University of Ghana for their hospitality and the provision of office space. Moreover, I want to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude towards my interview partners. Their knowledge, openness, patience, trust and encouragement is the core pillar of this research. I wish to particularly thank Professor Mariama Awumbila, former head of the Centre for Migration studies, Dr S.O. Archer, former Director Policy Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation (PPME) at the Ministry of Employment and Labour Relation (MoELR), Dr Osman Alhassan of the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana and Patience Quaye, Assistant Commissioner of Police. I owe a great debt of gratitude to Ato Amoah from Migrant Watch & Skilled Revolution Front and Eric Opoku Ware, Sahara Hustlers Association, for their detailed and honest insights into the realities of irregular migration through the Sahara as well as the challenges faced by small civil society organisations in Ghana. Eventually, I would like to express my gratitude to the colleagues at DIE for their helpful comments and feedback on prior versions of this discussion paper, Dr Eva Dick, Dr Jana Kuhnt, Dr Jörn Grävingholt, Dr Benjamin Schraven and Dr Stephen Adaawen. I thank you all very much. Medaase paa! Bonn, December 2020 Nadine Segadlo Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1 2 Policy-making and stakeholder involvement: an analytical framework 3 2.1 An advocacy coalition framework approach to stakeholder analysis 4 2.2 Institutions in the policy-making process 5 2.3 Developing an analytical framework for this study 5 3 Methodology 7 3.1 Research design and case selection 7 3.2 Data collection and analysis 8 3.3 Reflections on the positionality of the researcher 9 4 Migration and the political context in Ghana 9 4.1 History of migration in Ghana 9 4.2 Contemporary migration trends 10 4.3 Ghana’s political history, party system and tradition of policy-making 11 4.4 The National Migration Policy for Ghana 12 5 Stakeholder involvement in Ghana’s NMP process: empirical findings 14 5.1 Timeline of the policy-making process 14 5.1.1 First appearance of migration as a topic within the policy arena 14 5.1.2 First ideas towards migration management and policy development 15 5.1.3 Establishment of the Migration Unit 16 5.1.4 Establishment of the Inter-ministerial Steering Committee on Migration and start of National Migration Policy development 17 5.1.5 Policy drafting 2011-2014 17 5.1.6 Meetings with parliament and the cabinet 18 5.1.7 Policy approval and launch 19 5.1.8 Current state of implementation 19 5.2 Actors, their roles and interests in the policy process 22 5.2.1 Government institutions – ministries 22 5.2.2 Government institutions – departments and agencies 23 5.2.3 Academia 25 5.2.4 Development partners 25 5.2.5 Civil society organisations 27 5.2.6 Strengths and weaknesses of the policy 29 5.3 Alliances between stakeholders 30 5.4 Access to and control of resources 32 5.5 Power and leadership capabilities 33 5.5.1 Main driver of the policy 33 5.5.2 Actors’ perceived power in the policy process 35 5.6 Formal and informal rules 37 6 Stakeholder involvement in the NMP process: a discussion 38 6.1 Reflections on the policy process 38 6.2 Reflections on the lack of policy implementation 39 6.3 Reflections on the analytical framework 45 7 Conclusion 46 References 49 Appendix A: List of conducted interviews and interview details 57 Figures Figure 1: Analytical framework 7 Figure 2: Timeline of policy process 21 Figure 3: Actors in the NMP development process 29 Figure 4: Interview partners’ assessment of driving force behind NMP 34 Figure 5: Calculated power score for individual actors based on power ranking 35 Tables Table 1: Perceived strengths and weaknesses of NMP by group of actors 30 Abbreviations ACILA Africa Centre for Law & Accountability ACF Advocacy Coalition Framework ACP Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific AU African Union CMS Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana CPA Cotonou Partnership Agreement CSO Civil Society Organisation DFID Department for International Development DP Development Partner EC European Commission ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EDF European Development Fund EU European Union EUTF European Union Trust Fund FDI Foreign Direct Investment FMM West Africa Free Movement of Persons and Migration in West Africa GAM Global Approach to Migration GAMM Global Approach to Migration and Mobility GIMMA Ghana Integrated Migration Management Approach GIPC Ghana Investment Promotion Centre GIS Ghana Immigration Service GIZ German International Cooperation GNA Ghana News Agency GNCM Ghana National Commission on Migration GoG Government of Ghana GPRS Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy GRB Ghana Refugee Board GSGDA Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda GSS Ghana Statistical Service ICMPD International Centre for Migration Policy Development IDF IOM Development Fund ILO International Labour Organization IMSCM Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee on Migration IOM International Organization for Migration KNUST Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies MDG Millennium Development Goal Nadine Segadlo The first aspect found in the ACF for stakeholder analysis are policy beliefs. They can be conceptualised as the interests and motives a stakeholder has concerning the policy. It is assumed that the interests of stakeholders shape their involvement in policy processes (Koh et al., 2016; Weible, 2007). The interests in a policy are often closely connected to the advantages and disadvantages that the adoption and implementation of a policy would bring to a stakeholder. Therefore, the interest in a policy also provides insights into the position a stakeholder takes on a policy, whether he or she takes a supportive, opposing or neutral stance on it (Schmeer, 1999). It can be observed that stakeholders form advocacy coalitions with other stakeholders based on their policy beliefs (Koivisto, 2014). Such forms of cooperation can be captured as alliances between stakeholders. Special dynamics among them, such as the shared interest in a policy, foster cooperation between two or more stakeholders to achieve the same goal (Schmeer, 1999). The availability of resources has been identified as a crucial factor to influence policymaking processes (Sabatier & Weible, 2007). Access to and control of resources impacts the degree of influence an actor has. There can be different kinds of critical resources: Grindle and Thomas (1991) determine political, financial, managerial and technical resources to have an impact on policy-making. Apart from that, the access to human resources also shapes stakeholder involvement in policy processes. Closely connected to the resources available to a stakeholder is the ability to mobilise those resources. That relates to the power a stakeholder has. Power refers to a stakeholder’s ability to affect the policy process through the strength he or she possesses. The power component, however, is connected to the leadership capabilities of a stakeholder. A guiding question is, whether an actor has the power as well as the willingness to initiate a process, start a conversation among actors or lead actions for or against policy implementation (Schmeer, 1999). Policy-making happens in a political context in which certain structures and rules guide the behaviour of stakeholders. This context is shaped by historical legacies, path dependencies and practices. But it is also guided by norms, values and discourses inherent in that political context. Consequently, the formal and informal rules that define a political context shape the development of a policy process. The explanatory factors outlined above form the basis for developing an analytical framework for this study. As shown in Figure 1, it first takes into consideration the identification of stakeholders. It then lists the potential explanatory factors identified that tend to explain stakeholder involvement in policy-making processes. The analysis focuses on the first three stages of the policy process: problem definition, agenda setting and policy formulation and adoption. The stage of policy implementation is included because it is assumed that specific stakeholder involvement might have an influence on the implementation of policies. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 6 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy Figure 1: Analytical framework Stakeholder involvement Explanatory factors • Interest in policy/ position on policy • Alliances among stakeholders • Critical resources Stakeholders • Power and leadership capabilities • Formal and informal rules Policy process Problem definition Agenda setting Policy formulation and adoption Policy implementation Source: Author, based on the reviewed literature 3 Methodology 3.1 Research design and case selection To answer the research question, this study employs a qualitative case study approach. The main focus of this research lies on exploring the policy process leading to the adoption of the NMP for Ghana. It constitutes the policy subsystem under investigation. The study seeks to explain stakeholder involvement in the first three stages of the policy-making process and examine its impact on policy implementation. For this purpose, the research will first provide a chronological reconstruction of the policy process. This allows the determination of the main incidents that happened, in order to develop an introductory overview of who participated during the various stages of policy-making. The time frame lasts from the initial consideration of the issue of migration in national development plans in Ghana at the end of the 1990s to its current stage of implementation. Ghana’s NMP offers a great opportunity to study stakeholder involvement in a policymaking process. Chazan (1983, p. 5) described Ghana as a “microcosm of political analysis in Africa”. Its comparatively exemplary democratic development and relative stability and peacefulness within the sub-region make Ghana a valuable case to focus on. Comparatively strong economic development rates transformed Ghana into an attractive migrant destination. Apart from that, the country also experiences other migration flows such as emigration and transit migration. These different types of migration attract attention from various stakeholders in migration governance. The fact that it is one of the first ECOWAS member states to adopt a national migration policy justifies focusing on Ghana as a country case study. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 7 Nadine Segadlo 3.2 Data collection and analysis The qualitative approach of this study is based on in-person semi-structured interviews with stakeholders in Ghana and desk research of secondary data sources. During 14 weeks of field research from February to May 2018, a total of 40 interviews were conducted. Interview partners were selected based on studying the NMP, literature research, the researcher’s own network, networks of the cooperating partners and the snowball method. The interview partners were officials of different government ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs), researchers from the University of Ghana (Accra) and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Kumasi), officials from development partner organisations and international organisations operating in Ghana, representatives of civil society organisations and members of parliament. A complete list of interview partners, their position, anonymised title as well as the date of the interview is summarised in Appendix A. Of the 40 conducted interviews, 29 are classified as official interviews and 11 as background conversations. Official interviews were held based on an interview guide with open ended questions. Background conversations, on the other hand, were characterised by more open and creative interview questions conducted to gather background knowledge from an interview partner who is an expert in a specific field, for example participated in another Ghanaian policy development process, or has, due to his or her position, special insights into contexts necessary to understand migration policy-making in Ghana. The background conversation was usually based on fewer impulses from the researcher and enabled the interview partner to speak based on own emphasis and structure. Additionally, data was collected through desk research. This included publications, annual and strategic plans as well as policy documents related to migration. A specific focus was put on analysing the newspaper coverage of the policy process for the NMP. In the library of the University of Ghana the researcher accessed the hard copies of the Ghanaian newspapers Ghanaian Times and Daily Graphic and examined their coverage of the policy process. Together with web research, it made it possible to back-trace public attention on the issue and to identify milestones in the process. When it comes to data analysis, this study uses the method of qualitative content analysis (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2010; Mayring, 2015). For this purpose, the interview material was organised in an Excel spreadsheet. A sheet was created in which the rows represent the interviews and the columns contain the topics and questions from the interview guide as well as additional aspects raised during the interviews. The data was filled in accordingly, the interview text in the matching column to which topic/interview question it belongs. This allowed the identification of recurrent patterns, especially from the additional aspects mentioned. The next step involved the development of inductive codes, from re-reading the interview material, and deductive codes, from topics in the interview guide derived from literature and theory. Afterwards the interview material was coded manually in additional columns next to each topic column in the Excel sheet (Hennink et al., 2010). Based on the structure provided by the analytical framework, there followed a summary of the main aspect belonging to each code. Results were described and put in a greater context, before a critical analysis was undertaken (Kuckartz, Dresing, Rädiker, & Stefer, 2008). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 8 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy 3.3 Reflections on the positionality of the researcher Being a white female researching migration policy-making in Ghana requires a critical reflection upon the positionality from which this research is undertaken as well as the power and privileges associated with that status. The researcher’s positionality influences all stages of the research process, including the analysis of the data and the interpretations given to the material. Although the researcher applied a privilege-sensitive approach while interacting with people, institutions and data (Cobb, Hampel, Missbach, Muhammad, & Rodríguez, 2020, p. 30), certain biases ascribed to access and interpretation, stemming from a privileged position have to be taken into consideration when engaging with this study. Doing research in Ghana from an “outsider” position (Jankie, 2004), as a young female researcher from Europe, allowed easy access to ministries, parliament and even the presidential palace without great effort. As the policy-making landscape in Ghana is widely male-dominated and characterised by hierarchy, the intersection of the white outsider position with the categories age and gender should not be underestimated in the research process. There were situations in which the combination of the intersecting categories posed a challenge to building rapport. However, in the majority of cases it served as an advantage for the researcher who was met with great respect, hospitality and interest. 4 Migration and the political context in Ghana 4.1 History of migration in Ghana Ghana’s past and present history is characterised by various forms of human mobility. During pre-colonial times migration was widely marked by the purpose of transregional trade, the search for new lands for agriculture and cattle herding, pilgrimage and religious education (Awumbila et al., 2008; Bakewell & Haas, 2007). Colonisation changed these patterns of mobility. Internally, north-south migration became dominant as the colonial economy demanded labour for cocoa farming, on plantations and in mines, in the infrastructure and railway sector. The large majority of these economic opportunities were created in the southern part of the country (Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa, 2014). The economic opportunities that came with colonial mercantilism, as well as the economic boom in the immediate aftermath of independence, in a way also attracted migrants from neighbouring countries (Anarfi & Kwankye, 2003; Arthur, 1991). This led to a massive population increase in Ghana between 1921 (roughly two million people) and 1960 (about 6.7 million people) (Ghana Statistical Service, 2005, p. xvi). After independence in 1957, Ghana’s thriving economy continued to be an appealing destination for migrants in the region (Awumbila et al., 2008; Bakewell & Haas, 2007). However, due to economic decline in the 1960s, Ghana saw a shift towards increasing emigration. An estimated two million labourers left the country between 1974 and 1981, predominantly to Nigeria and Côte d’Ivoire (Bakewell & Haas, 2007, p. 104). Outward migration was further intensified through military dictatorship and economic recovery policies in the 1980s in which mainly skilled professionals, but also semi-and unskilled young people left for destinations in Western Europe and North America (Anarfi & Kwankye, 2003). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 9 Nadine Segadlo 4.2 Contemporary migration trends Since the beginning of the 1990s, migration patterns diversified and Ghana again became an increasingly attractive destination for migrants (UN-DESA, 2019), with migrants from surrounding West African countries dominating. According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census, around 86 per cent of the foreign population in Ghana were African nationals. 68,3 per cent of the foreign nationals came from other ECOWAS member states (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012, p. 29). But emigration, especially of trained health professionals, has also continued. According to Clemens and Petterson (2008), more than 56 per cent of physicians and 24 per cent of nurses trained in Ghana were working abroad in 2000. As also noted by Quartey (2009), Ghana’s skilled emigration rate is posited at 46 per cent. This makes it the country with the second highest skilled migration rate for countries with a population higher than 5 million people in the world, after Haiti. The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) defines an “emigrant” as a Ghanaian who has lived outside the country for more than six months (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012, p. 5). The 2010 Population and Housing Census indicated that the largest stock of Ghanaian migrants abroad can be found in Europe (37.7 per cent), followed by other ECOWAS states (25.5 per cent) and the Americas (23.6 per cent) (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012, p. 38). Despite of these figures, it is predominantly migration within the West African sub-region that represents a considerable proportion of the relocation. Estimations show that 84 per cent of international migration in the ECOWAS region happens among member states (Castillejo, 2019, p. 25). This is mainly due to seasonal and temporary migration for socio-economic reasons. Improved economic opportunities and political stability attracts labour migrants from the region, especially from Nigeria, but Ghanaians also move within the sub-region in search of better opportunities (Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa, 2014). The main destinations for Ghanaian migrants in the ECOWAS region are Côte d’Ivoire, followed by Nigeria and Togo (Ghana Statistical Service, 2012, p. 38). The remittances Ghanaian emigrants send home constitute an important part of national development. According to the World Bank, the amount of remittances to Ghana was USD 2.1 billion in 2016 (World Bank, 2017). The Ghana Living Standards Survey reveals that remittances contribute 2.3 per cent to the total household income of Ghanaians (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014, p. 151). The lack of reliable data makes it difficult to estimate the volume of irregular Ghanaian migrants. EU statistics record 4,660 Ghanaian migrants as being in the EU illegally in 2014 (European Commission, 2016, p. 2). Figures of March 2018 by IOM reveal that 62,422 Ghanaians were in Libya at that time, either in various cities or in detention centres. A large majority of them are irregular migrants who mainly travelled North by using the trans- Sahara route. Given the networks between migrants and Ghanaians at home, Libya gained a reputation as an attractive place for economic opportunities (Bob-Milliar, 2012). However, this perception changed with reports at the end of 2017 about a ‘slave market’ in Libya where migrants were being auctioned. Ghanaian returnees from Libya also reported that some Ghanaians became victims of this modern-day slave trade (GhanaWeb, 2017; 2018). Another migration route that has gained prominence is that of mostly unskilled labour to the Gulf countries. Especially young women move to the region as domestic workers. In the past, reports of human trafficking to these destinations and incidents of abuse of migrants German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 10 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy have caused the GoG to issue a temporary ban on recruitment of workers to the Gulf states in May 2017 (Hawkson, 2017). Refugees and asylum seekers just make up a small proportion of people living in Ghana. Moreover, their numbers have decreased since 2005. Whereas Ghana had hosted almost 60,000 refugees and asylum seekers in the beginning of the 2000s, of which the majority had fled from Liberia’s civil war (UNHCR, 2005), this number has decreased to 13,436 people by 2019 (UNHCR, 2020, p. 73). The latest figures from June 2020 indicate that Ghana has a refugee population of 13,319. More than 50 per cent (6 707) of that population comes from Côte d’Ivoire (UNHCR Ghana, 2020). Migration within Ghana mainly takes the form of rural-rural and rural-urban migration. The north-south migration pattern that had evolved during colonial times continues until today. In the 1960s and 1970s, it was mainly young men moving south seasonally to look for work. Over time, female migration has also gained momentum with many young women working as head porters in transport stations and markets in urban areas, especially in the large cities of Accra, Kumasi and Sekondi-Takoradi. They are referred to as ‘kayayei’ (Awumbila & Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008; Awumbila, Owusu, & Teye, 2014). 4.3 Ghana’s political history, party system and tradition of policy-making As the first country in Sub-Sahara Africa to become independent from British colonial rule in March 1957, Ghana and its first president Kwame Nkrumah followed a left-socialist political path in which Pan-Africanism played a decisive role. In the years between Nkrumah’s eventual ousting from power in 1966 and the beginning of the 1990s, Ghana experienced high levels of political instability and military coups. It was under military leader Jerry John Rawlings, who came to power through a military coup in 1981, that the country returned to democracy. This included the formulation of the 1992 constitution and the establishment of a multi-party system (Gyimah-Boadi, 2008). Rawlings transformed his movement into a political party, the National Democratic Congress (NDC), which won the 1992 elections and made him president. Since then, Ghana has held successful multi-party elections every four years and has experienced three peaceful turnovers.2 Although multiple parties contest in Ghanaian elections, a strong two-party system has formed, in which rule alternates between the NDC and the New Patriotic Party (NPP). In general, the democratic transition in 1992 has also opened avenues for more participation in public policy-making. Whereas it was hitherto widely considered as “exclusionary and elitist” (Mohammed, 2013, p. 118), the 1992 constitution gave room for the participation of civil society organisations (CSO) in policy-making (Government of Ghana, 1992, Art. 37 (2a)). Public participation was fostered through regional and sub-regional forums to elaborate on long-term socio-economic development plans like the Ghana Vision 2020, a development plan aiming at achieving middle-income country status by 2020 (Mohammed 2013, p. 120), the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS I) in 2000 and the Growth and Poverty 2 In 2001, the New Patriotic Party (NPP) under John Kufuor took over the leadership of the country. After the NPP was re-elected in 2004, the NDC returned to power in 2008. President John Mahama (NDC) handed over to the opposition party leader Nana Akufo-Addo (NPP) after a defeat in the presidential and parliamentary elections in December 2016. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 11 Nadine Segadlo Reduction Paper (GPRS II) in 2005. Especially the latter included the views of the public and broadened the range of consultations towards CSOs, research institutions, think tanks and the private sector to foster ownership (Abdul-Gafaru & Quantson, 2008, p. 129f.). However, studies conclude that, despite the more participatory approach towards policy-making in Ghana since 1992, government actors and development partners are the most powerful actors in policy-making processes. CSOs often lack the necessary resources, skills and information for effective engagement. Because of their limited capacities, they are only consulted and not part of joint decision-making processes (Abdul-Gafaru & Quantson, 2008; Mohammed, 2013). Ghana depends to a great extent on external funds and support provided by development partners. In the past Ghana has been called a “donor darling” (Brown, 2017, p. 342) because of its very positive relations with the international development community (Hughes, 2005). The country’s ‘success story’ culminated in achieving the status of a lowermiddle income country in 2010 (Kumi, 2020, p. 68). However, the political agenda is said to be heavily influenced by development partners (Whitfield, 2010), causing the GoG to recently call for a shift from aid dependency to a ‘beyond aid’ agenda (Government of Ghana, 2019). In addition, the role of traditional authorities constitutes an important characteristic of Ghana’s political system. Chiefs played an important role in the local government administration during colonial rule (Asamoah, 2012) and the 1992 constitution guarantees the status and autonomy of that institution. However, it prohibits the involvement of traditional authorities in active partisan politics. Nevertheless, traditional authorities are de facto very important when it comes to land control, cultural leadership and political representation of the community. They cannot be bypassed at the local level and their inclusion and consultation is inevitable when it comes to policy implementation (Taabazuing, Armah, Dixon, & Luginaah, 2012). 4.4 The National Migration Policy for Ghana Ghana’s response to migration had over the years been scattered and uncoordinated within national, sub-regional, regional and international legislation and policy frameworks. Therefore, the need for a single encompassing document providing policy guidelines for all migration-related areas became central in academic and public policy debates (Awumbila et al., 2008; Devillard et al., 2016; Government of Ghana, 2010b; Quartey, 2009). As a consequence, Ghana’s authorities started the process of developing a National Migration Policy at the end of the 2000s, which was adopted by the Ghanaian government in April 2016 (see Figure 2). The NMP constitutes an inclusive framework for the management of all forms of migration with the aim of enhancing the sustainable development of the country: For the first time in the history of Ghana, the GoG has formulated a comprehensive national policy on migration (the NMP) to help manage its internal, intra-regional and international migration flows in favour of poverty reduction and sustained national development (Government of Ghana, 2016b, p. vii). While emphasis is put on strengthening the potential of migration for Ghana’s development, it also addresses migration related challenges. The policy is embedded in national and international policy frameworks such as the 1992 constitution, Ghana’s National Development Plans, the 2006 African Union Strategic Framework for Migration, the 2008 ECOWAS Common Approach on Migration and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 12 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy The NMP provides an overview of the history of migration in Ghana and acknowledges internal migration, immigration and emigration as the three main migration patterns. It lists already existing national laws and policies related to migration in the country as well as adopted or ratified sub-regional, regional and international legal and policy frameworks. The main body of the over-150-page document specifies and investigates the various forms of migration affecting the country. Each type is outlined in detail and supplemented by policy objectives and strategies. The policy deals with internal migration, irregular migration, labour migration, return, readmission and reintegration of emigrant Ghanaians as well as with increased influx of immigrants such as the Fulani pastoralists predominantly in Northern Ghana. All these various issues are discussed in one chapter. The sub-section on irregular migration pays specific attention to human trafficking and smuggling. The chapter on labour migration focuses on brain drain, brain circulation, but also on brain waste. Another chapter deals specifically with border management and focuses on high mobility patterns within the West African sub-region and beyond. Forced displacement across borders is another focus area that deals with refugees and asylum seekers in Ghana and their protection. It also addresses strategies of dealing with stateless persons. Further emphasis is put on the environment and climate change in the context of migration. Cross-cutting issues subsume migration and gender, migration and health as well as migration and vulnerable groups. However, it also touches upon student mobility within and outside the country as well as migration related to tourism and cultural heritage. Migration for trade and service is elaborated on, likewise migration and natural resources which links the discovery of oil and gas to changing internal and international migration dynamics. In terms of international cooperation, the policy highlights the importance of regional and international policies on migration management. It especially emphasises international labour migration management. Another focus of the policy lies on the great potential of emigration for the country’s development. Figures show that remittances into Ghana exceed flows of foreign direct investment (FDI) and official development assistance (ODA) (Government of Ghana, 2016b, p. 69). Engaging the diaspora and its resources is therefore considered a key aspect for development. In this regard, also the provision of the legal basis for dual citizenship plays a significant role in terms of diaspora engagement. As the insights into contemporary migration trends have highlighted, data availability to provide adequate information on migration flows is a major concern in the Ghanaian context. Consequently, the policy outlines how the capacity of the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) and other relevant institutions need to be enhanced to build a sound national migration database. It also tackles data sharing among the various stakeholders in the field of migration. Next to the forms of migration listed above, the NMP outlines its envisaged institutional framework for implementation by listing all implementing institutions and organisations for each strategic area and specifying their roles and responsibilities in an appendix. The Interministerial Steering Committee on Migration (IMSCM) that facilitated the policy development and the Migration Unit (MU) under the Ministry of the Interior (MoI) spearhead the NMP’s implementation. The MU is specifically responsible for setting up the Ghana National Commission on Migration (GNCM). This body, made up of representatives from government, academia, NGOs, civil society, interest groups, the diaspora and the media, is tasked with migration management in consonance with the NMP and earmarked as the main coordinator of NMP implementation. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 13 Nadine Segadlo The policy speaks about resource mobilisation for implementation and gives a central role to the GoG to provide and mobilise funding. However, this topic is only dealt with very briefly and without any details regarding the acquisition of financial resources. Additionally, a first outline for an action plan is attached to the policy document. It points out key activities, implementing bodies and expected outcomes to achieve policy objectives. However, it does not set a time frame for the activities to be carried out and it does not provide a budget with clear responsibilities. 5 Stakeholder involvement in Ghana’s NMP process: empirical findings This section starts with a chronological reconstruction of the policy process from the first idea to its current state of implementation based on a compilation of various information collected on how the NMP came about, followed by a presentation of the actors involved, their roles taken in the policy process and their interests concerning the policy. The section proceeds by analysing each explanatory factor identified in the analytical framework and its role in the NMP for Ghana. 5.1 Timeline of the policy-making process 5.1.1 First appearance of migration as a topic within the policy arena In the Ghanaian context, migration was initially related to population policies. Over the years, the GoG had adopted several programmes on population management in the 1990s which culminated in the 1994 Revised National Population Policy of Ghana (Background Conversation, Senior Researcher, Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, 21 May 2018). This policy document explicitly links migration to development and highlights Ghana’s transformation from a country of immigration to a country of emigration. Furthermore, it addresses internal migration from more to less deprived areas (Government of Ghana, 1994). In 1996, for the first time, the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) mentioned migration in its five-year medium-term National Development Plan 1996- 2000. The first long-term National Development Plan (Ghana Vision 2020) along with its first medium-term plan Vision 2020: The First Step, 1996-2000 refers to migration in the context of population and urbanisation. It acknowledges that since independence, migration had contributed largely to urban population growth (Government of Ghana, 1996, p. 64) and recognises the significant influence of international migration on Ghana’s population since 1969 (Government of Ghana, 1996, p. 8). Its successor document, the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (GPRS), 2003-2005, emphasises economic growth and the fight against poverty. It mentions rural-urban migration of young people seeking work as head porters and street vendors (Government of Ghana, 2003, p. 13;p. 29). It further identifies poverty as the main driver of migration from the north and demands policies to tackle poverty in the areas of origin (Government of Ghana, 2003, p. 28). Additionally, the document addresses the topic of emigration of health professionals (Government of Ghana, 2003, p. 111). Apart from policy documents, the GoG under President Kufuor raised awareness of migration by organising the first Homecoming Summit in July 2001. Its objective was to attract Ghanaians from the diaspora to invest in and support the development of Ghana with their skills and potential (Kleist, 2011; Manuh & Asante, 2005). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 14 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy Internationally, with the CPA between the EU and the ACP in 2000, the link between migration and development was increasingly emphasised in policy discussions and frameworks. Thus, it put discussions around the migration-development nexus more prominently on the agenda of African governments in general and the Ghanaian government in particular (van Criekinge, 2010). Towards the end of 2004, Ghana hosted a conference on the topic under the aegis of the UN. The resulting report highlighted the link between migration and development and initiated the idea of creating a bureau that would coordinate the activities of all Ghanaian organisations working on migration (International Centre for Migration Policy Development, s. a.). 5.1.2 First ideas towards migration management and policy development The idea of developing a policy on migration was first outlined by the NDPC in Ghana’s GPRS II, the national development plan for 2006 to 2009. In this document, the development of a migration policy is listed as one strategy under the heading Employment: “Develop policies to address seasonal unemployment and migration for young women and men” (Government of Ghana, 2005, p. 112). Although rather broadly formulated, the document is often referred to as the first step towards policy development related to migration. Ghana’s strategy of developing policies to address migration was accompanied by changes in the country, an increase in the number of female head porters in large cities as well as widespread emigration of teachers and nurses (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Development Planning Commission, 20 March 2018). During that time (November 2005), Ghana also became a member of the International Organization for Migration (IOM) because it was recognised as “an active partner in the global discussion on migration” (Ministry of the Interior, 2017). The analysis of interview material reveals three major factors that resulted in the idea of developing a migration policy. The first, most frequently mentioned, is concerned with the benefits of migration towards national development. The increasing emphasis on harvesting migration’s positive impacts on development is closely associated with making use of remittances and sound management of migration. Money sent home by the Ghanaian diaspora is estimated to make up a significant part of Ghana’s GDP (Mazzucato, van den Boom, & Nsowah-Huamah, 2008). According to a senior researcher at the University of Ghana, the importance of using the benefits of migration took on a new dimension in the 2000s with Ghana’s uplift towards middle-income country status: “There are so many migrants outside with resources, skills and networks. They present an important source for development, especially when Ghana was declared a middle-income country. We did not have the support we used to have” (Interview, Senior Researcher, Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, 21 May 2018). In this context, the development of the NMP is viewed as one step towards the acquisition of alternative (financial) resources for the betterment of the country. The second factor that was put forward as a reason why the GoG embarked on the journey to develop the NMP was related to the need to address various migration streams affecting the country. This refers to internal migration, but also to the emigration of professionals in the health and education sector and the resulting brain drain. Putting measures in place for the enhancement of brain circulation and brain gain instead, was one goal of the NMP (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 7 May German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 15 Nadine Segadlo 5.2 Actors, their roles and interests in the policy process The chronological reconstruction of the NMP development process has already provided a vague idea of the variety of actors involved in the policy process. To that end, this section presents the specific actors involved in the policy process, the roles they have taken as well as the interests they have pursued. Moreover, it gives insights into the aspects actors considered strengths of the policy as well as the shortcomings they see in the NMP. For a clearer picture, the actors are grouped into the following categories: government institutions, academia, development partners5 and civil society organisations. For government institutions, a differentiation is made between ministries on the one hand and departments and agencies6 on the other. With the examination of actors’ interests in the policy, this section also delves into the first explanatory factor already identified in the analytical framework. 5.2.1 Government institutions – ministries A central institution in the policy process was the Ministry of the Interior (MoI) with its Migration Unit (MU). It describes itself as the “host of the policy” (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Migration Unit, Ministry of the Interior, 17 April 2018). The MU is the government agency tasked with the development of the policy and sees itself as the leading agency in the process (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Migration Unit, Ministry of the Interior, 17 April 2018). Moreover, it is responsible for the coordination of all activities related to migration in the country (Ministry of the Interior, 2017). The MU had set up the IMSCM to coordinate the drafting of the NMP. The members of the IMSCM established the terms of reference for engaging the consultants (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 24 April 2018). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration (MFA) looks at migration policy development largely from the diaspora perspective. In the policy process it gathered and provided information through the Ghanaian missions abroad, which operate under its auspices (Interview, Mid-Level Civil Servant, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration, 14 May 2018). In 2012, the MFA founded a Diaspora Affairs Unit to keep record of all Ghanaians living abroad as well as to facilitate diaspora engagement in Ghana (Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa, 2014, p. 35). Incorporating labour migration in the NMP document was in the interest of the Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations (MoELR). Addressing youth unemployment in particular is at the core of the ministry’s efforts in the process (Interview, Senior (retired) Civil Servant, Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations, 27 April 2018). Furthermore, its mandate tasks the ministry and the Labour Migration Unit operating under it with reintegrating Ghanaian migrants who returned voluntarily or as the result of deportation into the labour market (Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa, 2014, p. 35). 5 Development partners are understood as governmental aid agencies which include bilateral donors (countries), but also multilateral donors (for example: the EU) and international organisations (for example: the IOM, ILO), as they are mostly financed by governmental aid agencies. 6 A ministry is a governmental body presided by a minister. A department is understood as a distinct division or directorate within a ministry. For example, the MU within the MoI. An agency is a governmental bureau or organisation that operates on its own but is subordinated to a ministry, for example, the Ghana Police Service, Ghana Immigration Service are both under the MoI. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 22 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy Moreover, the chairman of the IMSCM working group on the migration policy came from the MoELR. Within the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection (MoGCSP), it is mainly the Human Trafficking Secretariat which works on migration issues. Its interest was for the NMP to address children-and gender-related aspects of migration (Interview, Mid-Level Civil Servant, Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection, 17 May 2018). The Ministry of Finance (MoF) was part of the IMSCM to develop an understanding of the topic. Being informed about the ministries’ priorities helps them to better comprehend their budget plans (Background Conversation, Mid-Level Civil Servant, Ministry of Finance, 9 May 2018). Further ministries involved in the IMSCM were the Ministry of Justice (MoJ) which saw its role in advocating for the legal and human rights aspects of migration-related issues (Interview, Mid-Level Civil Servant, Ministry of Justice, 7 May 2018), the Ministry of Education (MoE) to foster educational mobility for Ghanaians and foreigners, the Ministry of Health (MoH) to prevent the emigration and ensure the reintegration of health professionals in the country, the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MoTI) to attract investments from the Ghanaian diaspora as well as the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts (MoTCCA) to promote tourism and entice the diaspora to visit or return to Ghana (Government of Ghana, 2016b; Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa, 2014). 5.2.2 Government institutions – departments and agencies The National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) can be classified as the main planning authority of Ghana. It is responsible for analysing the socio-economic situation of the country and proposing medium-and long-term plans for its development, which are then translated into policies, programmes and projects by the various governmental sectors as well as regional and district authorities (National Development Planning Commission, 2015). The NDPC is also responsible for monitoring of policies and the adherence to national development plans and their evaluation in annual progress reports (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Development Planning Commission, 20 March 2018). In the case of the NMP, the NDPC understands itself as a “policy initiator” (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Development Planning Commission, 20 March 2018). According to the information gathered, the NDPC has analysed the situation in Ghana and as a consequence focused on migration: “We observed outmigration. Ghanaians moving out internally, kayayei. It has always been an issue. We needed a policy to guide whatever this phenomenon is. In 1996 we started looking at migration issues in policy frameworks” (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Development Planning Commission, 20 March 2018). The NDPC considers itself very influential and sees its role in the NMP process in supporting the MoI in the policy development with technical input (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Development Planning Commission, 20 March 2018). The Ghana Immigration Service (GIS) which operates under the MoI is the government agency with the sole mandate of regulating and monitoring the entry, residence, employment and exit of foreign nationals in Ghana (PNDC Law 226, 1989, renewed and expanded through Immigration Act of 2000). Its strategic objectives are migration management in the national interest, defence against irregular migration and enhancing national security (Ghana Immigration Service, 2010, p. 13). The GIS has been operating a Migration Information Bureau (MIB) since 2006. The aim is to sensitise potential migrants, German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 23 Nadine Segadlo provide counselling on safe migration and warn about the dangers of irregular migration (Manuh et al., 2010). Refugees and asylum seekers coming into the country are given advice and are often passed on to the Ghana Refugee Board (GRB). The representative of the GIS interviewed considers the role of the GIS as very pivotal in the NMP development process. This is because the GIS is mainly concerned with international migration and population control and brings these aspects into policy preparations (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Development Planning Commission, 20 March 2018). In its Strategic Plan 2011- 2015, the GIS acknowledges the lack of a comprehensive migration policy for Ghana and lists its contribution to the NMP formulation as one project for this time frame (Ghana Immigration Service, 2010, p. 66). In the 2016 annual report, the GIS reflects on the support given to the drafting and implementation of the NMP. Moreover, an Action Plan for implementation has been worked out and stakeholder sensitisation for that plan was carried out (Ghana Immigration Service, 2016, p. 18). The Diaspora Unit which was established around 2012 at the MFA has an interest in the NMP development, because the unit aims to use the benefits of the Ghanaian diaspora for the development of the country and therefore advocates for having the various potentials of migration addressed in the policy (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018). Apart from encouraging diaspora engagement for national development, the unit maintains a database of Ghanaians living outside of the country and collaborates with other government institutions to foster diaspora investment (Scalabrini Institute for Human Mobility in Africa, 2014, p. 35f.). One of these agencies is the Ghana Investment Promotion Centre (GIPC) which works towards creating an enabling environment for investments and provides information on investment opportunities in the country, while also keeping a link to Ghanaians in the diaspora (Interview, Mid-Level Civil Servant, Ghana Investment Promotion Centre, 12 April 2018). The GRB, another agency under the MoI, is mandated with coordinating all refugee-related activities in Ghana which include the management of refugee camps and advice to government on refugee issues. Moreover, it is the only agency responsible for assigning refugee status to asylum seekers. It closely cooperates with UNHCR Ghana. The board was an integral part of the policy formulation process and advocated for addressing asylum and refugee issues within the NMP (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Ghana Refugee Board, 10 May 2018). Further departments and agencies involved were the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit of the Ghana Police Service. Its representative on the IMSCM served as the person responsible for issues related to human trafficking in the policy development process (Interview, Representative of the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit, Ghana Police Service, 6 April 2018). The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) is the government agency tasked with the provision of data. Consequently, the GSS was eager to include the topic of migration data in the NMP (Interview, Representative of the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit, Ghana Police Service, 6 April 2018). The Labour Department ensured the incorporation of labour migration aspects (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Labour Department, 27 April 2018), whereas the National Population Council (NPC) advocated for migration from the population perspective (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Population Council, 14 May 2018). Likewise, the Bank of Ghana contributed to the policy process by presenting precise overviews of official remittance flows into Ghana based on their own records (Quartey, 2009). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 24 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy 5.2.3 Academia The Centre for Migration Studies (CMS) was the leading academic institution in the policy development process. A reason for this constellation can be attributed to the distinct setup of the CMS. It is not only mandated with conducting research, teaching students and training practitioners in the field of migration, but also with policy formulation. The CMS was established in 2007 within the University of Ghana. With its staff from different disciplines, it approaches migration issues from various angles (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 7 March 2018). A researcher at the CMS highlights that the initial focus of the migration policy was solely on international migration. This was due to the fact that international partners who provided the necessary funding had an interest in managing global streams and wanted to have people trafficking, smuggling and irregular migration addressed. To that end, they pushed for policy development. This approach neglected other migration flows, especially internal migration within Ghana (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, 7 March 2018; Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, 24 April 2018). But using their position as advisors in the policy process, the CMS shifted the policy focus to also include internal migration. In the words of a CMS researcher: “[…] the main focus was on international migration, but the centre’s interest and the developments of the time introduced issues of internal migration, rural-urban migration. That was a problem” (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 7 March 2018). As a result, an interdisciplinary team of researchers from the CMS, who won the contract to develop the NMP after having submitted a concept to the IMSCM, advocated for a more encompassing policy. 5.2.4 Development partners The IOM, founded in 1951, is an intergovernmental organisation whose work is guided by the assumption that migration, if managed well, can make a positive contribution to society and the migrants themselves. Migration policy stands for one of its fields of work through which the IOM supports and facilitates the development of national, regional and global migration policies and strategies (IOM, 2017). The GoG and the IOM have been collaborating since 1987. Initially, the IOM supported the return of highly qualified Ghanaians living in the diaspora to help in the development of the country. At the beginning of the 2000s, it expanded its activities from programmes to counter trafficking to voluntary return and reintegration projects related to migration and health. In doing so, it collaborates with the responsible government MDAs and civil society stakeholders (IOM, 2011, p. 18f.). The IOM supported the GoG in centralising its migration management, which resulted in the setup of the MU at the MoI. IOM further assisted the MU with the development of a migration policy for Ghana (Interview, Mid-Level Officer, IOM Ghana, 5 April 2018). This activity is part of the IOM’s initiative of “Developing a Migration Policy to integrate Migration into the National Development Framework for Ghana” (IOM Ghana, 2015). The IOM Ghana’s Strategic Plan 2011-2015 provides a list of interventions on this project, first and foremost the development of the policy itself. Other interventions include assistance to the IMSCM, the setting up of a national migration database, the incorporation of migration into national development plans and the supply of technical support to MDAs working on German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 25 Nadine Segadlo migration. The project is funded by the IOM Development Fund (IDF) with a budget of USD 550,000 as part of the Strategic Plan 2011-2015 (IOM, 2011, p. 54). In the NMP development process, the IOM served as a facilitator. It was part of the IMSCM as an observer. The organisation hired some of the consultants and brought all stakeholders together for a nationwide stakeholder meeting. Additionally, they provided financial support for workshops and meetings of the IMSCM outside of Accra. After the finalisation of the policy draft in 2014, the IOM provided further assistance through a follow-up project with a funding of USD 150,000 from August 2014 to April 2016. Along with the adoption of the NMP, this project envisaged the development of an implementation framework and a training programme on the NMP for policy-makers and practitioners. Activities included holding validation workshops, striving for cabinet approval of the NMP, organising sensitisation workshops, preparing and carrying out the policy launch as well as developing and conducting trainings for policy-makers (IOM Development Fund, 2017). The IOM Ghana Annual Report 2016 registers the policy launch as an achievement in 2016 (IOM Ghana, 2017, p. 41). The EU provided support to the elaboration of the migration policy through the 10th European Development Fund (EDF). One effort undertaken by the EU to control migration is setting up programmes to introduce migration policies in countries in which large migration flows occur. It serves as a strategy to make sure that states are able to improve the conditions of migrants at the places of origin, guarantee their treatment in accordance with human rights and allow that refugees and victims of human trafficking are treated adequately (IOM Migration Research Division, 2011). In the case of Ghana’s NMP, the EU recommended and invited experts to the policy development process. Moreover, the EU assisted financially in logistical matters, such as the hotel accommodation for meetings. In general, the EU largely provides funds to the IOM to finance its activities. The IOM then functions as implementing agency (Interview, Senior Officer, EU Delegation to Ghana, 18 April 2018). The EU has a strong interest in addressing irregular migration, especially regarding the return and readmission of Ghanaians irregularly staying on EU territory (European Commission, 2016, p. 5). Cooperation between the EU and Ghana on migration started in 2007 with the discussion of readmission agreements between the two parties (Koeb & Hohmeister, 2010; van Criekinge, 2010). However, negotiations regarding readmission have not been successful. The resulting statement rather focused on a holistic framework of migration management (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018). Consequently, the EU provided financial support through the EDF and the Aeneas programme.7 Implementation on the ground has been taken over by the IOM and the UNDP (van Criekinge, 2010). In many cases the EU relies on the IOM’s expertise and experience in the field to push its migration control agenda in non-EU states (Pécoud, 2018). The EDF is the funding instrument for EU development cooperation. It is an intergovernmental fund outside of the EU budget and the main mechanism through which EU member states channel their development assistance to the ACP. The 10th EDF ran from 2008 to 2013 (D’Alfonso, 2014). One of the projects funded through the EDF is the development of the NMP. The “Aeneas” programme is a thematic instrument of the European Commission to finance migrationrelated projects in third countries from 2004 to 2006 (European Commission, 2004). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 7 26 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy German International Cooperation (GIZ) has been cooperating with the GoG since 1983. Although its focal areas in Ghana are agriculture, governance and sustainable economic development, GIZ Ghana is also active under the Migration for Development programme which is implemented in 24 partner countries. The programme includes one component on migration policy advice which aims at developing migration strategies with governments and organisations (GIZ, 2020). Consequently, GIZ was part of the IMSCM working group as an observer. The representatives were allowed to raise their opinions but not to vote. Furthermore, GIZ provided financial support for some workshops in the policy development process (Interview, Senior Officer, GIZ, 19 Marche 2018). Additionally, the International Labour Organization (ILO) was also part of the IMSCM to make sure that decent working conditions are mainstreamed in the migration policy for Ghana (Interview, Senior Officer, ILO, 15 May 2018). Moreover, UNDP facilitated some first meetings of migration experts in Ghana towards the beginning of the NMP formulation process and contributed financially, but withdrew in the course of the process (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 24 April 2018; Background Conversation, Senior Researcher, Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana, 23 February 2018). Finally, the acknowledgements of the NMP document mention the Department for International Development (DFID) as having provided financial support to stakeholder consultation workshops during the NMP development (Government of Ghana, 2016b, p. xii). 5.2.5 Civil society organisations The level of inclusion of civil society organisations in the policy process varied greatly. The research revealed that the Research & Counselling Foundation for African Migrants (RECFAM) was the only CSO to be part of the IMSCM. Other CSOs were only partially consulted to contribute their specific first-hand knowledge during stakeholder meetings and consultations within the country.8 Reactions towards these different forms of civil society inclusion were twofold. One side highlights that civil society was sufficiently involved: “There were avenues for civil society to join the process” (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Migration Unit, Ministry of the Interior, 17April 2018). However, CSO representatives voiced their dissatisfaction with the way the grassroots organisations were widely left out of the policy-making process. “They invited us to deliberate on one or two things regarding the NMP. But we wished to be included in the drafting process. If we were involved, we would have suggested one or two things” (Interview, Founder, NGO, 26 April 2018). The reason for the partial consideration of CSOs is ascribed to their lack of capacity and the fact that they are “not properly constituted to obtain involvement in the process” (Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 16 March 2018). CSOs focusing on migration are among those criticised because of their lack of capacity and professionalism: They do not have a lot of capacity but they bring real life experience together. Most of them are not well educated. They travelled and then they felt they must organise themselves to sensitize their colleagues. But beyond that nothing more to good policy contributions. (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018) 8 Observers and partly consulted CSOs were Africa Centre for International Law and Accountability (ACILA), Friends of the Nation, Media Response, Migrant Watch & Skilled Revolution Front, Sahara Hustlers Association, Scholars in Transit. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 27 Nadine Segadlo The quote hints at organisations founded by returnees. Some Ghanaians who embarked on the journey to Libya through the Sahara and then to Europe came back with the intention of educating the public on the dangers of irregular migration. They started organisations to raise awareness and carry out projects. One of their major challenges, which also other CSOs with different backgrounds face, is funding. Without financial resources, CSOs in the field of migration in Ghana lack support to develop the necessary capacities. Therefore, a CSO representative advocates for more donor support: “Development partners, like GIZ, should also look at support they want to provide to non-state actors on implementation. […] Development aid should consider funding civil society for it to be within the framework of a policy” (Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 4 April 2018). RECFAM, on the other hand, was part of the IMSCM. The representative at RECFAM described it as a privilege to have been invited to the policy process: “We are known at the state level” (Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 10 May 2018). This indicates that RECFAM possesses relevant resources. It also shows that special access via personal connections is important to be included within the policy-making process. Figure 3 presents an overview of the actors involved in the NMP process. The core shows the members of the IMSCM known to the researcher. It comprises “representatives of key MDAs dealing with migration” (Government of Ghana, 2016b, p. x) and representatives from the CMS at the University of Ghana. In addition, the IOM and GIZ had two seats but they did not have voting rights (Interview, Senior Officer, GIZ, 19 March 2018). Moreover, one CSO was present due to its special connection to government institutions and development partners. Other CSOs, traditional authorities, faith-based organisations, the media and the wider public were only invited to specific consultation meetings where they could provide input which was non-binding for the policy developers from the IMSCM. However, their role and inputs are acknowledged in the NMP document. That is why they are displayed in the outer area of the graphic in Figure 3. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 28 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy Figure 3: Actors in the NMP development process Note: UNDP and DFID are mentioned as supporting partners in the NMP document but have, according to the researcher’s knowledge, not been active participants in the IMSCM. Source: Author 5.2.6 Strengths and weaknesses of the policy The examination of the actors involved in the policy has shown that each has its own interest in the policy and this interest links back to the actors’ take on the topic of migration from their respective perspectives. To obtain more detailed insights into actors’ views on the NMP, the following section investigates what they consider to be strengths and weaknesses of the policy. Many actors perceive the NMP’s focus on the potential of migration for development as an asset of the policy. It was one of the aspects most frequently mentioned by interview partners. The frequency was determined by grouping interview codes relating to the same aspect together and identifying how often the code occurred throughout the entire material. Table 1 gives an overview of the results. The emphasis on migration’s potential for development includes minimising the risks associated with migration as well as the focus on remittances and diaspora engagement in the policy. It is striking that it was mostly representatives from academia who highlighted this aspect as most important. Furthermore, the encompassing and comprehensive nature of the policy which uses simple and clear language as well as precise definitions was identified as a strength by all actors. Mostly government representatives, however, emphasised the policy’s usefulness as a guide and framework for all stakeholders involved. The section on migration data management was also regarded as an asset by government MDAs. International actors and CSOs consider the existence of the policy itself a huge achievement. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 29 Nadine Segadlo Table 1: Perceived strengths and weaknesses of the NMP by group of actors Most important aspects of the NMP Brought forward by Main problems with/omissions in the NMP Brought forward by Highlighting migration’s potential for development (7) Academia Lack of implementation strategy (13) Various Encompassing and comprehensive policy (7) Various Lack of public awareness of policy (4) CSOs Provides guidance and an encompassing framework for all migration stakeholders (4) Government institutions Lack of grassroots involvement in policy process (2) CSOs Section on migration data within policy (4) Government institutions No budget attached to policy document (2) DPs Existence of policy itself (3) DPs + CSOs Does not sufficiently address labour migration (2) DPs + government institutions Note: The number in brackets shows how often the specific code was mentioned. Source: Author By contrast, and as highlighted by all actors, the weakness of the policy is mainly seen in the lack of an implementation strategy for the policy. The failure to establish the Migration Commission is perceived as a key shortcoming of the policy process. Furthermore, CSOs bring forward the lack of public awareness of the NMP as well as the lack of grassroots involvement: Policy-makers did not include the implementers in the planning process. Policy-makers are not implementers, but the policy looks as if the policy-makers were also the implementers. The grassroots were not considered, not included in the committee. There were intensive consultations but there are not many grassroots in the policy. This is a huge shortcoming. (Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 16 March 2018) Additionally, international actors criticise the lack of a financial plan attached to the policy document. The NMP does not include a budget with a precise overview of the costs involved, which is necessary for the design of adequate support mechanisms (Interview, Mid-Level Officer, IOM Ghana, 5 April 2018). Another weakness identified by an international actor, as well as a government representative, was the inadequate focus on addressing labour migration in the policy. 5.3 Alliances between stakeholders This section analyses cooperation patterns between actors to reveal where alliances have been formed to influence the policy process. First, interview partners mentioned the need to cooperate with the IOM because the organisation is perceived to have great expertise in the field of migration and migration policy development. Second, actors work together with the MoI, specifically the MU, and the Ghana Immigration Service. Governmental institutions consider it the leading ministry in the policy development process, academia and CSOs are aware of its mandate and guiding role on migration in Ghana and development partners know that they need a government body as a partner to start the policy process. Third, interview partners highlighted a broad cooperation between all stakeholders on the IMSCM. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 30 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy The fact that many actors perceive the members of the IMSCM as cooperating partners leads to the conclusion that, although there are different interests involved, everybody worked together to achieve an overarching goal. One voice from the NPC stresses that despite different views on how to approach the topic, there was general consensus that a policy is needed as a guideline to manage migration well (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Population Council, 14 May 2018). In specific terms, cooperating partners are those actors one has specific ties with because of their field of work. As an example, the IOM considers the MU as its main collaborator, whereas the EU delegation sees the the IOM as primary cooperating partner. The IOM is considered as an expert that is consulted when specific expertise on migration is needed. Likewise, the EU regards the MoF as an important cooperating partner, because it is the ministry through which financial support to the GoG is channelled (Interview, Senior Officer, EU Delegation to Ghana, 18 April 2018). Remarkably, interview partners have rarely revealed which actors it was difficult to work with. Instead, they highlighted the positive aspects of cooperation and mentioned that the NMP process was characterised by bringing all stakeholders together. The only incident of non-cooperation was mentioned by a CSO representative who was unable to say something positive about the IOM as an ally in the NMP development process: “At the IOM they do not appreciate our work. They want our input to report on but they do not invite us” (Interview, Founder, NGO, 25 April 2018). The CSO representative had expected the IOM’s consultation of their CSO to go beyond requesting a written report. Because of the IOM acting in this way, the CSO representative did not feel sufficiently recognised. One alliance, however, is specifically noteworthy: the cooperation between government institutions and the CMS. Although interview partners only rarely mentioned the CMS as cooperating partner (Interview, Senior (retired) Civil Servant, Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations, 27 April 2018; Interview, Founder, NGO, 25 April 2018; Interview, Mid- Level Civil Servant, Ministry of Justice, 7 May 2018), the examination of the entire policy process shows that the GoG and the CMS, comprised of Ghanaian researchers, cooperated to also include the issue of internal migration in the policy. A researcher at the CMS and member of the consultant team describes this process in the following way: The initial Terms of Reference were very narrow. They only focused on international migration outside Africa, not migration inside Africa, transregional or internal migration. So we checked back with the IOM because if you want an encompassing policy, you cannot only look at one migration flow. There are links between all forms, internal, transregional, international. We commented a lot and eventually they expanded the Terms of Reference. (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 24 April 2018) In this case, the CMS supported the GoG in pushing their interests on the agenda and making sure that a topic very pivotal for Ghana as a country, internal migration, is also addressed within the policy. The cooperation between the GoG and the CMS reflects coalition building between stakeholders based on similar policy core beliefs (Weible, 2007). The GoG and the CMS display the same policy-related values. Both are aware of the impacts of internal migration, and therefore strive for action to address this issue. Hence, their collaboration can be read as a process of forming an advocacy coalition according to Weible (2007) because both aim at influencing the policy based on their policy core beliefs. However, it has to be taken into consideration how independent the CMS itself is from the GoG and outside funding. It was established to also assist with policy formulation (Centre for German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 31 Nadine Segadlo 6 Stakeholder involvement in the NMP process: a discussion 6.1 Reflections on the policy process The analysis shows that the actors in the policy process have different views and interests on migration depending on their position. The various government MDAs all advocated for including their specific approach on migration. A general position of the Ghanaian government with its leading institution regarding migration, the MoI and its MU, can be formulated as follows: Using the potential of migration for the development of the country. This takes two forms: first, combating and managing internal migration from deprived to less deprived areas and second, encouraging the engagement of the diaspora in Ghana through the promotion of remittance transfers. The Ghanaian academic community largely supports this interest by emphasising migration’s potential for development, whereas CSOs were to a large extent absent from the policy process. The development partners in the field of migration, led by the EU as the main financer and driver, aim at establishing a migration management scheme which under the guise of the migration-development nexus largely serves the purpose of controlling migration of irregular and low-skilled migrants to Europe. The signing of readmission agreements with the GoG has proven difficult since 2007. Therefore, the EU engaged in a more holistic approach towards migration management and met the demands of the Ghanaian government, which is interested in migration’s positive impact on development, by supporting the process of migration policy formulation (van Criekinge, 2010). The IOM serves as main implementer of a large majority of migration-related EU projects on the ground. It has, therefore, gained an important role as cooperation partner of the Ghanaian government for all migration-related issues and projects (van Criekinge, 2010). Consequently, the IOM engaged with the Ghanaian stakeholders to start the policy formulation process by focusing on stemming international migration. Diverging interests on the topic of migration between the EU and African countries have been observed in various partnerships and instruments. This exemplifies that the EU focuses on combating irregular migration and gaining African countries’ cooperation on return and readmission, whereas African countries’ interests lie in legal migration pathways to Europe and using remittances for development (Castillejo, 2017; Crush, 2015; Zanker, 2019). The same opposing agenda is reflected in the different interests in the NMP for Ghana outlined above. The regional organisation ECOWAS does not take an active part in the policy-making process. Given the ECOWAS Common Approach on Migration and the well-developed regional migration governance regime, it was expected that ECOWAS would be more actively involved. But according to the perception of the majority of interview partners, ECOWAS did not play a very prominent role. The ECOWAS Common Approach and the ECOWAS Free Movement protocol as well as the AU policy on migration merely served as reference points. Although different interests prevailed in the policy process, it is remarkable that separate alliances between specific actors did not play a major role. Instead, it was the case that all actors worked together to achieve the goal of formulating a NMP for Ghana. However, almost all actors identified the IOM as main cooperation partner. It positioned the MoI as coordinating agency of the policy, thereby following the common procedure of policymaking in Ghana, namely a government institution as leader in the process. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 38 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy One alliance, however, is specifically noteworthy: the cooperation between government institutions and the CMS. Although interview partners only rarely mentioned the CMS as cooperating partner (Interview, Senior (retired) Civil Servant, Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations, 27 April 2018; Interview, Founder, NGO, 25 April 2018; Interview, Mid- Level Civil Servant, Ministry of Justice, 7 May 2018), the examination of the entire policy process shows that the GoG and the CMS cooperated to also include the issue of internal migration in the policy. The cooperation between the GoG and the CMS reflects coalition building between stakeholders based on similar policy core beliefs (Weible, 2007). The GoG and the CMS hold the same policy-related values. They are both aware of the impacts of internal migration on their country, and therefore strive for action to address this issue. Afterall, the CMS was set up with the objective of assisting with policy formulation (Centre for Migration Studies, 2014). Therefore, it needs to be asked how independent the CMS itself is from the GoG. The analysis of critical resources in the policy formulation process uncovers that financial, technical and human resources played a role in NMP development. However, financial resources are considered to be the most influential, as the provision of funding enables actors to drive processes based on their interests. As highlighted above, technical resources, as held by the researchers of the CMS, also allow shaping the policy. It becomes clear that the resource factor needs to be examined in combination with the power actors have, because the better the access to critical resources, the greater the power actors can exert in the policy process. And the greater their power, the more they can influence the agenda and pursue their own interests. The GoG, mainly in the form of the MoI, played a very influential role in driving the policy process. The IOM was ranked second in terms of most powerful position mainly because of its provision of financial resources. The chronological reconstruction of the policy process has shown that NMP development started with the provision of funding. With their financial resources, the IOM was able to push the policy in the direction they wanted it to go, while pulling the strings from behind the scenes and placing the MoI to be perceived as the most powerful agency. Two main factors were identified under formal and informal rules to be shaping policymaking in Ghana: a leading institution and social consensus. The MoI has widely been seen as the leading institution that guides, coordinates and initiates policy process, also in terms of main driver and most powerful actor. The aspect of social consensus has been discussed with regard to getting all actors to support the policy through ‘stakeholder buy-in’: the collection of different views and opinions and the presentation of the policy to the public. The importance of social consensus has led to the consultation of various stakeholders during meetings across the country. However, the analysis has shown that the consultation processes had flaws. Associations such as diaspora organisations were not considered, whereas most of the CSOs wished for more encompassing inclusion. 6.2 Reflections on the lack of policy implementation The above outlined constellation of actors, their interests, relations, resources and power has an impact on the implementation of the NMP. So far, it has not been implemented. The following section discusses possible reasons. German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 39 Nadine Segadlo The chronological reconstruction of the policy process revealed that the process started because international support was made available. To continue with implementation after policy adoption, a former civil servant at the MFA stresses, the GoG is “[…] now waiting for another support to do the dissemination” (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018).This quote shows that the government heavily relies on international partners for support in the policy process. The interview partner continues by generally describing policy development in Ghana as follows: But you know in our part of the world, things are mostly driven by donor guidance. There is money for migration policy. So we go and take it and we say ‘we are doing it’. When the money is finished, we say, ‘okay, where is the next money’. The next money is here. Then we go and take it. We shelf the other one and we continue with this one, you know. That is how our policy development process is […]. Even for the migration policy the state’s commitment is very low, beyond public servants appearing for meetings and consultants working and explaining, no financial commitment. And once there is no financial commitment to it, then you know what happens. We don’t really feel responsible. That is it. (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 08 March 2018) This quote points out three major aspects regarding the policy development process that will be reflected on below as potential reasons for the lack of NMP implementation: the shift of attention to other policies, the dependency on external resources for policy development in general and implementation in particular, and the lack of commitment from the government. First, the shift of attention towards a new policy can be observed in the case of the NMP: After its finalisation, the GoG is involved in the formulation of a Diaspora Engagement and a Labour Migration Policy. Donors provided funding for the Diaspora Engagement Policy in 2015 and 2016. Topics included diaspora investments, costs of remittances, data of Ghanaian migrants, collaborations with hometown associations10 and the integration of returnees (Interview, Senior Researcher, Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, 21 May 2018). The policy development process was similar to that of the NMP. The MFA and its Diaspora Unit were the leading governmental institution and the CMS drafted the policy (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 7 March 2018). Input was even collected abroad from diaspora organisations and put together in a draft after regional consultations were conducted (Interview, Mid-Level Civil Servant, Ghana Investment Promotion Centre, 12 April 2018). Resources for the policy were channelled through ECOWAS which received funding for this project from the EU and the Spanish government (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 7 May 2018; Background Conversation, Senior Researcher, Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana, 23 February 2018). The IOM worked as implementer on the ground, providing technical support and encouraging the GoG to start the process. A GIPC representative describes the procedure as follows: “[The] IOM 10 Hometown associations are groups in which Ghanaians in the diaspora organise themselves based on the place where their ancestors or they themselves were born, to which they tend to feel a strong connection. Ghanaian hometown associations have formed in many large European and North American cities with Ghanaian communities. They serve the purpose of first, helping migrants to find their way in the new country and second, supporting development-oriented projects in their hometowns and regions through financial contributions from their members. Through these initiatives, schools, hospitals and roads in Ghana could be built and upgraded (Mazzucato & Kabki, 2009). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 40 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy managed to get funding to get us through […]” (Background Conversation, Senior (retired) Civil Servant, Ghana Investment Promotion Centre, 18 April 2018). However, the policy was not passed before the NDC government left office in December 2016. It is currently waiting to be approved by the cabinet.11 In addition to that, the process of formulating a Labour Migration Policy for Ghana had begun. A voice from the Labour Department says: “The idea of a Labour Migration Policy has been on the drawing board of the Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations for long, but because of financial constraints it was not taken up” (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Labour Department, 27 April 2018). Support to Free Movement of Persons and Migration in West Africa (FMM West Africa), an initiative jointly funded by the EU and ECOWAS, and implemented by the IOM, ILO and ICMPD, fosters this policy process. A first workshop to start policy development was held in April 2018 (FMM West Africa, 2018). It is argued that the need for a policy on labour migration stems from the insufficient recognition of labour migration in the NMP (Interview, Senior Officer, ILO, 15 May 2018). It follows that formulating a Diaspora Engagement and a Labour Migration Policy, both dealing with migration aspects touched upon in the NMP, at a point where the NMP has not yet been implemented, shows a lack of commitment to the NMP and its potential. The GoG has already shifted its focus to new projects for which money is made available, thereby neglecting already existing work and re-fragmenting the policy landscape on migration in Ghana. This can result in a devaluation of the NMP which was formulated as a comprehensive policy including all forms of migration affecting Ghana. Second, the NMP suffers from a lack of resources for implementation. Setting up the GNMC is regarded as a crucial first step in this regard as the commission is intended to coordinate the activities outlined in the NMP action plan. The MU is tasked with establishing the migration commission. However, interview partners describe it as suffering from a lack of funding and a lack of capacity because the GoG is not properly resourcing it (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 24 April 2018; Interview, Mid-Level Officer, IOM Ghana, 5 April 2018; Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 18 May 2018). Others highlight the low capacity of the MU’s members of staff, which are said to lack sufficient background knowledge and suffer from discontinuity. Over the duration of the process, the MU had four different heads (Interview, Senior Researcher, Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, 24 April 2018). One observer went so far to claim that “the only capacity they [the MU] have, they get from the IOM” (Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 18 May 2018). Different actors explained that the current director of the MU had emphasised in bilateral conversations that they were working on setting up the 11 According to one interview partner, the Diaspora Engagement Policy was not passed under the NDC government because the Minister of Foreign Affairs at that time was not supportive and did not help the policy developers pushing the policy through. One reason might be that parts of the policy are very political as it envisages voting rights for Ghanaians in the diaspora. The current government has not shown a lot of interest in adopting the Diaspora Engagement Policy because no attempts have been made to pass it. It rather looks like the current government wants to restart the policy process for a Diaspora Engagement Policy (Background Conversation, Senior (retired) Civil Servant, Ghana Investment Promotion Centre, 18 April 2018). However, as part of a background conversation, a representative of the newly formed Diaspora Affairs Bureau at the presidency stressed that his agency is currently working on getting the Diaspora Engagement Policy ratified (Background Conversation, Senior Civil Servant, Diaspora Affairs Bureau, Office of the President, 20 March 2018). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 41 Nadine Segadlo commission (Interview, Mid-Level Officer, IOM Ghana, 05 April 2018; Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018). The director himself also stressed that he wants to set up the commission (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Migration Unit, Ministry of the Interior, 17 April 2018). It seems that the MU is willing to go ahead with NMP implementation, but it is constrained by its dependency on the GoG to resource it properly. Third, implementation is lacking because of the GoG’s half-hearted interest in and lack of commitment to the policy, as highlighted by a number of interview partners (Interview, Representative, Anti-Human Trafficking Unit, Ghana Police Service, 6 April 2018; Interview, Senior (retired) Civil Servant, Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations, 27 April 2018; Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 10 May 2018; Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 4 April 2018.). On the one hand, it is stressed that the Ghanaian government might not feel responsible for the policy because they do not regard the issue as being as relevant to themselves as it is to Europe, the destination of most international irregular migrants. On the other hand, as stressed by a senior NGO officer, their interest might be limited because the topic was pushed onto the Ghanaian agenda by international partners (Interview, Senior Officer, NGO, 18 May 2018). One interview partner argues that internal migration is much more important to the GoG, but the overall impression was that the NMP was set up and pushed by the IOM and the EU in order to address international migration flows to Europe. Consequently, the commitment towards the policy is weak (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Ghana Refugee Board, 10 May 2018). Despite the apparent lack of commitment, the GoG has been aware of migration issues for years. But it never addressed the topic prominently, for instance in state of the nation addresses. If migration was talked about, for example as part of The Coordinated Programme for Economic and Social Development Policies, the country’s seven-year development plan presented by the president to parliament, then mostly in terms of internal and rural-urban migration under the aspect of urbanisation and population (Government of Ghana, 2010a; 2007; 2017). The two more recent plans also mentioned using the potential of migration for Ghana’s development (Government of Ghana, 2010a; 2017). However, no funds were made available or it was not considered a priority by the government in power. Explanations of the lack of commitment to act can be found in a recurrent pattern that can be observed in the interviews: the view on migration in Ghanaian society. “Travelling is part of our culture” (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018) is a common description of the way the history of migration in Ghana and West Africa influences current migration patterns. ‘Travelling outside’ is a phrase used in Ghana when referring to emigration. In other West African languages, ‘travel’ or ‘adventuring’ is used when talking about migration (Graw, 2012, p. 39). In the West African context, including Ghana, migration is very important for a person’s social status (Nieswand, 2014). It brings prestige and positive reputation, as an insider illustrated by the following example: There are communities in Ghana where if you have not travelled before, you might not get a girlfriend. So everybody tries to go to Libya. At least go to Libya and come back. [...] If you need a nice lady you are interested in, the ‘Libya’-tag gives you some 40 per cent jump ahead of your competitors (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018). Ghanaian society is characterised by the omnipresent perception that migration is almost the only road to success. A Twi proverb says “high birth is not food; money is all that German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 42 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy matters” (cited in Akyeampong, 2000, p. 187). It illustrates the importance of the material wealth that the successful migrant comes home with. He or she is then considered as an ‘upper class citizen’ who gets a lot of respect (Akyeampong, 2000; Bob-Milliar, 2012). Consequently, it is not easy for a government to put restrictions to the social phenomenon of travelling, as it will affect votes (Interview, Senior Officer, EU Delegation to Ghana, 18 April 2018). Moreover, countries like Ghana have little interest in restricting migration because emigration reduces pressure on the internal labour market and generates remittances (Haas, 2006). Demographic pressure caused by a growing generation of young people and youth unemployment is a widespread phenomenon in Sub-Saharan Africa (Kihato, 2018). Therefore, an interview partner stressed, “[…] the country is committed to curbing irregular flows but what is the level of commitment? So, once in a while the people escape and the pressure goes down. That is the hard truth.” (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018). Therefore, the background of why the government is careful when addressing the issue of migration has to be taken into consideration when talking about the perceived lack of commitment of the GoG on migration and the NMP. It shows that socio-historical constellations impact decision-making and need constant reflection. It is into this constellation that the IOM pushes forward, being funded by the EU. Whereas many domestic discussions highlight the benefits of migration for development, the EU increasingly focuses on migration control and the securitisation of migrants (Kohnert, 2007; Zanker, 2019). But for Ghana to become interested in closer collaboration with the EU on migration management, attention has to be on a comprehensive approach to migration that focuses on the development aspect (van Criekinge, 2010, p. 18). Although it is not in line with the GoG’s primary interest of addressing internal migration, common ground for cooperation is found which makes use of the potential of migration for development. As development partners fund and initiate the policy process, the GoG takes it up. This finding is confirmed by van Criekinge’s (2010) case study on the cooperation between the EU and Ghana regarding migration in which she concludes that “[i]n Ghana, policy processes and outcomes tend to be much more externally-driven, rather than government-owned” (van Criekinge, 2010, p. 23). Researchers argue that the purpose of policy formulation processes for donors is to have a document on paper that can be presented, that legitimises their agendas and is in line with their priorities (Hänninen, 2014; Mosse, 2005; van Quarles Ufford, Kumar, & Mosse, 2003). Hänninen (2014, p. 248) concludes that donor involvement in policy-making serves their purposes and ideas. As the EU funds policy development on migration in the ECOWAS region, its influence on agenda setting and policy processes can also be observed here, especially as EU objectives largely differ from ECOWAS’ priorities (Bisong, 2019). For the NMP for Ghana this implies that the agenda of migration control is an underlying feature of the policy formulation process. The policy document can then be presented as a success story of EU activities towards migration control from West Africa to Europe. In addition, Hänninen (2014) argues that policy formulation initiated by donors is a way for the recipient government to secure funding. For example, it works in favour of their goal of staying in power and supporting their clientele or patronage-based networks (Hänninen, 2014, p. 248). Thus, it can be assumed that the Ghanaian government benefited from the financial allocations. Furthermore, the case of migration policy-making in Ghana has also illustrated that participation is based on consultation. In contrast to the policy cycle model that supposes that German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 43 Nadine Segadlo actors within and outside of the government try to get attention for their perceived problem and work towards putting it on the political agenda (Jann & Wegrich, 2007), in the NMP process the ordinary citizenry and the majority of CSOs did not or were not able to articulate the need for the policy. For public participation, ‘stakeholder buy-in’ meetings were held. Gould (2005) argues that, if policies are funded by development partners, they also organise and fund consultations. She criticises that the public, which is affected by policy decisions, cannot voice their opinion through elections or referendums, but, if it is possible at all, only through “donor-sponsored workshopping” (Gould, 2005, p. 11). This way of public consultation could also be observed during the NMP process. Regional consultations and meetings with key stakeholders, funded by development partners, were the typical mode of engaging the wider public. CSOs were generally treated as observers. However, this approach has also been seen in other cases of public policy-making in Ghana, for example during the development of Ghana’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (Mohammed, 2013; Whitfield, 2005). Thus, Hänninen (2014, p. 250) describes such policy-making processes as a “game” between development partners and the government, in which “donors wish to legitimise their policy priorities in the country, and the governmental agencies try to manoeuvre to their best, to gain benefits for either the officials, or the agency” (Hänninen, 2014, p. 250). In this context, the GoG was able to include its own priorities. Its close collaboration with the team of consultants from the CMS allowed for changing the focus of the policy towards a more encompassing approach to migration, to also include internal and transregional migration. This wider constellation poses challenges for implementation. At first glance, it would seem that the GoG does not show enough interest in the policy to get it implemented. However, the GoG has already been playing the game of policy-making between development partners and government actors several times. They know that development partners will step in, if they want to have the policy implemented. If not, they will propose a new project with new funds, as has already been the case with the Diaspora Engagement and Labour Migration Policy. The call for donor support for implementation has been voiced by a number of interviewed actors. Even the critical NDPC representative said: “Resources from [development partners] are needed to support the policy, to support implementation. It is just we want to determine our own priorities” (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, National Development Planning Commission, 20 March 2018). But obviously development partners will support what is close to their interest. The Ghana Integrated Migration Management Approach (GIMMA) provides an example. The project was funded by the 10th EDF and jointly implemented by the IOM and GIS from 2014 to 2017. Based on discussions as part of the NMP development process, the project was set up to already implement a few aspects raised in the context of the NMP (Interview, Mid-Level Officer, IOM Ghana, 05 April 2018). This shows that the EU had started a project to implement parts of the NMP that aligned with their interests even before the official launch of the policy. The GIMMA project comprises three components: 1. Enhancing the operational capacities of law enforcement officers to effectively manage borders. 2. Promoting safe and legal migration. 3. Strengthening migration data management for evidence-based policy-making (IOM Ghana, 2016). Especially for components 1 and 2, it can be argued that the EU has a heightened interest in supporting Ghana in more effectively controlling its borders to prevent irregular migration and raising awareness on its dangers. Additionally, the provision of financial resources by development partners for policy formulation influences the GoG’s attention to policy areas for which funding is made German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 44 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy available. The formulation of the Diaspora Engagement Policy and the recent start of the Labour Migration Policy process illustrate these shifts in focus. The representative of the MU at the MoI argued that the attempts of formulating other migration-related policies will undermine the role of the NMP (Interview, Senior Civil Servant, Migration Unit, Ministry of the Interior, 17 April 2018). On top of that, it creates a new, more scattered migration policy landscape. But in a context where policy-making is largely driven by donor guidance, several policies on a similar topic tend to be the rule rather than the exception (Interview, Insider on Migration Management Ghana, 8 March 2018). The approach of reacting to external funding for policy development illustrates another facet of the policy-making game between development partners and government actors as well as shedding light on the weak commitment by the GoG. Over the years, development partners’ involvement in internal affairs has created a structure that provides funds for policies that in the majority of cases primarily serves their own interests. This is rooted in (post-)colonial dependencies and has been exacerbated by structural adjustment programmes. This dependency is also reflected in the NMP for Ghana: Development partners have pushed through their agendas and now have a policy on paper that they can present. Meanwhile the Ghanaian government was able to slightly shape this policy in a direction favourable to them and at the same time benefit from the provided funds. 6.3 Reflections on the analytical framework The empirical findings of this research reveal that the analytical framework needs further specification to adequately capture all aspects identified in relation to stakeholder involvement in policy-making. A first area for adaptation is the interplay between resources an actor holds and the power he or she can exert. While both were initially identified as separate explanatory factors, the empirical findings illustrate how the access to resources relates closely to an actor’s power. Consequently, this connection requires further specification in theoretical considerations. Sabatier and Weible (2007) argue that policyrelevant resources include a variety of factors such as formal legal authority to make policy decisions, public opinion supporting a policy position, financial resources and skilful leadership. Schmeer (1999) defines power as “the combined measure of the amount of resources a stakeholder has and his or her capacity to mobilize them” (Schmeer, 1999, p. 16). Consequently, an analytical framework has to capture the different shapes resources can take and understand them as the foundation for power. In line with previous research, this study chose an actor-centred approach (Koivisto, 2014; Villamor, 2006; Weible, 2007). However, following the empirical analysis, the significance of the structural setting for policy-making becomes evident (John, 1998). The case of the NMP for Ghana has shown the importance of considering social and historical policymaking structures that actors are a part of, which also impact policy implementation. This became obvious from the realisation of the specific view on migration inherent in the Ghanaian society, but also from the historical roots of interaction between government actors and development partners. The reflections in Section 2 mostly emphasise political structures that influence actors’ behaviour (Howlett et al., 2009; Keeley & Scoones, 2003). Consequently, this is what the concept of formal and informal rules applied in this study mostly focuses on. However, this view neglects the socio-historical context in which policymaking takes place. Hence, a revised analytical framework would look at stakeholder German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 45 7 Nadine Segadlo involvement in policy processes within the socio-historical context. This includes, deduced from the findings of this study, the history of policy-making, the history of relationships between the involved actors, such as dependencies based on (post-)colonial structures, as well as the social aspects related to the topic under investigation, in this case migration. Conclusion This study investigated migration policy-making in Ghana. It aimed at reconstructing the policy-making process leading to the NMP and identifying the factors that determine stakeholder involvement in the policy formulation process. Based on qualitative expert interviews in Ghana, this research finds that interests in the policy, together with the possession of financial and technical resources, are critical to stakeholder involvement. The analysis further reveals that the access to and the ability to use resources forms the foundation of stakeholders’ power in the policy process. Additionally, this research shows that the NMP is not primarily a response to a perceived challenge related to migration in Ghana: the internal migration flows from deprived rural areas in northern Ghana to the economically prosperous areas in the south. Nevertheless, together with the development aspect of migration, these are the two main issues of concern related to migration for the Ghanaian government. This differs greatly from the development partners’ interests. As major financer of the NMP, the EU is focused on addressing the root causes of irregular migration to Europe. However, in finding a common approach to migration management, the GoG and the EU found common ground in developing a migration policy that emphasises the potential of migration for Ghana’s development. The EU, through the IOM as its leading implementing agency, provided the necessary financial resources for this project, which served as an incentive for the GoG to start the policy process. Policy-making driven by donor guidance via financial incentives attached to it, has been identified as a characteristic feature of Ghana’s policy developments. Nevertheless, by providing technical expertise in the form of the consultants from the CMS at the University of Ghana, the GoG managed to formulate an encompassing policy for Ghana which focuses not only on international migration but also takes internal movements into consideration. Taking these results into account, this research argues that the purpose of the NMP is to a large extent not to respond to a perceived problem in Ghana, as for example constituted by internal migration. Engaging with interview partners, own observations and careful estimates have revealed that internal migration within Ghana is much greater in scope and extent than international irregular migration to Europe. Therefore, without the European agenda to foster migration control, curbing internal migration movements, for example due to economic hardship and climate-induced changes, would actually be at the centre of attention. Although the GoG and the MoI, are perceived as the driving forces behind the NMP and as the most powerful actors by interview partners, the IOM largely shaped the policy-making process. Development partners, mainly the IOM, were always ranked second in terms of power and influence. The analysis that took into consideration donor guidance in policy processes in Ghana, the view on migration in society and the weak position of CSOs in policy-making reveals that the government only appears to be the guiding actor. In fact, the IOM, as acting force of the EU, was behind the policy ‘like an invisible hand’ and German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 46 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy a ‘financial pillar’. They bring to bear their interests and money which is the directing incentive for the policy formulation process. Securing additional funding then becomes the main interest of the Ghanaian government as a response to the terms and conditions set by the development partners. The challenges resulting from diverging interests on the topic can now be seen in the implementation phase. The agenda pushed by the development partners reduces the government’s commitment to implementation. Furthermore, the continuous experience of receiving financial support for projects had resulted in a dependency on outside funds. On top of that, the perception of migrating outside of the country as being prestigious and related to an increase in social status as well as the importance of remittances for the country’s economy make restrictions on migration highly unpopular. Therefore, the GoG is very reluctant to openly advocate for migration control. Limitations of this study include the high level of staff fluctuation, especially in government institutions and development partner organisations, that hindered access to ‘experts’ on the policy-making process. In one case, a government institution was not able to provide any information on their involvement in the NMP process due to change of officers. This reduces the accuracy of some information. Furthermore, the positionality of the researcher obviously impacts access to potential interview partners as well as influencing the interview situation itself and needs to be critically taken into consideration when drawing conclusions. Nevertheless, the findings point to several avenues for future research. First, the applicability of the proposed modifications of the analytical framework need to be tested in other settings. Especially the inclusion of the history of policy-making and the history of relationships between the involved actors as well as the social aspects related to the topic under investigation is expected to provide further insights in policy-making processes. Looking at migration policy-making in other African countries will make it possible to compare and contrast the findings of the Ghana case study. The case of Senegal has shown opposition to EU-imposed projects on migration and the development of an own strategy to voice the country’s demands related to migration issues (van Criekinge, 2010). Furthermore, Senegal appears to be much more critical of the IOM’s influence compared to Ghana (Trauner, Jegen, Adam, & Roos, 2019). Together with previous studies (Castillejo, 2019, p. 8f.), this study has shown the need for more research on the phenomenon of migration in African countries. The bulk of research focuses on irregular migration to Europe, whereas the majority of African migrants moves within their region or the continent. As this study has pointed out the importance of the socio-historical background in which policy-making takes place, in-depth explorations of African migration realities will lead to a better understanding of actors’ behaviours, commitment and decisions in policy processes. Moreover, it serves as a prerequisite to designing better policy responses to migration dynamics on the African continent. Consequently, policy implications from the results and observations of this study are that an approach on migration management in cooperation with countries in Africa has to take the socio-historical constellations as well as the country’s view on migration into account. 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German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 56 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy Appendix Appendix A: List of conducted interviews and interview details Interview code Form of interview Category of stakeholder Organisation/institution Anonymised title Date I_1 Background Conversation Academia Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana Senior Researcher 23.02.2018 I_2 Interview Academia Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana Senior Researcher 07.03.2018 I_3 Interview National government – ministry Former civil servant Insider on Migration Management Ghana 08.03.2018 I_4 Interview Civil society organisation Media Response Senior Officer 16.03.2018 I_5 Interview International actor GIZ Senior Officer 19.03.2018 I_6 Background Conversation National government – presidency Diaspora Affairs Bureau, Office of the President Senior Civil Servant 20.03.2018 I_7 Interview National government – department or agency National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) Senior Civil Servant 20.03.2018 I_8 Background Conversation International actor Embassy of Spain, Accra Senior Officer 04.04.2018 I_9 Interview Civil society organisation Africa Centre for Law & Accountability Senior Officer 04.04.2018 I_10 Interview International actor International Organisation for Migration (IOM) Mid-Level Officer 05.04.2018 I_11 Interview National government – department or agency Anti-Human-Trafficking Unit, Ghana Police Representative of Anti- Human Trafficking Unit 06.04.2018 I_12 Interview National government – department or agency Ghana Investment Promotion Centre (GIPC) Mid-Level Civil Servant 12.04.2018 I_13 Interview National government – ministry Migration Unit (Ministry of the Interior) Senior Civil Servant 17.04.2018 I_14 Interview International actor Delegation of the European Union to Ghana Senior Officer 18.04.2018 I_15 Background Conversation National government – department or agency Insider on diaspora engagement Ghana, formerly GIPC Senior (retired) Civil Servant 18.04.2018 I_16 Background Conversation Academia Department of Planning, KNUST Senior Researcher 20.04.2018 I_17 Interview Academia Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana Senior Researcher 24.04.2018 German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 57 Nadine Segadlo I_18 Interview Civil society organisation Migrant Watch & Skilled Revolution Front Founder of NGO 25.04.2018 I_19 Interview Civil society organisation Sahara Hustlers Association Founder of NGO 26.04.2018 I_20 Interview National government – ministry Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations Senior (retired) Civil Servant 27.04.2018 I_21 Interview National government – department or agency Labour Department Senior Civil Servant 27.04.2018 I_22 Interview National government – department or agency Ghana Immigration Service Senior Civil Servant 02.05.2018 I_23 Interview Academia Regional Institute for Population Studies, University of Ghana Senior Researcher 07.05.2018 I_24 Interview National government – ministry Civil Division, Ministry of Justice and Office of Attorney General Mid-Level Civil Servant 07.05.2018 I_25 Background Conversation National government – ministry Ministry of Finance Mid-Level Civil Servant 09.05.2018 I_26 Interview National government – department or agency Ghana Refugee Board Senior Civil Servant 10.05.2018 I_27 Interview Civil society organisation Research & Counselling Foundation for African Migrants (RECFAM) Senior Officer – NGO 10.05.2018 I_28 Interview National government – department or agency National Population Council Senior Civil Servant 14.05.2018 I_29 Background Conversation National government – department or agency National Population Council Senior Civil Servant 14.05.2018 I_30 Interview National government – ministry Ministry of Foreign Affairs Mid-Level Civil Servant 14.05.2018 I_31 Interview International actor International Labour Organization Senior Officer 15.05.2018 I_32 Background Conversation National government – ministry Ministry of Education Senior Civil Servant 17.05.2018 I_33 Interview National government – ministry Ministry of Gender Mid-Level Civil Servant 17.05.2018 I_34 Interview Academia Department of Economics, University of Ghana Senior Researcher 17.05.2018 I_35 Interview International actor UNHCR Ghana Mid-Level Officer 18.05.2018 German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 58 Navigating through an external agenda and internal preferences: Ghana’s National Migration Policy I_36 Interview Civil society organisation Rideo (Returnees Diaspora Integrated Development Organization) Senior Officer – NGO 18.05.2018 I_37 Interview National government – department or agency Ghana Statistical Service Senior Civil Servant 21.05.2018 I_38 Background Conversation Academia Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana Senior Researcher 21.05.2018 I_39 Background Conversation National government Politician, Member of Parliament Member of Parliament and Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, NPP 29.05.2018 I_40 Background Conversation National government Politician, Member of Parliament Member of Parliament and Select Committee on Communications, NDC 29.05.2018 Source: Author German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) 59 Publications of the German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) Discussion Papers 7/2021 Fiedler, Charlotte, & Christopher Rohles. 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