Servant leadership in the context of Mosque: A qualitative case study of Muslim women's perspectives

Jabarkhail, Sami Article Servant leadership in the context of Mosque: A qualitative case study of Muslim women's perspectives Administrative Sciences Provided in Cooperation with: MDPI – Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Basel Suggested Citation: Jabarkhail, Sami (2020) : Servant leadership in the context of Mosque: A qualitative case study of Muslim women's perspectives, Administrative Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 10, Iss. 3, pp. 1-19, https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci10030072 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/240062 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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Sci. 2020, 10, 72; doi:10.3390/admsci10030072 www.mdpi.com/journal/admsci Article Servant Leadership in the Context of Mosque: A Qualitative Case Study of Muslim Women’s Perspectives Sami Jabarkhail Education Administration & Human Resource Development, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77845, USA; [email protected] Received: 18 July 2020; Accepted: 27 August 2020; Published: 13 September 2020 Abstract: This research provides an exploratory analysis of how Muslim women perceive servant leadership in the context of Mosque. The study consists of 8 long interviews with Muslim women, and conceptualizes sources of servant leadership in the context of Mosque by investigating Muslim women’s perceptions of the Imam’s leadership style The emerging taxonomy illuminates five categories and fifteen sub-categories of Muslim women’s perceived servant leadership origin, relating to the impact Imam and Mosque have on: (1) Serviceability, (2) masculinity, (3) community, (4) accessibility, and (5) inclusivity. Findings show disparities between women and men and demonstrate the fact that Muslim women do benefit from Imam’s leadership, services, and resources offered in Mosque; however, the benefits to women are disproportionate and different from men. In addition to making a vital contribution to the scarce literature on Muslim women’s perspectives, this article provides stakeholders with a comprehensive set of issues which may evoke favorable/unfavorable perceptions and offers insight to direct improvement efforts in addressing these issues. Keywords: servant leadership; wellbeing; Imam; Mosque 1. Introduction The question of servant leadership and the desire to serve others has become a central and enduring quest for scholars and practitioners of leadership. Indeed, majority of the existing literature relating to servant leadership explores this type of leadership in the Christian context (Engstrom 1976; Whitehead and Whitehead 1992; Nouwen 1989; Lavery 2009) as well as organizational, educational, spiritual, religious, and cultural settings (Abdalla and Al-Homoud 2001; Bekis 2006; Jogulu and Wood 2008; Jogulu 2010; Ayranci and Semercioz 2011; Hage and Posner 2015). Certainly, the Christian perspectives among other views are of great importance, but to develop further comprehensive understanding, researchers must also investigate servant leadership in the context of Mosque and, more importantly, how this type of leadership is perceived by Muslim women. Despite a considerable extension of the related research body over the last two decades, literature focusing on Muslim women’s view of servant leadership, especially the Imam, is still in need of in-depth exploration. The general perspective of what does and does not constitute servant leadership (Sendjaya and Sarros 2002) may be congruent with Muslim women’s perceptions, and, as I discovered, the current knowledge about Muslim women’s servant leadership beliefs and values are near non-existent. Yet, women’s subjective beliefs (Alfred 2003) and servant leadership perceptions act as sources of motivation (Bande et al. 2016) and may ultimately influence workplace climate, both to the benefit and detriment of religious, private, and non-private organizations. Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 2 of 19 The influence of servant leadership on workplace motivation, workplace satisfaction, and workplace performance has been widely studied. The general conclusion of these studies reflect uniformity in reporting that servant leadership is a good predictor of motivation, satisfaction, and performance (Anderson 2005; Cerit 2009). Yet, the beliefs and perceptions of Muslim women about leadership, especially servant leadership remain unexplored. While there are many reasons for the unavailability of women’s perspectives on a wide variety of issues, one of the dominant force behind the absence of such information, according to feminist scholars (CITE FEMINST SCHOLARS), is the patriarchal system, which contributes to the silencing of women, especially women of color, from becoming potential leaders (Bierema and Cseh 2003; Parker 2004; Minnis and Callahan 2010). Appreciating this perspective coupled with servant context-bound leadership beliefs and perceptions (i.e., organizational, spiritual, religious, and cultural), the fundamental question this study sets out to address is: how do Muslim women perceive the services and practices of their Imam in light of servant leadership? 2. Purpose of Research The primary purpose of this qualitative case study is to understand first-hand Muslim women’s perceptions of servant leadership as they relate to their perceived servant leader, the Imam. The secondary purpose of this enquiry is to understand Muslim women’s perspectives of the Imam’s leadership, services, and resources available in the Mosque as they benefit women and contribute to their wellbeing. Specifically, the study explores the perceptions of Muslim women who actively practice (i.e., go to the Mosque for praying) Islam. The study results may provide meaningful insights for researchers and organizations seeking to promote a climate of diversity and inclusivity. To achieve the purpose of this study, the researcher seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How do Muslim women perceive their servant leader, the Imam? 2. How do Muslim women benefit from the Imam’s servant leadership, services, and resources offered in the Mosque? 3. What are Muslim women’s beliefs and values related to servant leadership in context of Mosque? To the questions of who you are and how you think and see the world, your answers suggest the degree of credibility in the world of research. Thus, reflecting on positionality tend to increase trustworthiness of the researcher and the research process itself (Lincoln and Guba 1985). In this view, my gender (i.e., male and straight), national origin (i.e., from a Muslim-majority country), faith (i.e., Islam), marital status (i.e., single) travel to countries in the West and East, visit to museums, historical sites, and religious centers (i.e., Mosques, Churches, Temples, and Synagogues), background as a Fulbright scholar, student in tier one research institution in the United States played a role in undertaking this research. Additionally, my knowledge of the roles and responsibilities of women in different societies (i.e., in some Islamic countries women play an active role in social, political, and economic aspects of day-to-day life and in others their roles revolves around homes), belief that women have as much potential as men, if not more, dedication to advance women rights, and realistic view of the world might have acted in the development of researcher questions stated above. In light of this position, I seek to explore how Muslim women understand the role of the Imam as a servant leader; what are their experiences in the Mosque, and lastly, how women describe received benefits (if any) from Imam’s leadership. 3. Theoretical Framework In order to advance scientific knowledge, the need for theoretical framework has been vehemently emphasized in conducting research (Mendoza Diaz et al. 2019). In the absence of hypotheses and theoretical framework, undertaking research may still be a scientific activity; however, theoretically uninformed studies are deemed rudimentary and often demand subsequent enquires in order to qualify for making scientific contribution (Shavelson and Towne 2002). Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 3 of 19 A theory is a comprehensive, coherent, and internally consistent system of ideas about a phenomenon (Knowles et al. 2015). Despite its impractical nature, humans are veracious consumer of theory because it helps us understand to make meaning of what exists around us (Christensen et al. 2004). Whether what we think exists are abstract or concrete, theory enables us to make a coherent sense of our ontology. Leadership, for instance, is a socially constructed and abstract concept whose meaning and explication are often contested (Robert 1995) but it is necessary for the effective management of organizations and societies (Parris and Peachey 2013; Udogu 2008). Conceptually and circumstantially, earlier scholarship on servant leadership as, for instance, those of the American management scholar and consultant, Robert Greenleaf (1977), devoted tremendous efforts in attempts to study characteristics that might describe a person as servant leader. For his contribution, leading up to the development of what are now called the abstract and general definitions of servant leadership (Van Dierendonck 2011), Greenleaf is regarded as the father of servant leadership concept (Buchen 1998) and his conceptual framework is widely used in the realm of leadership studies. Be that as it may, it is axiomatic that there exist many theories, models, metaphors, and frameworks of leadership (Udogu 2008), some of which are contradicting as to what leadership is and what it is not (Ladkin 2010). This abandon existence of theories simply suggests how cumbersome it is for researchers to clearly conceptualize and articulate features that are conducive to leadership discourse. Nevertheless, in order to achieve the purpose of this article, the theoretical framework employed draws on the seminal work on servant leadership undertaken by Spears (1995) and Laub (1999) and augmented with analysis provided by Van Dierendonck (2011) and other contemporary scholars (see Albert and Spears 2012; Greasley and Bocârnea 2014). Although the conceptual framework for this study, which is described in detail subsequently, rest on six features (i.e., develop follower, share leadership, instill a sense of community, display authenticity, value followers, and provide direction) was grounded in servant leadership principles developed by Laub (1999), it is important to point out several scholars that have contributed to the understanding of servant leadership and how it is theorized. According to Van Dierendonck (2011), Laub (1999) was first to develop an instrument, using the Delphi method and integrative literature review, to ascertain essential qualities of servant leadership. As a consequence of his extensive study, there came firstborn framework that conceptualized servant leadership in six clusters and is now widely used by scholars and practitioners for research and practice purposes (Van Dierendonck 2011; Parris and Peachey 2013). 4. Literature Review Generally, the thrust of this paper can be divided into three parts with the first breaking down the basics of what it means to be a servant leader. This section will unpack loaded terminologies that can sometimes be confusing. It will explore questions such as: Is Imam a servant leader? How? And Why? After reading part one, you will have a better understanding as to how servant leadership applies in the context of Mosque. Part two will help you understand the methodology employed to collect data, analyze data, and interpret the findings. In this part, you will learn about the sample size, method used to recruit participants, participants and their demographics. Lastly, part three will explain the findings, highlight limitations, and provide an overall conclusion. Servant Leadership In general, servant leadership refers to “the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first … to make sure that other people’s highest priority needs are being served (Greenleaf 1977, p. 27). Thus, in order to construct a society that advances democracy, development, growth, and human welfare (Graham 1991; Spears 1995), the leader must genuinely serve his or her followers (Greenleaf 1977). First coined by Robert Greenleaf ([1970] 1988), servant leadership has increasingly become a widely accepted topic for research and practice. Initially, servant leadership according to Greenleaf (1977) was seen as a lifelong journey and a way of life. Subsequently, scholars have dedicated tremendous efforts to conceptualize servant leadership and unlock its secrets for practice. Seminal Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 4 of 19 scholars of servant leadership as, for instance, Spears (1995), Laub (1999), and Russell and Stone (2002) enumerated several characteristics conducive to servant leadership. Drawing on Greenleaf’s (1977) framework, Spears (1995) identified ten features describing servant leadership style: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, philosophy, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, and commitment. Possessing these characteristics according to Spears (1995) is necessary for growth and development at multiple levels: individual, group, community, and society. In a similar form, Laub (1999) proposed that servant leaders prioritize the good of people over his or her self-interest. After conducting an extensive analysis of servant leadership research, Laub (1999) concluded that six features distinguish servant leaders. Included in these features are valuing people, developing people, building community, displaying authenticity, providing leadership, and sharing leadership (Laub 1999). Writing on servant leadership, Russell and Stone (2002) operationalized this type of leadership by proposing nine attributes. In their view, servant leader leads with a clear vision, believes in honesty, shows integrity, establishes trust, admire service, models behavior, pioneers work, appreciates and empowers others. In another systematic review of servant leadership, Van Dierendonck (2011) introduced a conceptual model, revealing six features unique to servant leaders; ranging from developing and empowering people, displaying humility, possessing authenticity, manifesting interpersonal acceptance, providing direction, and indicating wise and sensible stewardship. Beginning with serving followers as its starting point (Greenleaf 1977; Stone et al. 2004), servant leadership creates an environment that promotes participation, care, virtue, and development (Russell and Stone 2002; Van Dierendonck 2011; Hunter et al. 2013). In principle, scholars have developed a wide range of conceptual frameworks, models, and tools to formulate the discourse on servant leadership (Liden et al. 2008; Parris and Peachey 2013). Summary of the present literature suggests six themes shedding light on the concept and practice of servant leadership (see Van Dierendonck 2011): (1) develop follower, (2) share leadership, (3) instill a sense of community, (4) display authenticity, (5) value followers, and (6) provide direction. In short, servant leader is described as someone whose actions are reflective of the six mentioned categories (Van Dierendonck 2011). The half dozen themes are reflecting the work of seminal scholars of servant leadership such as Spears (1995); Laub (1999). Subsequently, these themes are further analyzed and synthesized for clarification purposes (see Table 1). Table 1. Describes the six features describing servant leader. Features Description 1. Develops followers The key to developing followers lies in the leader’s role to appreciate and recognize the need for development at the individual level (Greenleaf 1977; Spears 1995). In so doing, it is incumbent upon the leader to develop a deep understanding of current development level and potential for development both at individual as well as organizational (Bass 1985; Conger and Kanungo 1988). This feature (i.e., develops followers) of servant leadership enables a leader to inspire confidence for growth and motivate people towards learning (Laub 1999; Sendjaya et al. 2008). The servant leader, in this view, is an agent of development at multiple levels: personal, professional, and organization. 2. Share leadership Sharing leadership, according to Laub (1999), is a common characteristic of servant leaders, which is reflected mainly in their practice of sharing power, expressing humility, and relying to persuasion, not coercion. Van Dierendonck (2011) associates humility with servant leadership and points that servant leaders practice humility by prioritizing the needs and interests of their followers. Servant leaders are persons who value participation in the decision making (Posner and Kouzes 1993). In summary, sharing leadership is one of the attributes of servant leaders when exercised leads to an inclusive environment and level playing field for all. 3. Instill a sense of community Instilling a sense of community involves advancing diversity and inclusivity as well as embracing collaboration and cooperation (Spears 1995; Laub 1999; Russell and Stone 2002). This feature of servant leadership is reflected in the leader’s ability to listen to different viewpoints, promote relationship, and encourage teamwork Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 5 of 19 (Laub 1999). The role of anchoring a sense of community, in fact, is a distinguishing characteristics of servant leadership (Barbuto and Wheeler 2006). This feature of servant leadership according to Van Dierendonck (2011) allows leaders to mobilize others towards a common responsibility and objective. 4. Display authenticity In the eyes of Russell and Stone (2002) authenticity is referred to expressing honesty and integrity. Expressing authenticity in this sense is reflection of servant leader’s commitment to establishing an environment that is fair and just for all (Russell and Stone 2002). Some scholars describe authenticity by referring to consistency in action and behaviors (Avolio and Gardner 2005). Others see authenticity in light of spiritual ethos (Barbuto and Wheeler 2006). Scholars in this camp, argue that servant leaders draw on spiritual morals to assist their followers’ to find meaning and purpose in both life and work (Fry 2003; Sendjaya et al. 2008). 5. Value followers Greenleaf (1977) asserted that servant leaders value followers by listening to their concerns, respecting their viewpoints, and believing in their potential. Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) go further by associating servant leadership with interpersonal acceptance and emotional healing of followers. A servant leader is someone who values followers by respecting their perspectives, listening to their voices, trusting their judgement, and displaying compassion for their concerns (Laub 1999). This attribute of servant leadership is equated to playing the role of a servant rather than acting as servant (Sendjaya et al. 2008). 6. Provide direction Mobilizing followers towards a desirable direction is a distinct feature of effective leadership (Kotter 1990; Posner and Kouzes 1993). In general, providing direction suggests that in order for a leader to lead effectively, he or she must have a clear vision of the desired future (Greenleaf 1977). Having a clear vision of the future enables the servant leader to set up goals, provide direction, empower followers to take actions, and remove barriers in the face of achieving goals (Laub 1999). Providing direction towards an envisioned state (goal) creates powerful incentives for shared values (Russell and Stone 2002; Kotter 1990), allowing followers to see themselves together in the struggle for achieving the ultimate objective. In addition to Laub’s (1999) contribution to the discernment of servant leadership, Russell and Stone (2002) and Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) are among other scholars who have made a profound impact in the quest for unlocking servant leadership characteristics. As a tenable solution, servant leadership and its human and democratic approach has tremendous appealing power to organization of all kinds (i.e., profit, non-profit, national, multinational, state agencies, and religious institutions). Because of its humanistic and universalistic character, servant leadership has been explored in a wide verity of contexts, especially religious contexts (see Wallace 2007; Shirin 2014). 5. Servant Leadership in the Context Islam Given the shift in leadership paradigm, from that of power and prestige to service and stewardship, the need for understanding leadership in the spiritual context has been widely recognized (Bekker 2009). Lipman-Blumen (1996) addressed this paradigmatic transformation in terms of individualism and collectivism. While the former is associated with competition, the latter is referred to cooperation. Present scholarship on leadership in the context of theology and beyond centers on cooperation and draws widely on post-patriarchal, post-structural, and other critical paradigms (Bekker 2009). Precisely, in the context of theology, researchers recognize the existence of “spirit” in the ontological domain of values (Kourie 2006). Servant leadership, according to Bekker (2010), serves as the most comprehensive framework offering meaningful insights in the quest for understanding leadership in the context of theology. In the following section, servant leadership and its associated spirituality is compared with the religious philosophy of Islam. Leadership in Islam revolves around Prophet Muhammad and it is generally accepted that the best leader is one who comprehends and follows the prophet’s way of resolving issues at all levels: individual, group, community, and society (Kriger and Seng 2005). Leadership referred to in The Glorious Quran: translation and commentary by (Ali 1975) “those who, if we establish them in the land, establish regular prayer and give regular charity, enjoin the right and forbid wrong” (21:73). In Islam Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 6 of 19 everyone serves Allah and the best way to serve Allah is to follow the Prophet’s way of life. The Quran also referred to Prophet Muhammad as an exemplary leader, guidance, teacher and call upon believers of the faith to follow him. In essence, the general assumption in Islam is that the Prophet possesses divine attributes—qualities that are bestowed on him by God. Lastly, the Quranic call for Muslim to follow Prophet Muhammad ways of life establishes his legitimacy as a servant leader. The concept of servant-leadership is clearly present in Islam and Prophet Muhammad is distinctly identified as an exemplary servant leader (Kriger and Seng 2005). Yet, this type of leadership remained less or unexplored in the context of Islam, more precisely in the context of Mosque. The literature review on servant leadership and its associated spirituality within the Islamic philosophy pointed to the grand narrative of Islam—the best way to serve Allah is to follow Prophet Muhammad’s way of life. And so doing will lead to peace, prosperity, and a balance life not only at the individual level, but also at the family, community, and society levels. In light of this grand narrative along with references to leadership in the Quran as well as the six themes previously identified, the author seek to explore Muslim women perspectives on servant leadership in the context of Mosque. 6. Methodology To achieve the objective of this study, a qualitative case study research method was employed. Case study according to Robert Yin (1994) is “scholarly inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used” (335). Pointing to its distinct characteristics, Dooley (2002) refers to case study research as a method used to study and understand issues embedded in complex patterns. Because case study research encompasses comprehensive analysis of the context of a given phenomenon, it is widely used method for emphasizing contextual details (Dooley 2002). Thus, for the given reason, case study method was best suited not only for identifying and interpreting themes, but also achieving the overall objective of this enquiry. Thematic analysis (Denzin and Lincoln 2018) of the semi-structured interviews with eight Muslim women was conducted. While interview is a commonly used method in exploratory research (Taylor 2005), semi-structured interview format is by far the most widely used interview method in qualitative research (DiCicco-Bloom and Crabtree 2006). What really made semi-structured interview format desirable for this study is its power for creating a conducive environment for reciprocity between the researcher and the research participant (Galletta 2013). This study offers the first comprehensive analysis of Muslim Women’s perspective on servant leadership in the context of Mosque. 6.1. Sample Generally, qualitative inquiry centers on an elaborative exploration of a small yet diverse sample (Denzin and Lincoln 2018). While the number of subjects vary from study to study, a sample size of eight is deemed good enough to satisfy the requirement for many qualitative inquiries (McCracken 1988). After eight long interviews, it was evidently possible to reach theoretical saturation (Denzin and Lincoln 2018). Contrary to existing man-dominated research on Servant Leadership, the focus of this article is on Muslim women. Contrasting participants’ profiles were prerequisite for capturing the variety of prevailing values, perceptions, and feelings. To include multifaceted views, this study employed a theoretical sampling method, guided by a process of on-going comparison (Strauss and Corbin 1990). Participants were recruited via convenience and multiplicity (snowball) sampling technique (Lune and Berg 2016). Consistent with Internal Review Board permission, all participants in this study were residing in the United States. Participants were all Muslim women, coming from different walks of life (i.e., race, color, ethnicity, national origin, marital status, age, and education status). Efforts were made to recruit Muslim women who go to the Mosque not only for prayers, but also participate in events and activities facilitated by the Mosque. Additionally, the researcher reached out to Muslim women who were actively serving on the board of the Mosques or serving on the board of Muslim Student Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 7 of 19 Associations in major universities in United States. Majority of the participants were born and raised in the United States. In addition to age between 20–60 years, other characteristics of participants included student, professor, corporate manager, self-employed, convert, single, married, mother, and divorced (Table 2). Table 2. Describe the demographics of interviewees. Interviewee Age Marital Status National Origin Professional Status Int. 1 20+ Single North Africa Master Student Int. 2 25+ Single Central Asia Self-employed Int. 3 25+ Married Middle East PhD Student Int. 4 30+ Single European PhD Student Int. 5 30+ Married Middle East PhD Student Int. 6 35+ Married Central Asia Corporate Int. 7 45+ Married South Asia Social Worker Int. 8 55+ Single Africa Professor Notes: Int. = Interviewee number 1; 20+ = More than 20. 6.2. Data Collection The consideration of Muslim women perspectives of the Imam as a servant leader is inclined to social desirability symptoms and is therefore not only subjective and personal but also sensitive topic (Lu and Gilmour 2006). In light of this view, one-to-one interview data collection method was deemed the most appropriate. Because of the unexpected COVID-19 global Pandemic in the midst of this study, the interviews were conducted online, using Zoom platform. A semi-structured interview format allowed for an exact, yet broad form of dialog and created an environment conducive for discussion. The synchronous online conversation combined with the informal interview format in the comfort of participants’ home provided a relaxed atmosphere and consequently, the subjects were eager to engage and answer questions openly. Participants’ comfort was essential, considering the sensitivity of the topic and the aim to minimize social desirability bias. In addition to seeking insights from expert researchers, the interview guidelines were developed following a review of cultural and analytical suggestions to facilitate a process of familiarization and defamiliarization (McCracken 1988). After some minor refinements, the guide repeatedly evolved in the face of emerging themes and patterns (Strauss and Corbin 1990). The questions were open-ended and presented to all participants in order. Beginning with more general topics revolving around the nature of servant leadership to more specific practice of servant leadership in the Mosque, and then concluding with more specific subjects, summarizing with instances of perceived benefits of servant leadership practice and a discussion of servant leadership-specific examples. Given the unprecedented circumstances caused by the COVID-19 global Pandemic, the data collection was conducted online. Accounting for the active participation and interaction, interviews lasted between 45 min to 110 min. 6.3. Data Analysis With the consent of interviewees, all interviews were recorded and transcribed at full length, yielding a total of 6 pages of verbatim transcripts and 6 pages of field notes for analysis. Data analysis took place during the data collection process (Strauss and Corbin 1990). The ongoing comparison followed by subsequent elaboration and refinement provided the opportunity for both processes to intertwine, a strategy tend to be useful in the context of exploratory research (McCracken 1988). To make sense of the data, interview transcripts and field notes were read and re-read in search for identifying recurring themes, patterns, and relationships. Drawing on the counsel of Spiggle (1994), the analysis process relied on procedures suggested for developing categories (i.e., coding deductively and inductively), dimensionalization (i.e., masculinity versus femininity, more benefits versus less benefits, favorable versus unfavorable), abstraction (i.e., common leadership features), Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 8 of 19 comparison, integration, iteration, and refutation. In the aftermath of this analytical process, a review process was undertaken in quest for establishing the validity of the findings (Kvale 1996; Spiggle 1994). This review process involved sharing results with several interviewees and a professor of qualitative research. In both instances, feedback was sought on the interpretations of data. The review process allowed for further clarification and interpretation of the data and categories under questions. The analysis process showed no significant differences between categories when the data from interviewees were compared. Though coming from different regions (i.e., the Middle East, Arica, Europe, and Asia) of the world, participants’ perceptions and feelings about servant leadership in the context of Mosque were close to identical. The findings presented subsequently reflect the shared views of the sample population. 7. Findings The researcher set out to identify and conceptualize potential sources of servant leadership, namely the kind of servant leadership activities taking place in mosques; especially activities that evoke favorable and unfavorable servant leadership perceptions. Interviews resulted in elicitation of a wide variety of explanations, most pointing to values, traditions, practices, and services that constitute servant leadership in the context of Mosque. The data generated during interviews had to be conceptualized into distinctive domains of servant leaderships in line with Spears (1995); Laub (1999) reflections and categorizations. The data was clustered in line with participants’ perceptions and according to consequences of servant leadership practice in the context of Mosque. The emerging domains of servant leadership practice in the stated context therefore reflect the questions of whom or what will ultimately be affected by the perceived justifiable or unjustifiable leadership practices of the Imam by respondents. Because the positionality of researcher affect each step of the research process, including interpretation of the findings, the fundamental question therefore is: what are the best ways to present results. Sandelowski and Barroso (2002) suggested to report results in a way that will make it comfortable for the diverse and intended audience to ascertain. In light of that understanding, data analysis revealed five domains of servant leadership, each comprised of a three subthemes as depicted in Figure 1. In the discussion of the findings that follows, thee five domains are: (1) Serviceability, (2) Masculinity, (3) Community, (4) Accessibility, and (5) Inclusivity. The ensuing discussion reflects the perceptions and views of Muslim women about their Imam, services, and resources offered in the Mosque. What will become notable and evident in this discussion is the contentment of women with received benefits, despite so much recognized complexities and difficulties, in the context of the Mosque. Lastly, the data from participants pointed that culture plays a dominant role in terms of leadership in the Mosque, Mosque management, access to services and resources for women, and the general treatment of women. Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 15 of 19 Accessibility and Inclusivity) diverge from the domain of Laub’s (1999) conceptual explanation of servant leadership. Considering that servant leadership is a Western concept and focus on Western context, such deviation should not be taken as a surprise. However, the dissimilar results demand that there are areas for improvements. Nearly all participants advocated for increasing women’s access to the Mosque as a space, its decision-making board, and its resources. They also emphasized that the Imam to be U.S. born and raised. Having a profound understanding of the mainstream culture in the United States will enable the Imam to be more effective in guiding the community, especially youths. While many Mosques in the United States are deemed inclusive and welcoming to Muslim women, some are yet to become more accessible and inclusive. One of the biggest obstacles for Muslim women concerning Mosques in the latter category has more to do with culture than it has to do with religion. When culture was discussed, participants from all backgrounds pointed to South Asian culture as the main obstacle for accessibility and inclusivity. In Mapping South Asian Masculinities, Chakraborty (2014) went so far to argue that “the analyses of some of the critical historical events that shaped (and continue to shape) South Asian men and masculinities alert us to the threat of, and the challenges to, dominant discourses of gender, sexuality, religion, and nation” (418). In short, culture of national origin plays an important role in the degree to which Mosques are inclusive and accessible in the United States. 8. Conclusions There is an emerging trend within scholarship pointing to the fundamental question of whether or not Mosques are gender inclusive spaces (Nyhagen 2019). Indeed, much of this literature focus on Mosques in the Western (i.e., Europe and North America) context (Predelli 2008; Lewicki and O’Toole 2017; Hammer 2012). However, there is less or no evidence documenting Muslim women’s perspectives on Mosque and its servant leader, the Imam. By conceptualizing potential origins of servant leadership in the context of Mosque, this inquiry contributes a much needed understanding of servant leadership practices to the existing literature. Emerging from Muslim women interviews, the taxonomy delineates five categories and 15 sub-categories related to servant leadership in the context of Mosque: (1) Serviceability, (2) masculinity, (3) community, (4) accessibility, and (5) inclusivity. While some of these categories may appear obvious, an adequate framework encompassing all potential sources of favorable and unfavorable perspectives of Muslim women has not yet been identified in the existing literature, therefore, the comprehensiveness of this taxonomy alone makes a major addition to knowledge. The research demonstrates disparities between men and women access to servant leader (Imam), religious services, and resources provided by the Mosque. The study highlights the fact that Muslim women do benefit from Imam’s leadership and his service; however, the benefits come largely indirectly. The study implies that Muslim women remain informed of the disparities in the context of Mosque and that they have a strong desire to change the status quo. Not just that, Muslim women strive to maximize their benefits from services and resources provided by the Mosque and do so in a more direct manner. The observed inequalities are natural, given the long-last traditions and customs in many of the developing countries (see Jabarkhail and Dooley 2019). Consequently, the developed taxonomy covers Muslim women’s perspectives on servant leadership and presents a contemporary view and a vital extension to the existing scholarship on this style of leadership, which fails to include the broad spectrum of outlooks that may or may not constitute servant leadership. 9. Limitation The unexplored nature of Muslim women’s views on servant leadership and the objective of generating a comprehensive categories and sub-categories of servant leadership in the context of Mosque rendered a qualitative case study as the most appropriate research method. The findings of this study must be viewed with the common drawbacks of the qualitative line of exploration in mind. The distinguishing feature, for instance, in qualitative research is not to generalize, but to conceptualize (McCracken 1988). In this view, the findings of this study remain abstract and not representative of the general population. Additionally, this study was undertaken in February of Adm. Sci. 2020, 10, 72 16 of 19 2020, right before the global Pandemic struck the United States. In order to protect the health and safety of the researcher and that of the research participants and to remain in compliance with the national guidelines as well as instructions from the university’s Division of Research, the researcher had to rely on data collected via online interviews. All eight interviews were conducted using Zoom video communication platform. Future studies should therefore take a face-to-face interview approach. Additionally, future research should consider a confirmatory method of the developed taxonomy. Exploring similarities and difference, comparison analysis, between Muslim women perspectives of servant leadership in the context of Mosque and Christian women perceptions in the context of Church or women’s view in other religions may result in meaningful insights. The findings of this study provide an ideal starting point for developing a formative assessment tool of servant leadership in the context of Mosque, whereby each of the five categories may be viewed as a facet of the formative construct. Exploring servant leadership from Muslim women’s perspectives in the context of Mosque and its facets would allow scholars, professionals, and religious leaders to identify areas of perceived inequality of opportunity and hence, take necessary measures to direct improvement efforts in these areas. Funding: This research received no external funding. 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