Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion

Desalegn, Paulos; Rezaei, Maryam; Alikhanova, Shahzoda Research Report Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion ODI Global Report Provided in Cooperation with: ODI Global, London Suggested Citation: Desalegn, Paulos; Rezaei, Maryam; Alikhanova, Shahzoda (2025) : Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion, ODI Global Report, ODI Global, London This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/319290 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Report Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia Opportunities for urban inclusion Paulos Desalegn, Maryam Rezaei, Shahzoda Alikhanova April 2025 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Paulos Desalegn, Maryam Rezaei, Shahzoda Alikhanova ODI Global 203 Blackfriars Road London SE1 8NJ United Kingdom © ODI Global 2025 Online ISSN: 2052-7209 This work is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Readers are encouraged to reproduce material for their own publications, as long as they are not being sold commercially. ODI Global requests due acknowledgement and a copy of the publication. For online use, we ask readers to link to the original resource on the ODI Global website. Views and opinions expressed in this publication are the responsibility of the author(s) and should in no way be attributed to the institutions to which they are affiliated or to ODI Global. How to cite: Desalegn, P., Rezaei, M. and Alikhanova, S. (2025) Understanding food systems policies for healthy diet in Ethiopia: opportunities for urban inclusion. London: ODI Global (https://odi.org/en/publications/understanding-foodsystemspolicies-for-healthy-diets-in-ethiopia-opportunities-for-urban-inclusion) Acknowledgements The authors extend their gratitude to the reviewers for their valuable comments on final draft – Tim Kelsall (Senior Research Fellow, Climate and Sustainability, ODI Global), Jose Valls (Policy Officer, Food Systems and Food Safety Division, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation), Ashagrie Gibtan (Lead Researcher Economic Sector, Policy Studies Institute of Ethiopia). About this publication This report is a product of ODI Global’s partnership with the World Vegetable Centre, as part of the Veggies 4 People and Planet (V4P&P) project, supported by the IKEA Foundation. About the authors Paulos Desalegn is an independent business and development consultant in Ethiopia, working on agri-food value chain, policy and private sector development. Maryam Rezaei is a research fellow in the Climate and Sustainability team at ODI Global. She leads the work on food systems. Shahzoda Alikhanova is a Senior Research Officer in the Climate and Sustainability team at ODI Global. Contents Acknowledgements / IV Acronyms / VII 1 Introduction / 1 1.1 Background / 1 1.2 Research aim and questions / 4 1.3 Research significance / 5 2 Methodology / 6 2.1 Conceptual framework / 6 2.2 Research approach / 8 3 Country food systems policy review / 12 3.1 Food system policy documents / 12 3.2 Case 1 – National Food and Nutrition Policy / 16 3.3 Case 2 – National Nutrition-Sensitive Agri-Food Systems Strategy (2024–2030) / 20 3.4 CASE 3 – Ethiopia Food Systems vision 2030 / 24 3.5 Draft Ethiopian Trade Policy / 29 3.6 Policy actions on vegetable production, marketing and consumption / 33 3.7 Multi-level food systems governance – analysis and implications / 35 3.8 The role of sub-national actors in food systems governance / 37 4 Discussion – food systems policy making in Ethiopia / 42 4.1 Factors determining food systems policy process / 42 4.2 Stakeholders’ influence / 48 4.3 Indicative theory of change / 51 5 Conclusion / 54 6 Policy recommendations / 56 References / 59 Appendix 1 Ranking matrix used to select food systems policy / 62 Appendix 2 Food system policy chronology / 65 Appendix 3 Food system policy documents scan note / 67 Appendix 4 Review of lessons learned from other countries / 75 Tables Table 1 Selected cases per segment, score, and selection rational / 9 Table 2 List of national food systems policies / 13 Table 3 FNP coverage summary / 17 Table 4 NNAFSS coverage summary / 21 Table 5 EFS vision coverage summary / 25 Table 6 Ethiopia Trade Draft Policy coverage summary / 30 Table 7 Main issues and proposed actions / 35 Table 8 Rating of policy process determining factors / 43 Figures Figure 1 Food system polices that affect vegetable market system / 4 Figure 2 Adapted Kaleidoscope Model / 7 Figure 3 Steps and main tools / 11 Figure 4 FNP development timeline / 19 Figure 5 Stakeholder roles in developing the FNP / 20 Figure 6 Timeline of NNAFSS / 22 Figure 7 Strategy development core and technical members composition / 23 Figure 8 Stakeholders’ roles in NNAFSS process / 24 Figure 9 Timeline of EFS vision / 27 Figure 10 Multi-stakeholder dialogue participants / 27 Figure 11 Stakeholder engagement and roles in EFS process / 28 Figure 12 Timeline of Ethiopian trade policy development / 32 Figure 13 Stakeholders’ role in draft trade policy process / 33 Figure 14 Level of stakeholder influence in selected cases / 49 Figure 15 Theory of Change / 52 Display items Acronyms AGP Agricultural Growth Program ATI Agricultural Transformation Institute CRGE Climate-Resilient Green Economy CSO civil society organisation ECCSA Ethiopian Chamber of Commerce and Sectoral Associations EFS Ethiopia Food Systems FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation FNP Food and Nutrition Policy GAIN Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition GLI Green Legacy Initiative KII key informant interview MoA Ministry of Agriculture MoE Ministry of Education MoH Ministry of Health MoTRI Ministry of Trade and Regional Integration NCD non-communicable disease NFIS National Financial Inclusion Strategy NGO non-governmental organisation NNAFSS National Nutrition-Sensitive Agri-Food Systems Strategy NNP National Nutrition Program NSAS Nutrition-Sensitive Agriculture Strategy SDGs Sustainable Development Goals UNFSS United Nations Food Systems Summit V4P&P Veggies for Planet and People WTO World Trade Organization 1 Introduction 1.1 Background The Ethiopian government has implemented various initiatives to address food system challenges, particularly food insecurity, malnutrition, and micronutrient deficiency. It has introduced multi-sectoral national food and nutrition policies and strategies, such as the Food and Nutrition Policy (FNP) (FDRE, 2018) and National Food and Nutrition Strategy (FDRE, 2021a) to achieve the country’s development goals. Since 2018, Ethiopia has shifted its conceptualisation of the food system to incorporate measures for improved nutrition across food and agricultural production and consumption. Strategies and programmes in agriculture have become more nutrition-sensitive, indicating a recognition of the triple burden of malnutrition on public health and the strain on public finances. Despite progress in tackling food insecurity and malnutrition, the March 2023 national baseline survey showed the stunting rate at 29%, wasting at 11%, underweight at 22% and overweight at 6%. The findings also indicated significant levels of anaemia and micronutrient deficiencies among children under five years and women of reproductive age (Ministry of Health et al., 2023). Only 8% of households surveyed in Ethiopia had a diverse food basket, meaning they consume all six food groups in a day (Workicho et al., 2023), as recommended in the national food-based dietary guidelines (EPHI, 2022). Beyond the undeveloped capacity of the country in agriculture production, which is a key factor in shaping food availability, a range of individual, political, environmental, and structural factors determine quality, access, affordability, and food stability for all. These factors cut across multiple activities, sectors and disciplines across food systems and should be considered in developing holistic food security and nutrition policies and actions. Household wealth, individual education level and geographic location are among the contributing factors that determine food basket diversity (Workicho et al., 2023). Vegetables are among the most recommended sources of vitamins and minerals but are generally underconsumed in Ethiopia (Woolfrey et al., 2021). Ethiopia ranks among the five countries in sub-Saharan Africa with the highest prevalence of zero fruit and vegetable consumption among children, affecting 69% of the population (Semagn and Abubakari, 2023). Cereals (including teff, maize and wheat) were the most dominant food group consumed, followed by pulses (such as peas and beans). Unhealthy diets high in ultra-processed food, sugar, salt and saturated fat and lacking fruits and vegetables are the drivers of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) (Global Food Research Program, 2021). In a country with an urban population of 23% in 2023 according to UN estimates, obesity and other forms of malnutrition are increasingly prominent in cities. 8Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion insights drawn from previous similar studies, as well as the team’s expertise. The team focused on the three elements of the Kaleidoscope Model: (1) agenda setting, (2) policy design, and (3) policy implementation. Adoption, evaluation and reform of policy are not explored in detail, as conducting such a study would require extensive data collection and in-depth case analysis beyond the scope of this research. While assessing the policy case studies to identify key actors and issues in the vegetable sector – spanning production (availability, quality and price) and consumption (accessibility, integration in diet) – the study consulted the vegetable value chain analysis conducted by the V4P&P project and other relevant studies to ensure alignment with the proposed policy actions. 2.2 Research approach The study followed a participatory approach in collecting qualitative data and information from the key informants and focus groups at national level and in Adama City. This approach was complemented by an in-depth review of relevant peer-reviewed and grey literature. Preliminary findings were discussed with key stakeholders in a national consultation workshop to fill the data gaps and triangulate the collected information. During the initial document review phase, the research team conducted a rapid appraisal of 26 recently drafted and/or implemented food policies across multiple interrelated sectors in Ethiopia, and their design and implementation process. Using a structured selection process, the team applied a predefined set of criteria within an Excel matrix to evaluate each policy. Three policy cases were initially selected, with a fourth case added during the inception meeting based on stakeholder recommendations to capture additional insights on multi-sectoral policy integration. Based on the scoring system (see Annex 1 for details), the following policies were chosen for detailed analysis: • Segment 1 (Food and Nutrition – Consumption and Social Protection): Food and Nutrition Policy of Ethiopia (FNP) • Segment 2 (Agricultural and Food Production): National NutritionSensitive Agri-Food System Strategy (NNAFSS) • Segment 3 (Trading, Investment and Finance): Ethiopian Trade Policy. • Additional multi-sectoral case: Ethiopia Food Systems (EFS) transformation vision (included upon stakeholder recommendation for insights into multisectoral policy integration). The detailed ranking summary is provided in Annex 2. 9 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Table 1 Selected cases per segment, score, and selection rational 2.2.1 Data collection and synthesis tools In line with the Kaleidoscope Model framework, the primary tools used included: 1. Selected food systems policy chronology (four main food policy cases): the chronology provides a starting point for identifying major policy decisions, key individuals and interest groups, level of decentralisation (i.e. whether city authorities were involved), information, and events that shape food systems policies. Additionally, reconstructing policy events, debates and outcomes helps distinguish highly influential players from less influential and marginal actors. Understanding the timing of key decisions and influencing factors often aids in contributing effectively to ongoing policy discussions. Constructing a policy chronology requires a careful review of available policy documents, government, donor or academic studies related to specific food-system policies. Beyond document review, the research team conducted in-depth interviews with key participants and observers of the policy system. National Food and Nutrition Strategy, 2021 Food and Nutrition Policy of Ethiopia, 2018 EFS Transformation Vision 2030 Ten-Year Agricultural Development Plan National Nutrition Sensitive Agri-Food Systems Strategy (2024 – 2030) Ethiopian Trade Policy, 2023 (draft) Policy document Segment Active or not Total score Ranking summary Top candidate for Segment 1 Second candidate for Segment 1 Top candidate for Segment 2 Second candidate for Segment 2 Top candidate for Segment 3 Selection rational Case selected as an example of integrated approach to FSN (Food Security and Nutrition) policy Case selected as example of multi-sectoral food systems policy process Case selected as a food system policy with nutrition at its core Case selected to showcase policy coherence 1 1 1 2 2 3 38 37 30 32 31 27 10 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion 2. Stakeholder mapping: to understand a policy system, the second major diagnostic step involves identifying and mapping the key stakeholders. The team used the following three tools for the study: a. stakeholder inventory – lists the institution, role, resources, influence and policy stance for each policy case b. policy system schematic – describes functionally how these key players interact in setting policy agendas, designing policy options, decisionmaking, implementation and monitoring c. circle of influence – maps the positions and relative power of key policy stakeholders. 2.2.2 Steps and process The research followed a structured approach, beginning with a systematic inventory of food systems policy documents. A matrix was developed to categorise and evaluate these documents based on predefined criteria, including comprehensiveness, stakeholder engagement, policy coherence, and alignment with the vegetable sector. Three case studies were initially selected from the policy inventory. During an inception meeting with key stakeholders, a fourth case was added to capture additional insights into multi-sectoral policy coordination. Stakeholders also provided feedback on the selection, ensuring the cases were relevant and impactful in shaping Ethiopia’s food system. A detailed policy review was conducted to trace the evolution of policy decisions, identify key actors and interest groups, and analyse policy coherence and gaps and contradictions between different frameworks. This historical analysis laid the groundwork for understanding the broader food system governance landscape. To analyse policy influence dynamics, a multi-dimensional stakeholder mapping process was employed. Each policy case was examined to map key actors and their roles, while a functional framework was developed to illustrate interactions across the policy cycle – covering agenda setting, decisionmaking, implementation, and monitoring. The research also assessed the positions and relative power of stakeholders, identifying major decision-makers and gatekeepers in Ethiopia’s food policy system. Key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted in parallel with the document review, engaging policymakers, government officials, private sector representatives, development partners and civil society actors. This iterative process allowed for cross-validation of findings, identification of emerging themes, conflicts of interest, and governance challenges. Finally, findings from document analysis, stakeholder mapping and KIIs were synthesised to assess the effectiveness of national and local government coordination. The results informed actionable recommendations for policy reforms, programmatic interventions, and investment strategies aimed at improving the impact of Ethiopia’s food systems policies on access to vegetable-rich diets in urban setting. 11 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Figure 3 Steps and main tools Initial Document/LR - Scanning List food system policy docs Quick scan Confirm 4-3 cases proposed Selected Cases Food System Policy Chronolgy (3-4 cases) Detailed document review In-depth KII Stakeholder Mapping Stakeholder inventory Policy system schematic Circle of influence Selected Policy Content Review (enabling and limiting actions) Vegetable production Vegetable trading Consumption - vegetable rich diet Stakholder Joint Mapping and Discussion Workshop Workshop preparation National level stakholders Adama level stakeholders Analysis and Report Final Workshop - Validation and Sharing Main Findings 12 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion 3 Country food systems policy review 3.1 Food system policy documents Food systems encompass the entire range of actors, and their interlinked value-adding activities involved in the production, marketing (aggregation, processing, distribution, disposal of food products) and consumption of food. This also includes the food environment, including physical and economic access to food (proximity and affordability); food promotion, advertising, and information; and food quality and safety – all of which influence food choices, acceptability and diets. According to the HLPE definition, a food system gathers all the elements (environment, people, inputs, processes, infrastructures, institutions, etc.) and activities related to the production, processing, distribution, preparation, and consumption of food, along with the outputs of these activities, including socioeconomic and environmental outcomes (HLPE, 2017). In Ethiopia, policy began to embrace the wider food system in 2018, with more explicit food environment interventions becoming apparent (Trübswasser et al., 2022). In recent years, the Ethiopian government has introduced multi-sectoral national food and nutrition policies and strategies as part of its commitment to promote nutrition-sensitive agriculture, reduce stunting, and achieve the country’s development goals. Since 2018, Ethiopia has shifted its conceptualisation of the food system to consider nutrition across agrifood production and consumption. These policies are led by public sector, primarily the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and the Ministry of Health (MoH), but they are multi-sectoral in nature and involve various stakeholders, who, directly or indirectly, are engaged in delivery of food systems outcomes. A rapid appraisal of 26 food system-related policies developed over the past two decades reveals a gradual and positive shift in the government’s approach towards more holistic policy design. However, the implementation of these policies often falls short of fully embracing a systemic and multi-sectoral approach. The Ethiopian government and its partners, including the World Bank, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and other UN agencies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and universities, have embarked on a process of food systems transformation, guided by the vision of achieving healthy diets for the population. Recent policy documents, like the Ethiopia Food Systems (EFS) transformation vision, draw lessons from global experiences and build on past initiatives like the Seqota Declaration (FDRE, 2021b) – a high-level commitment by Ethiopian government to end stunting in children under two years by 2030. The process of developing the EFS vision involved 13 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion conducting national dialogues and designing a food systems roadmap and a position paper. The EFS vision was launched in 2021 with a commitment to conclude implementation by 2030. The review indicates that this vision and other recent policies have succeed to some extent in addressing eight food environment domains – availability, affordability, convenience, promotion, quality (desirability), sustainability, safety, and cultural and social context. However, when compared to global best practices, there are major gaps in tackling food and nutrition problems, especially related to food promotion, processing, retail, pricing and trade. As indicated in Table 2, agricultural strategies and programmes have become more nutritionsensitive, and policies such as the 2008 National Nutrition Strategy have complementary action plans and related programmes that continued over the years with a satisfactory degree of progress in tackling nutrition issues. Table 2 List of national food systems policies The content and depth of each policy document vary, but generally these policies have evolved beyond particular sector to address a broader scope of the food systems challenges. Some Period 2008–2017 2018–2024 Food, nutrition and health • National Nutrition Strategy, 2008 • National Nutrition Program-I (NNP-I), 2008/09 • Seqota Declaration, 2015 • National Nutrition program-II (NNP-II), 2016 • Food and Nutrition Policy, 2018 • Food and Medicine Administration Proclamation, 2019 • National Strategic Action Plan for NCDs, 2020 • National Food and Nutrition Strategy, 2021 • Seqota Declaration – Roadmap for Expansion and Scale-up, 2021 • National Food Safety and Quality Strategy-For Primary Agricultural Produce, 2024 (2024–2030) Agriculture and environment (horticulture and others) • Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy, 2011 • Agricultural growth program I (AGP I) (2010-2015 • AGP II – 2015/16-2020 • Nutrition-Sensitive Agricultural Strategy, 2016 • Agricultural Extension Strategy, 2017 • Green Legacy, 2019 • Ten-Year Agricultural Development Plan, 2021 • The Horticulture Policy, 2021 • Horticulture Roadmap, 2021 • Ethiopia Food Systems Resilience Program, 2023 • National Nutrition Sensitive Agri-Food Systems Strategy, 2024 (2024–2030) • Postharvest Management Strategy, 2024 (2024–2030) Disaster risk and social protection • National Social Protection Policy, 2012 • National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management, 2013 Trade and investment, and finance • Investment Proclamation, 1180–2020 • National Financial Inclusion Strategy (NFIS), 2021 • Investment Directive 517-2022 • Ethiopian Trade Policy (draft), 2023 • Fruit and Vegetable Marketing Directive (draft), 2023 14 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion documents explicitly mention actions related to vegetable sector, while others focus on overall nutrient-dense foods. The long list of proposed solutions span scaling up and diversifying the production and consumption of fruits and vegetables; establishing and enforcing food safety and quality standards; developing and disseminating foodbased dietary guidelines; implementing mass media campaigns and behaviour change communication strategies; promoting climate-smart and nutritionsensitive agriculture practices; reducing post-harvest losses and waste of fruits and vegetables; strengthening market information and intelligence systems; enhancing market linkages and coordination; enforcing market standards and regulations; improving the income and purchasing power of consumers; increasing the availability and accessibility of fruits and vegetables; and strengthening food systems governance and coordination. The policy documents are categorised into four main policy areas in the following subsections, and a detailed policy scan note is provided in Annex 3. 3.1.1 Policies relating to food, nutrition and health • National Nutrition Program-II (NNP-II), 2016: focused on improving nutritional status across demographics. It specifically encouraged homestead gardening, post-harvest processing and vegetable consumption. Strategies aimed to enhance dietary diversity and food handling practices. • Food and Nutrition Policy of Ethiopia (FNP), 2018: aims to create a selfreliant Ethiopia in terms of food and nutrition. While it doesn’t explicitly mention vegetables, most policy directions encompass them. The focus is on improving the availability, accessibility and safety of nutritious foods for all citizens. • National Food and Nutrition Strategy, 2021: based on the 2018 policy, this strategy outlines 13 objectives covering various aspects of food and nutrition security. It emphasises nutrient-dense crops, including vegetables, to ensure a healthy diet. Initiatives include promoting agroecology-based farming systems and strengthening fruit and vegetable gardening. • Seqota Declaration (SD) – Roadmap for Expansion and Scale-up Phases 2021–2030: a follow-up to SD 2015. The commitment aims to end stunting in children under two by 2030. Vegetables play a vital role in improving nutrition. The strategy emphasises nutrientrich fruits and vegetables, innovative homestead gardening, and household diet diversity. • Food and Medicine Administration Proclamation No. 1112/2019: ensures food safety and compliance, specifically mentioning vegetables in the definition of follow-up formula. • National Strategic Action Plan for NCDs, 2020: targets healthy diets, including fruit and vegetable consumption. 15 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion 3.1.2 Policies relating to agriculture and environment • Nutrition-Sensitive Agricultural Strategy (NSAS), 2016: integrates nutrition into agriculture policies, promoting diversified and nutrientdense foods, including vegetables. Women’s empowerment and sector coordination are also key components, ensuring a holistic approach to improving food security and nutrition. • National Nutrition-Sensitive AgriFood Systems Strategy, 2024–2030: aims to improve food and nutrition security. It emphasises diversified nutrient-dense crops, including leafy vegetables. Initiatives include promoting safe vegetable production and establishing nutrition demonstration centres. • Ten-Year Agricultural Development Plan, 2021: links with the FNP. Vegetable-related interventions focus on technology generation, improved seeds and export-oriented horticultural produce. Agricultural extension includes training and demonstrations. • Agricultural Extension Strategy, 2017: aims to enhance food and nutrition security through pluralistic extension services. It emphasises nutrition-sensitive extension, including women’s empowerment and vegetable production. • Agricultural Growth Program (AGP I and AGP II): promotes dietary diversity through nutrient-dense crops, postharvest handling, and food safety. It indirectly contributes to food security and nutrition. • Environment Policy – ClimateResilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy, 2011: while not explicitly mentioning vegetables, CRGE recognises sustainable agricultural practices for food security and climate resilience. • Green Legacy Initiative, 2019: although not directly related to vegetables, this initiative indirectly contributes to food security by planting valuable seedlings, including fruit trees. 3.1.3 Policies relating to disaster risk reduction and social protection • National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management, 2013: the holistic approach to disaster risk management indirectly impacts nutrition and agricultural production, including vegetable systems. • Disaster Risk Management Policy, 2013: this comprehensive framework aims to enhance disaster prevention and preparedness capacities. While not explicitly focused on nutrition and agriculture, its holistic approach indirectly impacts these areas through principles such as prevention, preparedness and resilience. • National Social Protection Policy, 2012: providing a comprehensive framework, this policy focuses on social safety nets, livelihood schemes, and addressing inequalities. While nutrition is part of basic services, the broader scope contributes to overall well-being. 16 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion 3.1.4 Policies relating to trade, investment and finance • Ethiopian Trade Policy, 2023 (draft): the draft policy emphasises international and domestic trade, but does not specifically mention vegetables. • Fruit and Vegetable Marketing Directive, 2023 (draft): this directive targets horticulture, including vegetables, fruits and root crops, defining roles for stakeholders. • Investment Proclamation, 2020: horticulture benefits from investment incentives, including tax exemptions. • Investment Directive, 2022: detailed information on investment incentives, with horticulture qualifying as beneficiary of the incentive package. • National Financial Inclusion Strategy (NFIS) II, 2021–2025: while not foodspecific, it aims to enhance financial inclusion, including agricultural finance initiatives. Ethiopia’s food systems policy landscape in the last decade demonstrates progression toward integrating nutrition-sensitive strategies across multiple sectors. Initially, policies primarily addressed nutrition through broad food security measures, but over time there has been a growing emphasis on dietary diversity, particularly the role of nutrient-dense crops like vegetables. This reflects a shift from addressing malnutrition through direct interventions toward a more systemic approach that considers agricultural production, environmental sustainability and economic access. While earlier frameworks laid the foundation for improving food availability and safety, recent strategies explicitly promote vegetable consumption, agroecology-based farming and diversified diets, aligning nutrition goals with agricultural and environmental policies. However, gaps persist in linking production incentives, market accessibility and affordability measures to ensure that policy objectives translate into tangible dietary improvements. The multi-sectoral nature of Ethiopia’s food policy framework is evident in its alignment across health, agriculture, social protection and trade policies. While nutrition policies emphasise dietary diversity and food safety, agriculture policies increasingly integrate nutrition-sensitive strategies, recognising the role of diversified cropping and climate-resilient farming. Additionally, trade and investment policies highlight the potential of horticulture, though explicit links to nutrition remain underdeveloped. Disaster risk reduction and social protection frameworks contribute indirectly by addressing vulnerabilities that impact food security and dietary outcomes. Despite this cross-sectoral approach, effective policy coordination remains a challenge, requiring stronger institutional linkages, enforcement mechanisms and investment strategies to enhance the implementation of nutritionsensitive policies across sectors. 3.2 Case 1 – National Food and Nutrition Policy 3.2.1 Policy coverage The FNP’s coverage and aim are set out in Table 3. The policy aims to achieve optimal nutritional status across all life stages, reinforcing broader national goals of enhanced quality of life, increased productivity, and improved longevity. 17 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Table 3 FNP coverage summary Period Identification Policy aims and objectives Means and activities planned Implementing agency and budget Policy coherence Intended impact on vegetable production, marketing, and consumption Dimensions Policy title Date of adoption Policy type Overall aim(s) Specific objectives Means Activities Implementing agency Programme approved Budget allocated Consistency Complementarity and trade-offs Production Marketing and distribution Vegetable consumption Summary Food and Nutrition Policy of Ethiopia 2018 Public health policy and food security policy To attain optimal nutritional status at all stages of life, consistent with a high quality of life, productivity, and longevity. 1. Ensure the availability and accessibility of adequate food for all Ethiopians 2. Improve nutrition services equitably across all life stages 3. Enhance consumption of diversified and nutritious diets 4. Improve food safety and quality throughout the value chain 5. Reduce food and nutrient losses 6. Strengthen emergency risk management 7. Enhance nutrition literacy. New legislation, resource allocation, capacity building, research, education, partnerships, infrastructure development, monitoring, evaluation, advocacy and emergency response. Nutrition education, food fortification, agricultural development, healthcare services, social protection, nutrition screening, community-based interventions, food security monitoring, research, and policy coordination. MoA, MoH, Ministry of Education (MoE), National Food and Nutrition Policy Council, regional and local government authorities, development partners and NGOs. (Not specified) (Not specified) In general, it aligns with relevant national policies (agriculture, health, etc) to address malnutrition and improve overall health. Intersects with other sectors like agriculture, healthcare, and education. The policy actions are a generic list; there is an overall complementarity, but attention is needed for synergy and any trade-offs in specific interventions. No direct mention of vegetables, but policy directions encompass them. Strategies include enhancing production, safety, and postharvest management. There is no specific mention of vegetable marketing and distribution actions. No specific actions related to vegetable consumption. Enhancing diversified and nutrition diets and nutrition literacy are among the main objectives of the policy. 24 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion sub-national entities rather than direct involvement in policy design. The flow of influence shifted over time, with earlystage policymaking dominated by federal actors, while later stages saw increased engagement from decentralised entities, NGOs and private sector actors. The structure highlights a top-down policy development approach with a more decentralised implementation strategy. Figure 8 Stakeholders’ roles in NNAFSS process 3.4 CASE 3 – Ethiopia Food Systems vision 2030 3.4.1 Policy coverage The EFS vision aims for a holistic shift ranging nature-positive food production to sustainable consumption patterns. As indicated in Table 5, this transformation is structured around three key pillars – federal, regional/sub-national, and partnerships – with the MoA and MoH leading the effort alongside 16 interministerial entities, development partners and sub-national agencies. MoA Federal other offices Sub-national entities Development partners (Save, FAO, AT) Private sector and SH farmers Community NSAS 2016 lessons and new policy, global trends Agenda setting Design Core Team Technical Team Adoption Implementation 2023 2024 Authority Finance TA Goods & services Information 25 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Table 5 EFS vision coverage summary Aspect Identification Policy aim and objectives Means and activities planned Implementing agency and budget Policy coherence Intended impact on vegetable production, marketing, and consumption Dimensions Policy title Date of adoption Policy type Overall aim(s) Specific objectives Means Activities Implementing agency Program approved Budget allocated Consistency Complementarity and trade-offs Production Marketing and distribution Vegetable consumption Summary Ethiopia Food Systems (EFS) Vision 2030 July 2021 National vision/strategy A holistic transformation of Ethiopia’s food systems from nature-positive production to sustainable consumption patterns. Promote enhanced food safety, nutrition, and healthy diets; improve equitable livelihood and land preservation; build resilience to shocks and stress. Diagnostic study, roadmap preparation, aligning policy and coordination; onboarding development partners and stakeholders; forming inter-ministerial and other governance structures; coordination unit formation, socialisation, education, and implementing 24 game-changing solutions. For implementation: political and operational buy-in, socialisation to relevant organisations, media campaign, regional-level implementation, and financing EFS. The EFS has identified and finalised 24 game-changing solutions, clustered into 7 categories; 165 interventions (160 aligned, 97%); 605 activities (481 aligned, 80%). Lead MoA and MoH with 16 inter-ministerial entities, the Agricultural Transformation Institute (ATI) with coordination role/secretariat, and other two layers (sub-national entities mainly for implementation and development partners). Proposed three pillars (federal, regional/sub-national, partnerships). Aligned interventions: 165 interventions with 160 aligned with existing government and development partners’ programmes (e.g., Food Systems Resilience Program, Seqota Declaration). Total budget for EFS activities: 185.11 billion birr; an additional 1.9 billion birr is required after aligning with the government budget and commitment from development partners. Aligned with SDGs and UNFSS; also aligned with other relevant policies in the country related to agriculture, health, and nutrition. Efforts made to align and create synergy across interventions and policies through clustering. The 24 game-changing solutions in the roadmap are directly or indirectly related to vegetable production, marketing, and consumption. Examples include: EFS GC 2: Support diversified food production for nutrient-dense foods (animal-sourced and plant-based) through smallholder, greenhouse, and garden-level production; EFS GC 19: Modernise and upscale indigenous food production and processing for general population consumption; EFS GC 1: Strengthen national food safety management and control systems; EFS GC 18: Promote agricultural commercialisation by creating specialisation corridors for nutrient-dense commodities and strengthening market linkages (e.g., agro-industrial parks). There are solutions proposed that relate to EFS GC 8: Strengthen innovative supply chain management and handling systems, particularly for nutrient-dense crops (fruit, vegetables, and animal-sourced foods). In consumption, there are solutions that directly and indirectly contribute, including EFS GC 9: Sustain awareness creation and food and nutrition literacy to change consumer behaviour toward nutrient-dense and safe food, empowering women’s leadership in food systems. 26 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion The strategy emphasises food safety, improved nutrition and equitable livelihoods while ensuring resilience to shocks and environmental sustainability. Implementation is guided by a diagnostic study and roadmap preparation, incorporating policy alignment, stakeholder coordination and governance mechanisms such as an inter-ministerial coordination unit. The EFS also prioritises socialisation efforts, media outreach and regional-level implementation to secure both political and operational buy-in. With an estimated total budget of 185.1 billion birr (US$1.4 billion), plus an additional 1.9 billion birr in financing needs, required for implementation, the EFS integrates 165 interventions and 605 activities, with 97% alignment to existing programmes like the Food Systems Resilience Program and the Seqota Declaration. A central feature of the EFS is its 24 ‘game-changing solutions’, categorised into seven clusters aimed at enhancing food production, marketing, and consumption. On the consumer side, the EFS envisions shifting dietary behaviours through sustained awareness campaigns and nutrition literacy programmes, particularly emphasising women’s leadership in food systems. This element could be an entry point to directly link the measures to promoting vegetablerich diet and engaging and empowering local and municipal governments and consumers and citizen groups. The strategy is aligned with global frameworks, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the UN Food Systems Summit (UNFSS), ensuring coherence with national policies across agriculture, health, and nutrition. By clustering interventions and fostering synergy, the EFS tries to minimise policy fragmentation and enhances implementation efficiency. 3.4.2 Timeline The EFS vision process, as illustrated in Figure 9, was initiated in November 2020 in response to the UN Secretary-General’s call for member states to conduct national food systems consultations. To guide this effort, a high-level expert panel developed a manual, outlining key action tracks and a background document to inform discussions. Three rounds of national stakeholder consultations were conducted, gathering insights from government entities, development partners and civil society organisations (CSOs). By June 2021, the EFS roadmap and country position paper were finalised and officially launched, providing a strategic framework for food systems reform. These documents were presented at the first UNFSS in September 2021, marking Ethiopia’s commitment to the global agenda. Following this, an inter-ministerial secretariat was established to oversee implementation, a comprehensive country diagnostic study was conducted, and development partners were actively engaged to strengthen resource mobilisation and coordination. The government further reaffirmed its commitment by participating in UNFSS+2, where it shared progress updates and reaffirmed its dedication to sustainable food systems transformation. 27 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Figure 9 Timeline of EFS vision 3.4.3 Stakeholder engagement The agenda-setting and design phases of the policy process were characterised by significant engagement of multiple stakeholders, with approximately 130 participants contributing to the consultations. Figure 10 Multi-stakeholder dialogue participants As reflected in the technical synthesis report (ATI, 2024), the majority of participants (48%) were development partners, including donors, NGOs, and policy networks, underscoring their dominant role in shaping policy discussions and providing technical and financial support. The federal government accounted for 30% of the participants, comprising representatives from key ministries such as the MoA and MoH as well as the ATI, signifying strong government lead and ownership in the policy formulation process. Other key stakeholders included academia (15%), primarily universities 11/2020 12/2020 02/2021 04/2021 05/2021 06/2021 06/2023 10/2023 2018 05/2024 Inter-Ministerial SC inaugurated Country DS validation should be January 31st Launched EFS process EFS High-level roundtable EFS MSD 2 Onboarding DPs EFS Background document EFS MSD 1 EFS MSD 3 Country DS 3 % 1 5 % 4 8 % Sub-National Gos Private Sector Academia Development Partners Federal Government 4 % 3 0 % 28 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion and national and international research centres, contributing to evidence-based policymaking. Sub-national government offices (3%) – such as regional bureaus of trade, industry, and livestock – had minimal representation, raising concerns about the inclusivity of decentralised governance structures in food systems decisionmaking. Similarly, the private sector (4%) had a limited presence, highlighting a potential gap in engaging businesses, particularly those in food production, supply chains and agribusiness. The lower representation of these sectors suggests the need for greater integration of private sector innovation and regional-level implementation perspectives in future policy dialogues. Figure 11 illustrates the multi-layered stakeholder relationships and influence in the EFS process. Figure 11 Stakeholder engagement and roles in EFS process UN Secretary request to Member States Agenda setting Design Adoption Implementation UNFSS Summit 1 UNFSS Summit 2 2020 2023 202420222021 Academia 1st N-MSP 2nd N-MSP 3rd N-MSP Development partners (UN agencies and NGOs) Sub-national actors Private sector, farmers and consumers FG ministries MoA and MoH (Leads) + ATI Sec (MoE, MoF-PSI, EPHI, EFDA and others) IMC Authority Finance TA Goods & services Information 29 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion At the agenda-setting stage, the UN Secretary-General’s call initiated national consultations, engaging academia and expert panels to establish a technical foundation. During design and adoption, federal ministries, led by the MoA and MoH with ATI as secretariat, played a central role in ensuring policy coherence and alignment. Development partners, including UN agencies and NGOs, provided financing and technical support, contributing through multi-stakeholder platforms. The Inter-Ministerial Committee coordinated cross-sectoral integration, while private sector actors, farmers and consumers had limited influence early on but gained relevance during implementation. Similarly, sub-national actors focused on execution rather than policy design, highlighting a gap in decentralised decision-making. The flow of influence (coloured arrows) reflects a topdown approach, with federal ministries and development partners shaping policy, while sub-national governments, private entities and communities engaged mainly during implementation. This underscores the need for stronger bottom-up feedback to integrate local priorities into national policy. 3.5 Draft Ethiopian Trade Policy 3.5.1 Policy coverage The Ethiopian Trade Policy (draft, 2023) aims to create an efficient domestic market system and a competitive international economy, fostering economic development through strengthened trade systems. Its objectives include enhancing private sector competitiveness, integrating enterprises into regional and global value chains, expanding market access, facilitating digital commerce, promoting competitive exports, ensuring consumer protection, and maintaining macroeconomic stability. The policy outlines a phased implementation, beginning with capacitybuilding for institutions, progressing to trade liberalisation and World Trade Organization (WTO) accession, and ultimately diversifying exports and attracting investments. While the Ministry of Trade and Regional Integration leads implementation, full programme details and budget allocations remain unspecified. Policy coherence is emphasised through alignment with the SDGs and Ethiopia’s Industrial Policy, Environmental Policy and Education Policy, although explicit links to food systems policies are lacking. The trade policy does not directly address vegetable production, marketing or consumption but seeks to improve overall market efficiency, which could indirectly benefit the sector by enhancing trade infrastructure and affordability. However, a more detailed sectoral strategy in subsequent policy documents is needed to ensure targeted support for agricultural trade, including vegetables. 30 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Table 6 Ethiopia Trade Draft Policy coverage summary Review aspect Identification Policy aim and objectives Means and activities planned Implementing agency and budget allocated/program me approved Policy coherence Intended impact on vegetable production, marketing, and consumption Dimensions Policy title Date of Adoption Policy type Overall aim(s) Specific objectives Means Activities Implementing agency Program approved Budget allocated Consistency Complementarity and trade-offs Provisions stimulating, facilitating, and empowering vegetable sector Marketing and distribution Vegetable consumption Summary Ethiopia Trade Policy (draft), 2023 Not yet, Council of Ministers to adopt it Policy The trade policy envisions an efficient domestic market system and a competitive international economy. It aims to foster economic development by building robust domestic and export trade systems, contributing to poverty reduction and sustainable growth. 1. Enhancing private sector productivity and competitiveness 2. Coordinating enterprises in regional and global value chains 3. Creating market access opportunities through trade agreements 4. Facilitating digital commerce 5. Promoting competitive products for foreign markets 6. Ensuring consumer protection and fair competition 7. Establishing a stable macroeconomic environment for businesses. The policy outlines short-, medium-, and long-term execution strategies. The initial focus is on capacity-building for implementing institutions. Subsequent phases include liberalising commerce and joining the WTO. Long-term goals involve diversifying exports and attracting investments. Detailed programmes are yet to be developed but the policy emphasises stakeholder consultation, monitoring, and evaluation. The Ministry of Trade and Regional Integration leads policy development and implementation, with other government agencies and development partners participating. Focus areas are identified, but specific programmes remain to be developed. Government’s regular budget and full programme development are mentioned as funding sources. Policy coherence is crucial for effective governance and sustainable development. When policies align and work synergistically, they maximise impact, avoid conflicting objectives, and address complex challenges. Coherent policies enhance efficiency, promote equity, and contribute to holistic solutions in areas like food systems. The policy aims to align with other relevant policies, including the Industrial Policy, SDGs, Environmental Policy, and Education Policy. Implications for addressing economic challenges like poverty, unemployment and inflation should be clearly incorporated. Identifying areas of policy complementarity and potential conflicts is essential. The general nature of the document makes it challenging to discern these aspects clearly, as it does not explicitly link with other food systems policies. Ensuring alignment and integration with existing policies is crucial for cohesive and effective food systems governance. No specific mention of vegetable sector. The policy broadly addresses 10 key issues, including domestic trade, macroeconomic environment, investment, market access, and participation in the global value chain. The draft policy discusses actions aimed at making the trade function efficiently without specific focus on vegetables Not specific to vegetables but aims to make products more affordable with efficient and better trading system. 31 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion The draft policy presents several critical gaps that require refinement for greater effectiveness. Notably, it lacks sufficient engagement with regional and local governments, such as Adama City, and has not been adequately communicated to urban centres, limiting its potential for localised implementation. Additionally, it fails to address the unique characteristics of nutrient-dense vegetables and fruits, overlooking regional production capacities and supply dynamics. The policy also lacks comprehensive strategies to influence community consumption patterns or deploy marketing tools to counter inflationary pressures. Furthermore, it does not specify concrete programmes or projects to operationalise its vision, nor does it include directives to safeguard consumers from market failures or unfavourable international trade agreements. Another critical omission is the absence of a clear role for the food processing subsector, including its potential contribution to value addition, the marketing of bio-fortified and modified food products, and the engagement of the private sector in strengthening trade infrastructure. Strengthening these aspects would enhance the policy’s alignment with Ethiopia’s broader economic and food security goals. 3.5.2 Timeline The formulation of Ethiopia’s draft trade policy began in 2019 and has undergone a prolonged development process due to the complexity of traderelated issues and the diverse expertise required, according to key informants. The policy’s extended timeline reflects the need for comprehensive stakeholder consultations, alignment with existing economic frameworks, and consideration of international trade commitments. As depicted in Figure 12, Ethiopia’s engagement in global and regional trade agreements has followed a similarly extended trajectory. The country initially applied for WTO membership in 2003, but the accession process remains incomplete due to outstanding negotiations and compliance requirements. Meanwhile, Ethiopia formally joined the African Continental Free Trade Area in 2019, signalling its commitment to regional economic integration. The delayed policy finalisation underscores the challenge of harmonising domestic trade priorities with global and continental trade obligations, reinforcing the need for a clear roadmap to accelerate implementation. 32 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Figure 12 Timeline of Ethiopian trade policy development 3.5.3 Stakeholder engagement The development of Ethiopia’s trade policy began under the Ministry of Trade and is now led by the restructured Ministry of Trade and Regional Integration (MoTRI). A steering committee, chaired by the Minister, has overseen the process, with representation from key stakeholders such as the Ethiopian Chamber of Commerce and Sectoral Associations (ECCSA), Addis Ababa University, and technical experts. The drafting process received significant support from the United Nations Development Programme, which hired an international consultant to provide technical expertise. Additionally, the Economic Commission for Africa and other development partners have demonstrated a strong commitment by offering both financial and technical assistance to enhance institutional capacity and ensure alignment with international trade frameworks. The Council of Ministries, responsible for policy adoption, plays a central role in integrating the policy into national governance structures and ensuring its coherence with broader economic strategies. Similar to previous policy cases, the policy formulation process has been largely driven by federal institutions, with MoTRI serving as the coordinating body that facilitates interactions between government agencies, development partners and sub-national entities. Academia and consultants contributed by shaping the policy’s technical foundation, while development partners reinforced institutional capacity through research support and financial resources. Although private sector actors, including ECCSA and major public enterprises such as the Development Bank of Ethiopia, Ethiopian Airlines, and Ethiopia Electric Power Corporation, actively participated in discussions, their role remained advisory. Similarly, sub-national entities were engaged to a limited extent during the early stages but are expected to play a more significant role in implementation. The overall structure reflects a top-down approach, where federal ministries and development partners drive agenda setting and policy 1993 2000s 2003 2019 2019 Government change and trade policy reform measures started Applied to join the World Trade Organization (WTO) Ethiopia joined the African Continental Free Trade Area Draft policy formulation started Policy waiting to be endorsed by Ministries of Council 2023 2024 Draft Policy Developed Pursuing a developmental state approach 33 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion formulation, while regional governments, private sector actors and communities are positioned primarily within the implementation phase. This approach highlights a gap in localised trade policy considerations, excluding effective incorporation of regional economic dynamics into national trade strategies. Figure 13 Stakeholders’ role in draft trade policy process 3.6 Policy actions on vegetable production, marketing and consumption The policy actions outlined in the reviewed documents offer a strategic but somewhat fragmented approach to addressing the challenges in vegetable production, marketing and consumption in Ethiopia. While the policies recognise the need to modernise and expand vegetable production, gaps remain in how they tackle the structural constraints facing smallholder farmers. The emphasis on supporting diversified food production and commercialisation through specialisation corridors and agro-industrial parks presents a promising framework for scaling up vegetable production. However, limited access to credit, disease-resistant varieties, and efficient post-harvest storage solutions continues to undermine production sustainability. The proposed promotion of GAP and post-harvest technologies is crucial, but without clear implementation mechanisms – such as Other Federal Offices MoTRI Sub-National Entities Development Partners (UNDP, ECA) Academia Consultant/ Committee Public Enterprises and Private Sector; ECCSA Community Agenda Setting Design Adoption Implementation Council of Ministries 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 Authority Finance TA Goods & Services Information 40 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion integration is essential for aligning local development efforts with broader policy goals. However, effective implementation at the local level requires greater awareness and institutionalisation, particularly regarding nutrition-related policies. Without a clear conceptual understanding of nutrition governance, these policies risk remaining fragmented or under-used. To bridge this gap, a dedicated mixed-method study is needed to assess the extent of policy-driven changes and their impact on the supply, consumption and trade practices of essential food commodities, particularly vegetables and fruits. A deeper understanding of these dynamics will be crucial for refining policies to enhance food security, nutrition and market efficiency at the city level. 3.8.3 Local context – challenges and barriers in vegetable production, marketing, and consumption Adama City is a rapidly growing urban centre (estimated population of 875,000) that is actively implementing national and regional food systems policies. The city administration focuses on initiatives such as home gardening promotion, the establishment of Sunday markets, the formation of consumer cooperatives, and the facilitation of market linkages. According to city reports, more than 18,000 households have received support for vegetable production, contributing to fair-priced vegetable trading for consumers. Additionally, the administration has allocated 240 square metres of land for a cooperative of 10 civil servants to cultivate vegetables, aiming to improve both availability and affordability. Despite these efforts, significant structural and systemic challenges hinder the efficiency of vegetable production and distribution. The city’s cooperative office reports the presence of 366 cooperatives, including 126 savings and credit cooperatives, 115 agricultural cooperatives, and 124 consumer associations. However, while 10 fruit and vegetable marketing cooperatives were initially operational, only one remains active. These cooperatives, originally intended to stabilise vegetable prices and ensure affordability, struggle to compete with informal traders due to price volatility, weak bargaining power, and regulatory inefficiencies. The price ceilings imposed by the city’s trade office often fail to cover costs, making it financially unviable for cooperatives to function effectively. A census of fruit and vegetable traders in four woredas of Adama City identified approximately 1,600 vendors, while key informant interviews estimate that more than 5,000 vegetable and fruit vendors operate in the city. These traders face a variety of constraints within the broader food system, particularly in terms of access, availability and affordability of vegetables. Production challenges include limited access to improved seeds, mechanisation and pesticides, as well as the inadequate adoption of standard quality measures and good agricultural practices. The marketing 41 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion sector also suffers from inefficiencies, including a lack of structured incentives, financial support and reliable market information. Additionally, price inflation, poor post-harvest handling, and the absence of organised storage facilities exacerbate supply chain disruptions. Vegetable consumption in Adama is significantly impacted by rising prices, declining consumer purchasing power, and inconsistent local supply. The perishable nature of vegetables, combined with underdeveloped transport and storage infrastructure, leads to high post-harvest losses and inflated market prices. Consumers often resort to price negotiations, purchasing smaller quantities, or substituting vegetables with more affordable alternatives, such as replacing onions with carrots and cabbage. This, in turn, reduces dietary diversity and affects nutritional intake. Cultural consumption habits and limited awareness of vegetable nutritional content further constrain demand. A quick assessment and key informant interviews indicate that recent price surges – caused by inflation, decreased production, and logistical disruptions – have made vegetables increasingly unaffordable, particularly for low-income households. The broader business environment also presents barriers to vegetable trade. Lengthy bureaucratic procedures, regulatory hurdles, and weak enforcement of food safety standards hinder market efficiency and discourage investment. Contamination risks and pesticide residues pose additional challenges in ensuring food safety for consumers. While the city administration has introduced measures such as Sunday markets and strengthened consumer cooperatives to shorten the supply chain, these efforts remain limited in scale and impact. Key informants highlighted awareness campaigns promoting home gardening and vegetable consumption, yet there is no established coordination mechanism to align stakeholders at the city level. Strengthening multistakeholder engagement, improving regulatory frameworks, and addressing infrastructure deficits will be essential in fostering a more resilient and inclusive vegetable market in Adama City. 42 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion 4 Discussion – food systems policy making in Ethiopia 4.1 Factors determining food systems policy process The process for food systems policy making in Ethiopia is centralised, and agenda setting and design are typically steered by national government ministries. Depending on the policy type, approval occurs at different levels of government. Proclamations require parliamentary endorsement, sector policies are approved by the Council of Ministers, and sectorspecific directives or strategies receive approval from the responsible ministry. The factors determining the policy process vary across the four cases reviewed, as discussed in the specific case review section. While each policy document follows a distinct process, there are common determinants, particularly in agenda setting, stakeholder engagement in policy design, and implementation dynamics. Table 8 summarises the key factors influencing policy processes in these cases, comparing them to findings from empirical studies in Ghana, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia. Beyond identifying determining factors at each stage, the study critically assesses the policy landscape in Ethiopia, emphasising structural and systemic influences on policy development and implementation. 4.1.1 Agenda setting Agenda setting for food systems related policies in Ethiopia is a crucial phase in policy development, primarily led by government ministries. The process requires approval from different government institutions depending on the policy type and level. Policies such as those used as our case studies emerge in response to identified challenges within their respective policy areas. International organisations play a significant role in shaping national agendas by advocating policy reforms and sensitising decision-makers. Strong advocacy is essential at this stage to emphasise the need for food systems transformation and mobilise stakeholders. Knowledge generation and research provide the evidence base to justify policy priorities, ensuring that policies are problem-oriented and responsive to societal needs. 43 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion A demand-driven policymaking process requires active participation from diverse stakeholders, acknowledging social, economic and environmental challenges. Norms, biases and ideological perspectives influence agenda setting by shaping stakeholder perceptions and priorities. Effective decentralisation and clear stakeholder engagement guidelines can enhance regional and local participation in policy formulation. Table 8 Rating of policy process determining factors Policy process/cases 1. Agenda setting Relevant problem is identified Focused events Powerful advocates 2. Design Knowledge and research Norms, biases, ideology and beliefs Cost-benefit calculation 3. Adoption Powerful opponents versus proponents Government veto players Propitious timing 4. Implementation Requisite budget Institutional capacity Implementation veto player Commitment of policy champions 5. Evaluation and reform Changing information and belief Changing material conditions Institutional shifts FNP + + + + + + + + 0 + + + + + + 0 NNAFSS + + + + + + + + 0 0 0 + + + + 0 EFS Vision 2030 + + + + + + + + 0 Ethiopia Trade Policy (draft) + 0 + + + + + 44 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion At the national level, critical issues such as severe malnutrition and Ethiopia’s commitment to high-level international declarations – including the SDGs and the UNFSS – have been instrumental in prioritising nutrition in public policy discourse. High-profile events and empirical data have raised awareness about the urgency of addressing nutritionrelated challenges. Advocacy and awareness-raising events and initiatives are crucial, but only sustained advocacy by powerful coalitions can put an issue on the national policy agenda. International experiences have influenced Ethiopia’s food and nutrition policies. Over the past decade, international conferences such as the Second International Conference on Nutrition (ICN2), the Scaling Up Nutrition movement and the UNFSS have guided national policy frameworks. Ethiopia has tailored these global recommendations to its local context through national platforms. However, local governments, civil society and the private sector have limited influence in Ethiopia’s policy landscape. The national government and donor community largely drive the agendasetting process. Historically, political structures have restricted the role of nonstate actors in shaping policy priorities. The ruling political party remains the dominant agenda setter at national and regional levels. To enhance policy inclusivity, mechanisms for meaningful engagement of non-state actors and decentralisation must be strengthened. Creating opportunities for participation, dialogue and capacitybuilding initiatives can improve their ability to influence policy priorities, content and narratives. The fragmented nature of the private sector and the absence of independent civil society actors at the grassroots level further limit their impact. Donor agencies and international NGOs are better positioned to influence policy agendas due to their knowledge base, financial capacity, and advocacy networks. These actors actively lobby and provide evidence-based recommendations that shape food systems and nutrition policies. Data-driven research, through combination of political economy or power analysis, and robust advocacy could pave the way for stronger engagement and action from the wider community. 4.1.2 Policy design Policy formulation is shaped by various driving forces across domains. Food system challenges are generally addressed as long-term development priorities and there is little to no integration of immediate emergency responses in food systems policy processes. Many developing countries draw on international guidelines in designing their food systems related policies. Ethiopia exhibits this approach, with national knowledge and research, societal norms, ideological stances, and cost-benefit considerations influencing how international guidelines are tailored to the country context. In some East African countries, agricultural input subsidy modalities are shaped by ideological perspectives on market 45 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion fairness and efficiency. In contrast, policies facilitating provision of micronutrient supplements and food fortification are less contested and typically informed by global best practices and empirical cost-benefit analysis. Policymakers’ views on the role of the state versus market-based solutions significantly shape policy options. Ethiopia’s policy design process reflects a cautious approach toward marketbased interventions. While there is growing recognition of the role of market actors, historical ideological influences, low trust in private sector, inadequate infrastructure, limited financial access, and weak business support services hinder private sector engagement. Policy design remains dominated by government, limiting the contributions of non-state actors. The private sector operates in silos with minimal collaboration across industries, affecting the feasibility of market-driven solutions. These challenges indicate that, as with agenda setting, the policy design process has been heavily dependent on the government, limiting the engagement and contributions of nonstate actors. 4.1.3 Policy adoption Decisions to adopt new policies depend on two primary factors: the relative power of proponents and opponents, and the agreement of government veto players. Veto players – individuals or collective actors – must agree for a proposed policy change to occur. Ministries, the president, the prime minister, and legislative actors can act as veto players. The relevant players depend on the policy domain. If the finance ministry opposes a policy, supporters may need stronger allies or a readiness to compromise. When veto players are also policy advocates, adoption prospects increase. Understanding the relative power of advocates versus opponents is critical. In Ethiopia, these factors were crucial in most cases, with powerful opponents and proponents, along with government veto players, being significant in all reviewed policies. Policies promoted by line ministries with full power at the ministerial and parliamentary levels face easier adoption. Policies initiated at higher government levels, such as the prime minister’s office, are quickly adopted. After the presentation of the draft policy, if it is a proclamation or a policy under the mandate of the parliament, the respective permanent committee under the parliament reviews the draft and conducts a public hearing. Any amendments are then incorporated, and the approval process proceeds with voting. Otherwise, based on the policy mandate level, the Council of Ministers or the respective ministry management team reviews and endorses it with the required agreed changes. In the past decades, policies promoted by line ministries with the full power of the leading party at the ministerial and parliamentary levels are usually easily adopted. Policies initiated at higher government levels, such as the Prime Minister’s office, are also quickly adopted. The EFS vision, for example, was adopted at a high level of government offices and received strong attention at the Council 46 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion of Ministers, with a commitment to integrating and mainstreaming actions in respective offices’ regular plans and staffing. However, not all policies see such swift adoption. The national trade policy, drafted years ago, remains unapproved, facing criticism for its limited content on food systems elements. Propitious timing was not a notable factor in any of the reviewed cases, underscoring the importance of aligning advocacy efforts with strategic opportunities for policy change. An analysis of the winners and losers of such policies could help answer the question on which policies get promoted and why. 4.1.4 Policy implementation Effective policy implementation hinges on three key factors: budgetary resources, institutional delivery capacity, and the commitment of policy champions. In Ethiopia, both the FNP and the NNAFSS encountered significant challenges related to financial constraints and institutional capacity. The presence of committed policy champions and the influence of veto players shaped the extent to which these policies advanced beyond the planning stage. Similar challenges are observed globally, where budget limitations and weak implementation capacity often drive reforms, particularly in agricultural input subsidy programmes. In contrast, micronutrient supplementation policies tend to face fewer obstacles, as they are integrated into health systems with established delivery mechanisms. Fortification policies, however, present additional complexities, as they rely on private-sector participation, consumer financing, and robust monitoring and compliance systems. Key informants emphasised that policy formulation is not the primary hurdle: the real challenge lies in execution. While the country has a strong track record of developing policies, successful implementation requires both technical and administrative capabilities. Technical factors include education, specialised skills, and infrastructure, while administrative capacity depends on institutional structures, delegation of authority and coordination mechanisms. Policies that involve multiple sectors – such as health, education and agriculture – require effective intergovernmental coordination to prevent fragmentation. Transparency and accountability mechanisms, such as performance contracts and citizen scorecards, play a crucial role in reinforcing policy execution. At the federal level, ministries such as the MoA and MoH have established focal points and recruited experts to oversee policy implementation. While these efforts contribute to policy continuity, delays in resource allocation and budgetary limitations continue to impede progress. Policy champions – whether high-ranking bureaucrats or political leaders – help sustain momentum, but frequent leadership turnover disrupts implementation. Additional challenges include mandate competition, overlapping initiatives, insufficient funding at various administrative levels, and the need to incentivise technical expertise within government institutions. 47 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion An analysis of four key policy cases reveals that none were fully implemented as originally envisioned. The NNAFSS builds upon an earlier phase that struggled with execution due to financial and institutional limitations. Similarly, the FNP initiated regional implementation structures but has since been overshadowed by shifting priorities, particularly the focus on the EFS vision. As of 2024, the Trade Policy remains unendorsed, further highlighting delays in policy progression. Beyond resource and capacity constraints, effective policy implementation in Ethiopia also depends on clear communication, leadership stability and efficient public expenditure management. Additional barriers identified across food systems policies include sectoral mandate competition, fragmented initiatives, and weak incentives for technical capacity development. Addressing these structural challenges will be crucial for translating well-designed policies into meaningful and sustained impact. 4.1.5 Evaluation and reform Policies are frequently refined or completely overhauled in response to the evolving beliefs of veto players, shifting financial landscapes, and lessons from prior implementation. Increased funding – whether from national resource revenues or foreign investment – can sustain policies, while donor commitments to technical and financial support often accelerate revisions. In Ethiopia, both the FNP and the NNAFSS have undergone revisions based on lessons learned, external experiences, and donor-backed initiatives. The FNP’s revisions drew from past strategic shortcomings and international best practices, while donor and NGO support provided the necessary financial and technical backing to move forward with these changes. An evaluation of the first phase of the NNAFSS was conducted and presented to key stakeholders, generating feedback that shaped the next phase. Unlike in other countries, where institutional restructuring accounts for about one-third of policy reforms, Ethiopia’s policy changes were largely driven by new information, evolving beliefs, and changing material conditions, rather than shifts in institutional structures. International development partners play a pivotal role in policy evolution. In countries such as Ghana, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia, donors have financed scientific research, facilitated high-level discussions, and provided direct budgetary and technical support for policy implementation. In Ethiopia, donors have similarly influenced all major food and nutrition policies, though their level of engagement varies across cases. Veto players – whether government officials, political leaders, or influential stakeholders – can shift their positions based on new evidence, exposure visits, shifts in public opinion, or advocacy efforts. Internal party dynamics, negotiated compromises, and external shocks (such as economic crises or natural disasters) can also prompt policy reconsideration. In the case of the NNAFSS, revisions followed a review of the initial phase. The new strategy incorporated emerging themes such as 48 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion food systems transformation, climatesmart agriculture, and the growing challenge of obesity. Additionally, it emphasised regional variations, detailed implementation planning, dedicated nutrition budgets, and enhanced resource mobilisation to ensure more effective execution. Ethiopia’s policy refinements illustrate the dynamic interplay between evidence, financial resources, and political decisionmaking. However, the absence of institutional shifts suggests that while policies evolve, the structural constraints to implementation remain largely unchanged. 4.2 Stakeholders’ influence As indicated in the matrix, stakeholder engagement in Ethiopia’s food systems policymaking has been inconsistent, varying across different policy cases. The EFS vision process, driven largely by international influence, has seen broader multi-stakeholder participation; in contrast, other policy processes have been more restricted, often limited to validation workshops with select stakeholders. Across all cases, engagement from the private sector, local governments, civil society and vulnerable communities remains minimal, despite some improvements in recent policy developments. Figure 14 shows that government ministries exert the strongest influence over policy formulation, leading processes that align with their core mandates. Development partners, including donors, UN agencies and NGOs, play a significant role by either providing technical and financial support or shaping policy direction based on their interests. However, opposition voices are largely absent, either due to a lack of structured representation or the centralised nature of Ethiopia’s governance, which consolidates decision-making power within a dominant political entity. The absence of dissenting perspectives raises concerns about whether policies genuinely reflect diverse stakeholder needs or are simply statedriven initiatives. 49 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Figure 14 Level of stakeholder influence in selected cases While some policies gain momentum during drafting and adoption, implementation remains a persistent challenge. According to KII observations, even well-developed policies stall due to weak institutional capacity, inadequate financial resources, and infrastructure constraints (Gebremichael, 2021). Poor coordination among stakeholders and limited access to reliable data further hinder evidence-based decision-making, underscoring the need for stronger collaboration and robust data systems to ensure policies translate into tangible outcomes. S u p p o r t i v e S t r o n g I n fl u e n c e O p p o s i t i o n N e u t r a l UNICEF, WFP, Save the Children MoH MoA, MoE, MoW, MoMSA MoTRI, MoI, FDA, EPHI, EIAR, MoFED, NI, WFP, CONCERN, GAIN, FAO, GOAL, WV, USAID, DFID, SUN, Academia, Associations S u p p o r t i v e S t r o n g I n fl u e n c e O p p o s i t i o n N e u t r a l UNFSS MoA – MoH -ATI MoE, MoMSA and other Federal MO Federal and Sub-national Gos, Academia, PSO, FAO, GAIN, WFP, EU, AT, CA, CIAT, CIP, WV, WRI, WHO, WFP, VSO, TS, SDC, Save, OXFAM, NI, IADC, IFAD, NDRMC, FAO, WB, DFN S u p p o r t i v e S t r o n g I n fl u e n c e O p p o s i t i o n N e u t r a l Save the Children, FAO, AT MoA MoH, MoE, MoMSA EIAR, FDA, EPHI, MoFED S u p p o r t i v e S t r o n g I n fl u e n c e O p p o s i t i o n N e u t r a l ECCSSA MoTRI MoI, MoF Ethiopian, Public Enterprises, PSO, UNDP, ECA 56 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion 6 Policy recommendations The following recommendations point to ways to strengthen multi-level food systems governance and enhance access to healthy diets in Ethiopia. Enhancing multi-sectoral coordination is essential for effective food systems governance. Establishing a formal multisectoral coordination body, such as a National Food Systems Council, should be mandated by law to institutionalise its role in aligning policies and addressing systemic challenges. This council must include representatives from key government ministries, private sector actors, CSOs and development partners, ensuring their decisions influence policy and implementation. Coordination efforts should extend beyond the national level by mandating regional and municipal food systems councils, including in cities like Adama, to localise policy objectives. To address resource constraints, the government should create a dedicated funding mechanism to support multisectoral engagement, ensuring financial sustainability for coordination efforts at all levels. High-level political commitment, financial and human resources and clear accountability mechanism are the prerequisites for success of a coordination body. Empowering non-state and municipality actors in the policy formulation process requires a structured mechanism for their engagement. The government should establish legally binding consultation frameworks that require the inclusion of private sector entities, farmer cooperatives, consumer groups and civil society in policy discussions. Regular stakeholder forums should be formalised as part of policy cycles, with clear mandates for reviewing and influencing policy design and implementation. Strengthening the capacity of local authorities through knowledge sharing and training programmes on food policy analysis, advocacy and negotiation skills will enable them to engage effectively. Additionally, a public-private dialogue platform should be institutionalised at local and national levels to ensure that businesses and civil society contribute to shaping food systems policies in a sustained manner. Improving policy implementation capacity necessitates targeted investment in government institutions and human capital development. A national capacity-building programme should be designed to train government officials, particularly those at the regional and municipal levels, on critical areas such as nutrition-sensitive agriculture, budget management and intergovernmental coordination. This programme should combine in-person workshops with digital learning platforms to ensure scalability. Additionally, implementation units should be embedded within local governments, ensuring that policy directives translate into concrete actions at the grassroots level. Establishing performance-based incentive mechanisms for implementing 57 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion agencies, tied to clear targets on food security and nutrition outcomes, will further enhance policy implementation. Strengthening accountability mechanisms is critical to ensuring effective food systems policies. The introduction of performance contracts for key government institutions with clear deliverables on food and nutrition security, coupled with periodic performance evaluations, will enhance institutional accountability. Citizen engagement should be formalised through the use of citizen scorecards and social audits that allow communities to provide direct feedback on service delivery. Establishing an independent body responsible for monitoring, evaluation and adaptive learning, mandated to review, assess and adjust food systems policies and report directly to parliament, will help institutionalise transparency and oversight. Promoting local governance autonomy is necessary to create context-specific food systems solutions. Regional and municipal governments should be granted greater decision-making power to design and implement food security programmes that align with their specific needs. This requires a structured devolution of financial and technical resources, ensuring that local governments have the capacity to lead policy execution. Establishing a results-based financing model, where funds are allocated based on demonstrated progress in improving nutrition and food security outcomes, will strengthen local ownership. Adama City, as a growing urban centre, could be considered to pilot this model by integrating food systems planning into its municipal development strategy, ensuring a coordinated approach to urban food security. Fostering innovation and developing long-term strategies is necessary to build a resilient food system. Urban agriculture initiatives such as rooftop farming, hydroponics and community gardens should be integrated into municipal planning frameworks to increase local food production. Governments at all levels should launch large-scale behaviour change campaigns promoting healthy diets, leveraging schools, workplaces and digital platforms to shift consumer preferences towards vegetable-rich diets. Building on existing initiatives like Adama’s Sunday markets, municipal authorities should expand infrastructure that supports affordable, fresh produce markets, reducing reliance on long supply chains that drive up food costs. To enhance food systems policy cohesion and minimise trade-offs, the government must prioritise access to nutritious foods by creating direct incentives for vegetable production, including subsidies for smallholder farmers and streamlined access to markets. Market infrastructure must be upgraded to reduce post-harvest losses and improve cold storage facilities, ensuring year-round vegetable availability. Nutrition-sensitive trade policies should be integrated into broader agricultural strategies to ensure food systems policies do not unintentionally favour staple crops at the expense of more diverse, nutrientrich foods. Educational programmes and 58 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion community-based interventions should be expanded to shift dietary patterns, ensuring that increased availability of vegetables translates into higher consumption. Strengthening regulatory frameworks on food quality and pricing will further ensure that nutritious foods remain affordable and accessible. In summary, for policies to enable access to affordable healthy diet in Ethiopia, there is a need to shift from fragmented interventions to a systemic approach that integrates multi-sectoral governance, empowers diverse stakeholders, strengthens implementation capacity, enhances accountability, promotes local governance autonomy, and fosters longterm innovation. Ensuring that food systems policies are evidence-based, financially sustainable and inclusive of all actors – especially local governments and private sector entities – will be critical in achieving lasting improvements in food security and nutrition. By addressing these areas in a structured and actionable manner, Ethiopia can build a more effective, inclusive and resilient food system, with Adama City serving as a model for urban food systems transformation. 59 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion References ATI – Agricultural Transformation Institute (2024) A pivotal commitment: transforming Ethiopian food systems. A comprehensive synthesis: game-changing solutions, governance and implementation arrangements to transform Ethiopia’s food systems. Revised and expanded, May. Addis Ababa (www.dpgethiopia.org/wpcontent/uploads/2024/07/Ethiopian-Food-System-and-Nutrition-Synthesis-Report. pdf). Belew, T.F.D. (2015) ‘A review on production status and consumption pattern of vegetable in Ethiopia’ Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare 5(21) (www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JBAH/article/view/27074). 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Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Food Security, Policy Research Brief 27. Michigan State University (https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/ record/260419/?v=pdf). Semagn, B.E. and Abubakari, A. (2023) ‘Zero fruits/vegetables consumption and associated factors among children aged 6–23 months in Ethiopia: mixed effect logistic regression analysis’ PLoS One 18(7): e0288732. Trübswasser, U., Candel, J., Genye, T. et al. (2022) ‘Benchmarking policy goals and actions for healthy food environments in Ethiopia to prevent malnutrition in all its forms using document analysis’ BMJ Open 12(8): e058480 (https://doi.org/10.1136/ bmjopen-2021-058480). UN Food Systems Summit (2021) Policy brief: Governance of food systems transformation. United Nations (www.unfoodsystemshub.org/docs/ unfoodsystemslibraries/fss-community/chapter-2/policybrief_governanceunfss. pdf?sfvrsn=edae3afc_1). von Braun, J., Afsana, K., Fresco, L.O. and Hassan, M.H.A. (2023) Science and innovations for food systems transformation. Springer Nature (https://link. springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-15703-5). 61 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Woolfrey, S., Bizzotto Molina, P. and Ronceray, M. (2021) Political economy analysis of the Ethiopian food system. Key political economy factors and promising value chains to improve food system sustainability. AgrInvest-Food Systems Project. Rome: FAO. Workicho, J., Alemu, B A. and Shete, M. (2023) ‘Household dietary diversity across regions in Ethiopia: Evidence from Ethiopian socio-economic survey data’ PLoS One 18(4): e0283496 (https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0283496). 62 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Appendix 1 Ranking matrix used to select food systems policy Policy segment representation: Ensuring coverage across key policy domains related to food systems: • Segment 1: food and nutrition – consumption – social protection. • Segment 2: agricultural and food production. • Segment 3: trading, investment, and finance. Policy status: Only active policies were considered. Policies were categorised as: • Active (1) – Included in the selection process • Non-active (2) – Excluded Evaluation criteria and scoring: each policy document was assessed and rated based on the following dimensions: coverage, comprehensiveness and representativeness: • Coverage entire food systems – rated 5. • Coverage of production, consumption, and trading – rated 4. • Coverage of only two segments – rated 3. • Coverage of one segment – rated 2. • Very limited coverage – rated 1. Policy design and planning level: • National policy – rated 5. • National strategy – rated 4. • National proclamation – rated 3. • National ministry directive – rated 2. • National programme – rated 1. Range of stakeholders’ engagement: 63 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion • Very wide stakeholders including private sector, vulnerable groups, development partners, and academia – rated 5. • Missing vulnerable groups or private sector – rated 4. • Limited engagement from key stakeholders – rated 3. • Government entity and affiliated academia only – rated 2. • Government only – rated 1. Policy coherence and alignment with other relevant policies): • Strongly aligned with at least 3 relevant policies – rated 5. • Well-aligned with at least 2 relevant policies – rated 4. • Somehow aligned and references at least one relevant policy – rated 3. • No direct link to other policies – rated 2. • Contradiction with other relevant policies – rated 1. Budget and programme-support: • Large-scale government and donor funded programmes (in hundred millions) – rated 5. • Medium-scale donors and government funded projects and programme – rated 4. • Small-scale projects funded by government and development partners – rated 3. • Regular government budget allocation – rated 2. • No explicit budget – rated 1. Leading organisation and implementation capacity: • Led by Led by the Prime Minister’s Office or a major multi-sector agency – rated 5. • Led by key ministries with dedicated staff and structure (e.g., MoA, MoH) – rated 4. • Led by an agency with limited structure and staff – rated 3. • Led by a department within a large organisation – rated 2. • Led by a department within a small organisation – rated 1. Relevance to vegetable sector: • Directly prioritises vegetable production, marketing, or consumption – rated 5. • Explicitly mentions vegetables – rated 4. • Indirectly mentions vegetables – rated 3. • Assumed to include vegetables under broader definition – rated 2. • Not related to vegetables sector – rated 1. 64 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Policy document Segment Active or Not Coverage/ Comprehensiveness and Representativeness (Double weight) Policy Level (5-1) Range of stakeholders engagement (5-1) Policy Coherence Budget/ program supported (5-1) Leading organization - structure, leadership and staff (5-1) Relevance for Vegetable (5-1) Total Score Ranking Summary Proposed/ Selected National Food and Nutrition Strategy 2021 Food & Nutrition Policy of Ethiopia, 2018 National Nutrition program-II (NNP-II) 2016 National Nutrition Strategy 2008 Seqota declaration 2015 National Nutrition program-I (NNP-I) 2008/9 EFS Transformation Vision 2030 National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management, 2013 National Social Protection Policy of Ethiopia, 2012 National Food Safety and Quality Strategy-For Primary Agricultural Produce, 2024 (2024-2030) 1st candidate for Seg. 1 2nd candidate for Seg. 1 Case selected as an example of integrated approach to FSN (Food Security and Nutrition) policies 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 10 8 8 8 8 4 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 38 37 31 31 30 30 30 28 28 27 65 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Appendix 2 Food system policy chronology Year Overall food and nutrition Agriculture (horticulture and others) Disaster risk and social protection Trade and investment and financials Food safety and health Environment 2008 National Nutrition Strategy National Nutrition Program-I (NNP-I) 2010 Agricultural growth program I (AGP I) (2010–2015) 2011 ClimateResilient Green Economy (CRGE) Strategy, 2011 2012 National Social Protection Policy 2013 National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management 2015 Seqota Declaration AGP II – 20152020 2016 National Nutrition program-II (NNP-II) Nutritionsensitive Agricultural Strategic Plan, 2016 2017 Agricultural Extension Strategy, 2017 2018 Food and Nutrition Policy, 2018 Policy document Focus on food system and overall Vegetable-related actions mitigation: reducing greenhouse gas emissions through sustainable practices in various sectors such as agriculture, forestry, energy, and transport; (ii) adaptation: building resilience to climate impacts, especially for vulnerable communities; (iii) sustainable development: integrating climate action with broader development goals. The strategy involves collaboration with various stakeholders, including government agencies, civil society, private sector, and development partners. The GLI is among the programs implemented in the country and is rooted in a vision of building a green and climate-resilient Ethiopia. The Initiative was launched in June 2019, which is ‘a national go green campaign, endeavouring to raise the public’s awareness about Ethiopia’s frightening environmental degradation and, educate society on the importance of adopting green behaviour’. A target of planting 20 billion seedlings within four years was set. By the fourth year, as per the government report, Ethiopia has succeeded in planting 25 billion seedlings by mobilising more than 20 million citizens throughout the nation. The Initiative indirectly contributes to food security by planting valuable seedlings such as avocadoes, mangoes, apples, and papayas. The National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management in Ethiopia (2013) is a comprehensive framework designed to address disaster risk reduction, building on the updated National Policy on Disaster Prevention and Management from 1993. The Policy aims to enhance disaster prevention, and preparedness capacities by reducing vulnerabilities and building resilience. The ultimate goal is to create a disaster-resilient Ethiopia. Policy directions and strategies cover: -Establishing a comprehensive disaster risk management system to manage disaster risks. -Early warning and disaster assessment by providing timely information for informed responses. -Creating an official disaster declaration system to ensure efficient disaster declarations. -Setting up a decentralised disaster risk management system though empowerment of local authorities. -Mainstreaming disaster risk management by integrating it into sectoral institutions. -Enhancing resource mobilisation procedure by identifying potential sources. -Improving the information management and actions mention enhancing agricultural productivity, promoting climate-smart practices, and improving soil health, which eventually contribute to food system resilience. Not directly related to vegetables. The policy’s holistic approach to disaster risk management indirectly impacts nutrition and agricultural production. Green Legacy Initiative (GLI), 2019 National Policy and Strategy on Disaster Risk Management, 2013 Policy document Focus on food system and overall Vegetable-related actions National Social Protection Policy of Ethiopia, 2012 Ethiopian Trade Policy, 2024 (draft) Fruit and Vegetable Marketing Directive, 2024 (draft) Investment Proclamation, 2020 Investment Directive, 2022 National Financial Inclusion Strategy (NFIS) II, 2021-2025 communication system for effective data sharing. -Advancing international cooperation through global collaboration. -Strengthening implementation capacity. -Addressing cross-cutting issues by responding to challenges. The Policy serves as a comprehensive framework for coordinated actions to safeguard citizens from economic and social deprivation. It recognises that social protection enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of investments in various sectors, including agriculture, health, education, and water. It focuses on four main areas: (i) social safety net, (ii) livelihood and employment schemes, (iii) social insurance, and (iv) addressing inequalities of basic services. The Policy defined country’s direction in the following ten areas: -Domestic trade and distribution. -Favourable macroeconomic environment for the business system. -Investment and trade. -Reducing business costs and increasing international competitiveness. -Expansion of market access. -Diversification of exports. -Participation in the global value chains. -Digital business. -Consumer protection and fair trade. -Cross-cutting issues. The draft directive determines transaction locations and levels, proposes market centres, transport mechanisms, and competency requirements for market players, defines responsibility of market players and stakeholders’ roles. Lists incentives in various sectors, such as tax exemptions from one to six years, depending on the investment type, as well as capital goods import tax exemptions for priority investment areas. Provides details for investment incentives. Neither food systems nor vegetables are explicitly mentioned in the Strategy. The document primarily focuses on broader financial access and services, specifically it aims to enhance financial inclusion across the country and envisions a financially inclusive Ethiopia, where all citizens have access to and actively use a range of quality financial services. The ultimate goal is to create an enabling environment that Nutrition is considered part of the basic services. No specific mentions of vegetables. The directive is specific to horticulture and includes fruit, vegetables, and root crops. Horticulture is among the sectors to benefit from the Proclamation. Horticulture is among the qualifying sectors. While the Strategy doesn’t explicitly dedicate a section specifically to food systems and agriculture, it recognises the importance of reaching rural populations. There is, however, a specific target to scale national agricultural insurance. Initiatives cover agricultural finance, including loans, savings, and insurance products. The Strategy aims to enhance access to financial services for smallholder farmers, agribusinesses, Policy document Focus on food system and overall Vegetable-related actions Food and Medicine Administration Proclamation No. 1112/2019 National Strategic Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communi cable Diseases (NCDs), 2020 mainstreams financial inclusion, fosters innovation, and ensures the participation of underserved segments. The Strategy prioritises four key areas: (i) digital financial inclusion, (ii) financial inclusion for underserved areas, (iii) financial inclusion of women, and (iv) promotion of Sharia-compliant financial products. The strategy outlines a robust governance framework needed for implementation. The Proclamation establishes regulations, among others, to safeguard public health from unsafe food and medicine, aims to control health hazards, and ensure food safety. There are points that highlight the importance of food safety regulation and compliance with standards in the Ethiopian food systems policy. As indicated in the Proclamation, the executive organ or regional health regulator may request third-party conformity assessment to ensure food safety. Locally produced food must bear the applicable mark and have a certificate indicating compliance with mandatory standards. Individuals must register with the executive organ or regional health regulator prior to engaging in food trade activities. It mandates the establishment of a list of permissible food additives by an authorised body to ensure compliance with Ethiopian standards. It also stipulates that infant formula must adhere to Ethiopian quality and safety standards, be non-GMO, not exposed to radiation during production, and packaged in non-plastic materials with clear protein source labelling. Highlights the requirement for registration and market placement of food supplements, with safety assessments varying based on the type of potential health risks, and health claims. Details the obligation for fortified foods to meet Ethiopian standards, with specific vitamins, minerals, or essential nutrients allowed for fortification purposes and proper labelling. The Strategic Plan covers the period from 2020 to 2025 and aims to address major health challenges related to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney diseases, and chronic respiratory diseases. The main directions and initiatives include: (i) strengthening the national response through policy, governance, leadership, and coordination; (ii) intensifying health promotion and disease prevention that encompass healthy diets promotion and encourage physical activity; (iii) comprehensive and integrated clinical interventions for NCDs and their risk factors; and (iv) research, surveillance, monitoring, and evaluation. and rural cooperatives. It also emphasises the role of digital financial services in improving agricultural productivity and resilience. It encourages the adoption of digital payment systems, mobile banking, and other technology-driven solutions to facilitate transactions in the agricultural sector recognising the need to enhance financial literacy among rural communities, including farmers. Capacity-building programmes seek to empower farmers to make informed financial decisions, manage risks, and access appropriate financial services. Vegetables are specifically mentioned in the definition of a follow-up formula (‘a food product of animal or plant origin and industrially formulated in accordance with an appropriate standard for feeding infants and young children from six months up to three years of age’) as one of the food products. Low vegetable and fruit consumption is considered one of the risk factors and efforts are targeted at reducing insufficient fruit and vegetable consumption in persons aged 15 years and older. Promoting Healthy Diet strategic initiative proposes regular fruit and vegetable consumption interventions. 75 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Appendix 4 Review of lessons learned from other countries In recent years, several countries have made significant progress in developing more inclusive and systemic food systems policy processes. Cambodia, the Pacific Island countries, Guatemala, and Côte d’Ivoire have each adopted unique strategies that emphasise multi-sectoral collaboration, participatory approaches, shared narratives, and data-driven policymaking, resulting in more effective and sustainable food systems. These countries have demonstrated that involving diverse stakeholders and sectors is essential for effective food systems policy processes. By fostering multi-sectoral collaboration, adopting participatory approaches, building shared narratives, and utilising data-driven policymaking, they have made significant steps towards achieving sustainable and inclusive food systems. The experiences of these countries provide valuable lessons for Ethiopia, where stakeholder engagement has already begun. Ethiopia can benefit by ensuring that its food systems policies are inclusive and systemic, by involving a wide range of stakeholders, utilising data effectively, and fostering collaboration across sectors to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Key lessons for Ethiopia’s food systems policy process include integrating diverse stakeholder inputs, emphasising multi-sectoral collaboration for holistic solutions, adopting datadriven approaches to inform policy decisions, and building shared narratives to unify efforts towards common goals. Lessons from Cambodia Cambodia’s Council of Agricultural and Rural Development (CARD) shifted from a sectoral to a multi-sectoral perspective in 2019, involving various stakeholders such as government ministries, academia, consumers, youth, and the private sector. Dr Sok Silo, Secretary-General of CARD, stated ‘we needed to understand the problem correctly and identify what was preventing policy efforts from achieving greater impact.’ This shift was supported by the FIRST initiative, which facilitated 30 dialogue events with almost 2,000 participants in 2021. The twintrack approach under the 2019–2023 National Strategy for Food Security and Nutrition (NSFSN) separated sector-led contributions from joint priorities, emphasising good governance and effective coordination. 76 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Previously, policy development involved different ministries proposing activities without clear responsibilities or shared priorities. The twin-track approach separated sector-led contributions from joint priorities, such as healthy diets, food value chains, and food safety. CARD formed a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral task force to operationalise these priorities and provided overall coordination. This approach emphasised good governance, effective coordination, and collaboration among various stakeholders, including the private sector and civil society. By building relationships across agencies and ministries, CARD aimed to achieve collective progress towards the SDG targets for 2030. The paradigm shift from silos to systems thinking was supported by a shared narrative on broad systems change. FIRST played a crucial role in fostering this understanding by bringing together diverse perspectives and unpacking complex concepts. Building a shared narrative in Khmer, the national language, was essential to ensure that technical jargon did not obscure the meaning for general audiences. Identifying and working with champions who could convene decision-makers was also vital. These champions helped build trust and drive the food systems agenda. Leveraging opportunities like the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit, FIRST facilitated inclusive dialogues that brought together over 2,000 participants from various sectors. These dialogues helped Cambodia gain recognition as a leader in food systems transformation and strengthened the country’s commitment to inclusive and sustainable food security. Lessons from the Pacific Island countries In the Pacific Island countries, the FIRST Programme played a crucial role in helping these nations to understand and address the connections between agrifood systems, climate change, consumer choices, food prices, and noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). Itziar Gonzalez, a former FIRST Policy Officer, noted, ‘FIRST provided continuity and systematisation to ongoing processes, offering concrete tools for decision-makers’. The Programme engaged government agencies and civil society in Fiji and Samoa, supporting the design, implementation, and monitoring of interventions. Partnerships with entities like the Consumer Council of Fiji and the Pacific Island Food Revolution (PIFR) promoted sustainable food practices and empowered individuals to make positive changes. The Fiji Agriculture Census of 2020 incorporated age and genderdisaggregated data, increasing the visibility of women and youth in agrifood systems. By challenging prevailing paradigms and introducing new topics and evidence, FIRST facilitated inclusive dialogues among various stakeholders. The programme emphasised the need for different sectors to incorporate nutrition into their objectives and work collaboratively to ensure food security, environmental 77 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion sustainability, and equitable livelihoods. This approach required data-driven policymaking, inclusive dialogues, adequate funding, and coordinated implementation across multiple government ministries and agencies. FIRST expanded the dialogue on agrifood systems transformation by including diverse voices from civil society and academia, particularly through national dialogues leading up to the 2021 UN Food Systems Summit. For instance, FIRST collaborated with the Consumer Council of Fiji to organise a panel discussion on engaging universities, consumer groups, and the media in the dialogue. Another notable partnership was with the Pacific Island Food Revolution (PIFR), a reality TV show promoting traditional dishes made from local products. PIFR, which featured an inclusive cast and garnered significant public attention, helped reconnect people with their cultural heritage and promoted sustainable food practices. The show also used social media to disseminate information about food’s impact on health and the environment, empowering individuals to make positive changes. The COVID-19 pandemic underscored the vulnerability of local food systems in the Pacific Island countries and highlighted the need for a broader understanding of food systems’ role in malnutrition. This shift in narrative was supported by the collection and analysis of relevant data, which informed policy dialogues. FIRST worked with the Fiji Agriculture Census 2020 to incorporate age and gender-disaggregated data, increasing the visibility of women and youth in agrifood systems. Additionally, FIRST partnered with academia to conduct food systems assessments and supported the monitoring and evaluation efforts of Fiji’s Ministry of Agriculture. By focusing on managing trade-offs and promoting a balance between agro-industrial and agro-ecological approaches, FIRST helped policymakers make informed decisions that consider economic, social, and environmental outcomes. Lessons from Guatemala Guatemala has used a comprehensive legal and institutional framework to facilitate multi-sectoral coordination, involving bodies like CONASAN and SESAN. Over 50 multi-stakeholder meetings were held to update the National Food Security and Nutrition Policy (POLSAN). The FIRST Programme conducted governance and political economy assessments to understand and address policy design and implementation gaps. The updated POLSAN (2022–2037) promotes sustainable food systems and includes cross-cutting actions on climate change, wages, and food advertising. FIRST also strengthened civil society’s participation in decisionmaking, supporting the development of management and advocacy instruments and facilitating dialogues to formulate the Strategic Plan for 2023–2027. 78 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion Steering the transformation of agrifood systems towards sustainability in Guatemala requires collective action from a diverse range of stakeholders, including government, civil society, producers, consumers, the private sector, and academia. Each group has distinct interests and varying degrees of power, influencing whose views are prioritised. Political agendas often shape investment priorities in agrifood systems, making it crucial to understand the governance and political economy contexts to drive change effectively. Guatemala’s food security and nutrition challenges are addressed through a comprehensive legal, regulatory, and programmatic framework. This includes the 2005 Law on the National Food Security and Nutrition System (SINASAN) and the 2006 National Food Security and Nutrition Policy (POLSAN). The governance system comprises of four main bodies: the National Council for Food Security and Nutrition (CONASAN), the Secretariat for Food Security and Nutrition (SESAN), the Consultation and Social Participation Body (INCOPAS), and the Group of Supporting Institutions (GIA). These bodies facilitate multi-sectoral and multistakeholder coordination at various levels. Despite a robust institutional structure, Guatemala faces significant obstacles in translating commitments into tangible outcomes. Challenges include political instability, high personnel turnover, unequal decision-making power, weak dialogue between policymakers and implementers, and resource constraints at the local level. Addressing these issues requires navigating power asymmetries, building trust, and fostering genuine dialogue among all actors. The FIRST Programme, active in Guatemala from 2017 to 2022, played a pivotal role in addressing food security and nutrition challenges. It conducted governance and political economy assessments to understand why progress was slow despite high-level commitments. FIRST helped the government identify gaps in policy design and implementation, and provided technical inputs from various perspectives, including gender, institutional development, and nutrition. The programme emphasised the need for a multi-sectoral, multi-stakeholder approach to address structural poverty-related issues. Lessons from Côte d’Ivoire In Côte d’Ivoire, the FIRST Programme supported the transformation of the cocoa sector by addressing interconnected issues like poverty, child labour, income distribution, climate change, food insecurity, and environmental degradation through multi-stakeholder discussions and policy formulation. The National Sustainable Cocoa Strategy (SNCD) was developed to improve producer revenue, combat child labour, and prevent deforestation, involving over 100 stakeholder 79 Understanding food systems policies for healthy diets in Ethiopia: Opportunities for urban inclusion consultations. This strategy marked a shift from a top-down approach to a more inclusive method, focusing on empowering family farmers and ensuring environmental sustainability. References 1. Cambodia agrifood systems policy implementation (2021), summitdialogues.org 2. Pacific Island Countries agrifood systems transformation (2020), aciar.gov.au 3. Fiji Agriculture Census 2020, fiji.gov.fj 4. Guatemala food security and nutrition governance system. (2022), openknowledge.fao.org 5. POLSAN 2022–2037, sesan.gob.gt 6. Strategic Plan for 2023–2027, sesan.gob.gt 7. Côte d’Ivoire systems approach cocoa sector, magazines.rijksoverheid.nl 8. Ethiopia Food Systems Pathway Commitment and Position Statement (2021), summitdialogues.org 9. Ethiopia’s Path to Food Systems Transformation (2022), gainhealth.org 10. Transforming Ethiopian Food Systems: Better diet quality, prosperity, and sustainability in a changing climate (2021), moa.gov.et ODI Global advises leaders on driving positive change. We turn bold ideas, evidence, and broad expertise into actionable strategies for a more resilient, just and equitable future. ODI Global 203 Blackfriars Road London SE1 8NJ, UK +44 (0)20 7922 0300 [email protected] odi.org odi.org/facebook odi.org/twitter