Actual Issues of Modern Science, ESeJ, 39 (2025)

1 GLOBAL SCIENCES IN THE NAME OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT EUROPEAN SCIENTIFIC E-JOURNAL ISSN 2695-0243 ISSUE 39 Volume 1 ACTUAL ISSUES OF MODERN SCIENCE DOI 10.47451/col-039-1-2025 Tuculart Edition & European Institute for Innovation Development EU, Czech Republic 2025 2 3 Actual Issues of Modern Science. European Scientific e-Journal, 39 (1). Ostrava: Tuculart Edition & European Institute for Innovation Development, 2025. – 239 p. DOI 10.47451/col-039-1-2025 Scientific Supervisor of the Issue Alexander Buychik Doctor of Economics, Ph.D. in Social Sciences Editor-in-Chief of the Issue Maxim Bakhtin Full Professor, Doctor of Philosophy Chief Reviewer of the Issue Ivan Pfanenstiel Full Professor, Doctor of Philosophy Director of the Issue Anisiia Tomanek Master of Social Sciences and Cultural Studies Designed by Ekaterina Rusakova Design Partner: International Design 4 5 Table of Contents Cultural Heritage Buychik, A., Tomanek, A. From the creation of the present to the future heritage: Digital, hybrid and intangible artifacts as future objects of klironomy — scenarios, ethics and criteria of anticipatory interpretation 7 History Ivonina, L.I. Representation of the Peace of Utrecht 1713 in English poetry 26 Jurisprudence & Law Gontar, N.N. Hybrid justice in the Russian Federation, 2020–2025: The impact of the link between e-justice, court-annexed mediation and ODR on the quality of judicial reasoning and the stability of judgments in appeal and cassation (microlevel NLP analysis and quasi-experiment) 46 Medicine & Pharmaceuticals Romanova, N.A. Use of biofeedback technologies in female pelvic floor muscle rehabilitation: Clinical outcomes and neurophysiological effects 67 Pedagogics Khozhalova, I.N. Moral and ethical education of schoolchildren: Problems and solutions 98 Mariach, A.Y. Fostering students’ independence in the context of musicalinstrumental training at a pedagogical university 120 Philosophy Bakhtin, M. Metaphysical principles of causality and normativity in historical cognition 135 Buychik, A. Cultural heritage as a self-organising system: The philosophy of klironomy and the formation of a new science of cultural preservation in the 21st century 153 Alikulov, A. The hypothesis of the Unified Matrix of the Universe 175 6 Dyachenko, O.N. The natural world as an explication of ethical and axiological meanings in Greco-Eastern patristics 193 Geltser, Y.G. General laws of nature, society, and thought as the philosophical foundation of the general systems theory in the methodological approach to cognizing the world: A philosophical solution to the physical-mathematical theory of strings 202 Authors 235 Citations in APA 236 7 Alexander Buychik [a][1], Anisiia Tomanek [b][2] From the Creation of the Present to the Future Heritage: Digital, Hybrid and Intangible Artifacts as Future Objects of Klironomy — Scenarios, Ethics and Criteria of Anticipatory Interpretation [1] Abstract: The relevance of this study is determined by the transformation of the concept of cultural heritage in the twenty-first century, whereby it ceases to be a static object of conservation and becomes a dynamic process of anticipatory selection. Under conditions of digitalisation, cultural hybridisation, and the growing significance of intangible creative forms, the boundaries between the past, present, and future have become permeable, requiring a new theoretical and methodological framework. The study focuses on developing klironomy — a metadisciplinary field concerned with the continuity of cultural being — which interprets heritage as a process of self-organisation and the projection of future meanings. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the formulation of a klironomical model for identifying and interpreting cultural phenomena as potential objects of future heritage. For the first time, the concepts of heritage futures, digital and intangible heritage, the philosophy of culture, and the ethics of selection are integrated into a unified system explaining the mechanisms of cultural continuity. An original typology of future klironomical objects is proposed, along with a model of anticipatory interpretation criteria encompassing temporality, cultural innovation, social resonance, technological sustainability, and ethical admissibility. The subject of the study is the contemporary human being as the bearer and creator of cultural meanings, determining which phenomena of today will become the heritage of tomorrow. The object of the study comprises material, intangible, and born-digital forms of culture considered in their potential for continuity. The study aims to elaborate the theoretical and methodological foundations of klironomy and to develop a model of interpretation applicable to the assessment of digital and hybrid artefacts. The methodology combines philosophical, cultural, and sociotechnical approaches through interdisciplinary synthesis, systemic and comparative analysis, content analysis of scientific and regulatory sources (UNESCO, ICCROM, PERSIST), and scenario-based modelling (foresight). This approach made it possible to conceptualise heritage as a self-organising system that unites processes of meaninggeneration with the technologies of preservation. The results include a clarification of the conceptual field (heritage futures, born-digital, intangible heritage, klironomy), the development of a matrix typology of future heritage objects, and the identification of four scenarios for their formation — conservative, innovative, hybrid, and networked. The proposed klironomical model of criteria was tested on examples of digital art, virtual museums, and craft communities. The authors conclude that the contemporary and the new can be regarded as future heritage objects when interpreted through the lens of klironomy. Klironomy is thus affirmed as an integrative framework that unites philosophy, cultural studies, technology, and ethics into a coherent system of knowledge on the continuity of cultural being, opening perspectives for museum, educational, and research practices aimed at preserving the future through a reflective present. Keywords: klironomy, future cultural heritage, heritage futures, born-digital artefacts, intangible heritage, hybrid culture, anticipatory interpretation, cultural continuity, digital heritage, ethics of cultural selection. Abbreviations: 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 is intangible cultural heritage. a Doctor of Economical Sciences, Ph.D. in Social Sciences, Supervisor, European Institute for Innovation Development, Tuculart Holding. Ostrava, Czech Republic. b Master of Social and Cultural Sciences, Chief Director, European Institute for Innovation Development, Tuculart Holding. Ostrava, Czech Republic. 14 2024a; 2024b; Buychik & Tomanek, 2024) provides a unified meta-disciplinary framework that integrates philosophy, cultural theory, and heritage management. The convergence of these areas of inquiry substantiates the proposed klironomical model of anticipatory interpretation, encompassing the criteria of temporality, innovation, social resonance, technological sustainability, and ethical admissibility. Collectively, the reviewed scholarship confirms that “heritage futures” are not a by-product of preserving the past but the outcome of conscious cultural decision-making in the present, institutionally and technologically grounded. Results Conceptual Reconstruction and Clarification of the Terminological Framework The analysis of contemporary literature demonstrates the necessity of refining the key concepts underlying the study of anticipatory interpretation of cultural phenomena. In traditional cultural theory, heritage was perceived through a retrospective lens—as monuments, collections, and objects representing the past (Smith, 2006). However, recent scholarship has shown that heritage has become a dynamic construct, encompassing processes, practices, and technologies that shape cultural significance in both the present and the future (Harrison, 2015; Holtorf, 2024). The concept of heritage futures integrates these approaches, emphasising that the heritage of the future is not merely the result of conserving artefacts from the past but of actively selecting and interpreting contemporary phenomena as potentially meaningful for future generations (Harrison, 2020a; Harrison, 2020b). The emergence of born-digital artefacts—digital artworks, interactive media objects, and network-based projects—raises questions about the boundaries of preservation and representation. Whereas the traditional museum relies on physical artefacts, digital forms require new conceptual frameworks, as they exist within environments characterised by technological volatility and platform instability (Charter…, 2003). This not only renders the classical reliance on material carriers obsolete but also reveals the need to introduce categories such as temporality and networked presence into the conceptual field. In parallel, the notion of intangible heritage, defined by UNESCO as the practices, expressions, and knowledge recognised by communities as part of their cultural identity (Convention…, 2003/2022), is undergoing re-examination. Within the framework of this study, intangible heritage is viewed not as a fixed practice but as an ongoing process of meaningmaking and transmission. This distinguishes phenomenological approaches to intangible heritage from classical descriptive models (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 2004; Hafstein, 2008). The term klironomy operates as a meta-concept uniting processes of interpretation, selection, and semantic organisation of cultural phenomena with an orientation toward the future. In both Russian and English scholarly corpora, klironomy has been developed as a theory of anticipatory selection, focused less on the preservation of the past and more on the formation of future memory (Buychik, 2019; Buychik, 2024a; Buychik, 2024b). Within the framework of klironomy, central questions concern the criteria of continuity, the ethical permissibility of selection, and the potential of contemporary objects to serve as cultural signs of the future. 15 From these conceptual premises, several essential features of the current paradigm of future heritage emerge: the primacy of process over static object, the intersubjectivity of meaning, and the technological and social mutability of phenomena. This significantly reshapes the academic landscape: whereas classical cultural studies focused on a fixed corpus of artefacts, contemporary heritage theory encompasses elements of network culture, digital artefacts, and practices that may not yet possess physical form. Thus, the reconstructed conceptual field defines klironomy as an interdisciplinary framework capable of incorporating and reconfiguring the categories of heritage futures, born-digital artefacts, and intangible practices into a unified theoretical model, wherein heritage is not only what was but also what becomes significant for future cultural agents through the process of anticipatory interpretation. Matrix Typology of Future Cultural Heritage Objects The matrix typology developed in this study provides a tool for classifying contemporary phenomena according to their potential relevance as future heritage. This typology is structured along three principal axes: material–intangible–digital; local–global–networked; and traditional– innovative–hybrid. Such a system enables not only the systematisation of cultural manifestations but also the assessment of their potential for continuity. Material objects remain the classical bearers of cultural meaning—architectural ensembles, monuments, and museum collections. For example, the cultural landscapes of Serbia or UNESCO-listed architectural monuments possess recognised historical and social value, yet their future depends on the sustainability of their social contexts, restoration practices, and educational integration (Smith, 2006). This category also includes innovative art forms in which physical artefacts interact with digital components, such as installations incorporating AR/VR technologies. Intangible heritage encompasses practices, rituals, linguistic expressions, artistic traditions, and social customs. Studies in this field demonstrate that such elements evolve continuously within their cultural contexts and may be transmitted to future generations through social participation, media representations, and educational practice (Convention…, 2003/2022; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 2004). Folk music or artisanal craftsmanship preserved in communities exemplify such continuity through practice and transmission. Digital phenomena—born-digital objects—include creations that originate in digital environments and have no physical source: network-based projects, digital artworks, memes, and interactive platforms. Their defining characteristic is dependency on platforms, protocols, and technological standards. For instance, digital museum collections such as the virtual exhibitions of the Louvre or the British Museum illustrate how digital forms can expand accessibility while simultaneously demanding new criteria for preservation and description (Charter…, 2003; The UNESCO…, 2016). These phenomena operate simultaneously on local and global levels, reflecting the networked structures of contemporary cultural communication. Along the local–global–networked axis, analysis reveals that many practices initially rooted in specific local contexts acquire global reach through digital dissemination: for example, folk songs uploaded to international video platforms become part of a shared cultural ecosystem. 16 Hybrid forms—such as mixed reality installations—combine local traditions with global digital practices, illustrating the complexity of contemporary cultural space. The traditional–innovative–hybrid dimension highlights that innovative digital projects frequently integrate traditional cultural elements, generating new hybrid modes. For instance, virtual-reality reconstructions of ancient temples exemplify how digital reproduction can complement physical heritage and engage new audiences with material otherwise accessible only to specialists. Thus, the matrix typology of future heritage objects allows for the systematic classification of contemporary cultural phenomena not only according to their material or digital properties but also by their potential significance for future generations. This model establishes a foundation for the formulation of selection criteria, providing an analytical framework applicable to subsequent stages of research as well as to practical decision-making in museology, archival policy, and cultural management. Scenarios and Mechanisms of Future Heritage Formation The development of future heritage scenarios draws upon methods of futurological inquiry, particularly foresight techniques and the concept of heritage futures, which enable scholars not merely to describe present processes but to anticipate possible trajectories of cultural significance (Miller, 2018). This study identifies four broad scenarios, each representing distinct mechanisms of heritage formation. The conservative scenario corresponds to traditional preservation paradigms, emphasising material objects, institutional conservation practices, and museum cataloguing. It characterises classical museums, national libraries, and archives, where processes of selection and safeguarding rely on established standards of long-term conservation (Smith, 2006). The restoration of medieval architecture exemplifies this approach: physical materials and artisanal techniques remain central, and continuity is ensured through adherence to historical canons and educational programmes oriented toward the past. The innovative scenario focuses on digital and networked forms of heritage. Here, born-digital artefacts, interactive projects, and digital repositories assume a central role. This reflects the expansion of cultural heritage beyond the physical domain to encompass objects existing exclusively in digital form. Online archives of contemporary digital art, for instance, preserve and interpret web-based works as part of the cultural patrimony of the future (Charter…, 2003; The UNESCO…, 2016). In this scenario, continuity depends on the ability of communities and institutions to adapt to shifting technological standards and ensure long-term accessibility. The hybrid scenario represents the interaction of material and digital realms. It includes projects that combine physical objects with digital traces—digital replicas of museum exhibits, AR-guided tours of archaeological sites, and VR reconstructions of historical spaces. Such projects demonstrate how material artefacts gain renewed vitality through digital media, broadening their audience and interpretive scope. Virtual reconstructions of destroyed monuments available through online educational platforms exemplify this form of heritage regeneration. The networked or communicative scenario conceptualises heritage as a community of practice in which continuity is sustained not through individual objects but through patterns of social 17 interaction. Collective creativity, digital content exchange, cultural memes, and crowdsourced documentation of local traditions exemplify this model. Continuity here is maintained not by physical carriers but by enduring social relationships and communicative codes that circulate across digital networks. Analysis of these scenarios indicates that the mechanisms of future heritage formation are plural and cannot be reduced to a single dominant trajectory. In each case, not only artefacts but also interpretive processes, social participation, technological infrastructures, and ethical frameworks determine what is deemed worthy of preservation. Thus, scenario analysis demonstrates that the heritage of the future emerges through a complex interplay of institutional, innovative, hybrid, and networked mechanisms. These scenarios function as an operational model for identifying which cultural phenomena possess the potential to become significant for future generations, as well as which strategies of selection and preservation may prove most effective in the dynamic cultural and technological landscape of the twenty-first century. Ethical and Philosophical Foundations of Anticipatory Selection The ethical dimensions of anticipatory interpretation of cultural phenomena form a central element in understanding the heritage of the future. The primary ethical challenge lies in the fact that the selection of objects and practices for inclusion in future memory is inevitably valueladen: it involves deciding what is significant, which communities should be represented, and how to balance cultural diversity and social justice. These questions emerge at the intersection of cultural philosophy, ethics, and the social sciences. Traditionally, the philosophy of culture treated heritage as an object of the past, intended to consolidate collective memory in the present. However, the shift to an anticipatory paradigm raises the question of the rights of future generations to construct memory: can the present impose its own value perspectives on the future? Within heritage ethics, this correlates with the concept of responsible intergenerational interaction, emphasising respect not only for the past but also for future cultural agencies that will live with the outcomes of current decisions (Mangnus et al., 2021). A key element of ethical reflection is the acknowledgement of multiple cultural perspectives. The critique of universalism in cultural policy demonstrates that global institutional standards of selection may not be relevant or applicable within local contexts, thereby reinforcing inequalities. International frameworks for the safeguarding of intangible heritage, such as UNESCO’s 2003 Convention and its subsequent updates (Convention…, 2003/2022), explicitly call for the recognition of local cultural values rather than their subordination to universal models. This challenges traditional museum and archival policies that privilege “canonical” objects of cultural value over community-based practices. The ethics of anticipatory selection also encompass technological responsibility. In an era of digital cultural practices and born-digital artefacts, ensuring accessibility, long-term preservation, and the right to privacy becomes essential. This challenge is evident in relation to user-generated digital creativity, which may involve personal data, intellectual property, or culturally sensitive content requiring careful interpretation. Ethical standards must therefore balance openness and inclusivity with the protection of digital rights and ownership. 18 Social justice represents another core dimension. If anticipatory selection privileges phenomena capable of “survival” in future cultural ecosystems, it must ensure that selection processes do not further marginalise vulnerable communities. Consequently, continuity criteria should include the evaluation of representativeness, inclusivity, and community participation in shaping heritage registers. Contemporary research emphasises that the involvement of local communities in interpretative processes strengthens the sustainability of cultural practices and reduces the risk of their disappearance (Hafstein, 2008; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 2004). The philosophical discourse on the heritage of the future also concerns the autonomy of meanings: heritage should not be limited to institutional control but should serve as a resource for creative self-expression by future cultural agents. This foregrounds the ethical respect for the plurality of cultural trajectories and the right to multiple futures. Scholars within the heritage futures framework argue that future heritage should not be a unified catalogue of objects, but a multilayered network of meanings and practices generated by diverse communities (Harrison et al., 2020a; Harrison et al., 2020b). Thus, the ethical and philosophical foundations of anticipatory selection require a comprehensive approach integrating intergenerational responsibility, cultural diversity, technological ethics, and social equity. This provides not only a theoretical justification but also practical guidelines for developing selection criteria conducive to sustainable and inclusive cultural continuity. The Klironomical Model of Criteria for Anticipatory Interpretation The analysis of literature and empirical observations facilitated the development of a klironomical model of criteria for assessing cultural phenomena in terms of their potential significance for future heritage. The model is grounded in five key criteria: temporality, cultural innovation, social resonance, technological sustainability, and ethical admissibility. Temporality reflects a phenomenon’s capacity to retain significance over an extended temporal span. Unlike short-lived trends, such phenomena exhibit cultural endurance. For instance, traditional ritual theatre that has survived for centuries within a single region yet gained renewed vitality through video documentation and online representation demonstrates intergenerational accessibility and experiential continuity. Cultural innovation characterises an object’s or practice’s ability to generate new semantic structures. This is particularly relevant for hybrid forms that combine traditional cultural elements with digital technologies—for example, augmentedor virtual-reality performances that reinterpret established artistic genres. Social resonance refers to a phenomenon’s capacity to elicit community engagement, shape collective meanings, and foster participation. Intangible practices such as street dance cultures disseminated through social networks exemplify how performative expression can become a focal point of identity formation for younger generations. Technological sustainability is critical for born-digital and hybrid forms. It denotes the ability of digital objects to remain functional and accessible despite evolving technological standards. The problem of technological instability has been widely noted in digital heritage studies: without mechanisms of format migration and emulation, digital artefacts risk being lost (Charter…, 2003; The UNESCO…, 2016). 19 Ethical admissibility integrates value-oriented dimensions: a cultural phenomenon must comply with principles of respect for diversity, individual rights, and social justice. This involves analysing power structures that shape selection processes and preventing the marginalisation of local cultural agents. The model presupposes a holistic evaluation of all five criteria, rather than their isolated application. For example, a digital festival project that merges local traditions with networked interactivity can be assessed in terms of community participation and accessibility across technological platforms. This multidimensional assessment identifies its potential as a future object of klironomy. Thus, the klironomical model of criteria for anticipatory interpretation provides an integrative framework for evaluating cultural phenomena across temporal, technological, social, and ethical dimensions. It serves as both a theoretical and practical instrument applicable to museum work, digital archiving, cultural policy planning, and educational programming, ensuring balanced and multidimensional assessments of future heritage potential. Practical Verification: Examples and Case Studies The practical verification of the developed model was conducted through a series of realworld case studies encompassing material, intangible, and born-digital cultural phenomena, confirming its applicability and analytical precision. One example involves a digital art archive maintained by a major museum (e.g., virtual exhibitions of the British Museum), where digital replicas and augmented-reality tours are integrated into educational and research programmes. Such projects demonstrate that born-digital artefacts can function as active carriers of cultural meaning when embedded within educational and communicative contexts. Equally instructive are hybrid projects, such as digital reconstructions of archaeological sites combining 3D modelling and interactive tours. These initiatives transcend physical access barriers, broadening cultural inclusion. Here, technology enhances the cultural relevance of the object rather than substituting its material form, showing that hybrid modes strengthen both social resonance and temporal endurance. Intangible practices—regional music festivals or traditional crafts disseminated on global digital platforms—also confirm that community participation and temporal continuity are decisive for cultural sustainability. For example, craft practices documented within online communities and transmitted through instructional videos demonstrate how social engagement and digital traces reinforce durability. These examples validate the model’s functionality as a diagnostic instrument for assessing social resonance and cultural innovation. Thus, the practical testing of the klironomical criteria model confirms its effectiveness both for analysing individual phenomena and for informing strategic decision-making in museum, archival, and educational contexts. It thus substantiates the model’s theoretical robustness and its capacity to support future-oriented cultural policy design. Interdisciplinary Integration and Institutional Perspectives The advancement of klironomy as an interdisciplinary field requires its institutional integration within systems of cultural governance, education, and international policy. Organisations such as UNESCO, ICCROM, and the ERRIN/CHARTER Alliance have already 20 highlighted the necessity of strategic approaches to future heritage through foresight methodologies and scenario planning (Anticipating Futures for Heritage, 2023; Dynamics…, 2024; The UNESCO…, 2016). This indicates that anticipatory interpretation is gaining institutional recognition. A crucial direction involves embedding futures literacy—the ability to anticipate, analyse, and shape future scenarios—into academic curricula in the humanities and cultural management. This equips future professionals not only to preserve the past but also to project potential trajectories of cultural development and evaluate born-digital and hybrid forms from a longterm continuity perspective. Successful cases of such integration are already evident in European universities where museology and cultural management courses include modules on digital heritage and scenario analysis. International projects such as virtual libraries and digital archives further demonstrate the necessity of institutional support for the preservation of born-digital artefacts. Countries with integrated digital heritage policies exhibit higher levels of preservation and public accessibility. This correlation is confirmed by studies emphasising the regulatory role of legal frameworks and international standards in ensuring the sustainability of digital heritage (Charter…, 2003; The UNESCO…, 2016). Finally, klironomy can serve as a methodological foundation for establishing local and national registers of future heritage that encompass not only material monuments but also digital projects, online practices, intangible traditions, and hybrid forms. This necessitates the revision of existing inventory systems and the development of new documentation and evaluation tools for emerging cultural phenomena. In conclusion, the findings demonstrate that the interdisciplinary and institutional integration of klironomy within systems of cultural governance, education, and international cooperation is not only feasible but essential. It provides a foundation for a sustainable and inclusive approach to the heritage of the future—one in which cultural value is defined not solely by the past but also by the evolving horizons of contemporary cultural experience. Discussion The relevance of the research topic—interpreting the contemporary and the new as the cultural heritage of the future—is confirmed by the fact that in the twenty-first century the very process of conceptualising heritage has moved beyond the conservation paradigm to become a field of philosophical, cultural, and ethical reflection. In the context of rapid digitalisation, global mediatisation, and social polyphony, the question of which phenomena of the present may become the cultural heritage of the future acquires strategic importance. Essentially, it concerns the emergence of a new form of cultural responsibility—the ability to foresee the consequences of one’s cultural actions and to understand their possible place within the continuity of humankind (Harrison, 2020a; Harrison, 2020b; Holtorf, 2024). Therefore, the klironomical perspective introduced in this study represents not merely an academic innovation but also a necessary tool for civilisation’s cultural self-awareness. The general problems identified in the research are primarily connected with the gap between the conceptual and the practical dimensions of heritage interpretation. Contemporary international frameworks (Anticipating Futures for Heritage, 2023; Convention…, 2003/2022) 21 recognise the necessity of preserving not only tangible but also intangible and born-digital forms of cultural expression. However, in practice, a conservative approach still prevails—one grounded in notions of materiality, uniqueness, and static authenticity. This perspective is poorly aligned with digital and networked phenomena, where meaning is generated processually and the media carriers are subject to rapid technological obsolescence (The UNESCO…, 2016). A structural problem thus arises: how can we preserve what is inherently mutable, reproducible, and infinitely replicable? Classical restoration logic is inapplicable here, as born-digital objects cannot be restored in the traditional sense; they require methods of archival migration, emulation, and institutional flexibility (Rinehart & Ippolito, 2014). A second set of issues concerns the insufficient philosophical and ethical grounding of the “heritage of the future” concept. As noted by Harrison (2015) and Holtorf (2024), contemporary heritage is not only about the past but also functions as an instrument for modelling the future. Yet the question of who holds the authority to determine what shall be recognised as heritage remains unresolved. There exists a risk of “future appropriation”—a condition in which decisions about inclusion in heritage registers are made by a narrow circle of institutions that fail to reflect cultural diversity. This situation generates symbolic inequality and marginalises alternative cultural voices. Hence, the ethics of selection, cultural justice, and inclusivity become of paramount importance. As Kirshenblatt-Gimblett (2004) and Hafstein (2008) observe, intangible heritage exists only through the participation of its living communities; the same principle should apply to digital and hybrid forms, where collective meaning-making is the key to continuity. Methodologically, the research encountered several challenges that are of interest for future inquiry. The first is the absence of a unified database or standardised registry of born-digital and hybrid cultural objects. Despite the efforts of UNESCO/PERSIST and initiatives by institutions such as Tate Digital and Rhizome ArtBase, systematic archiving of digital forms remains fragmented. This creates lacunae for philosophical and cultural analysis, as many objects disappear together with obsolete platforms, leaving no possibility for their future comprehension. Paradoxically, the empirical basis of future heritage is inherently unstable: we are studying phenomena, some of which are already inaccessible or lost. Another methodological challenge lies in the boundary between scientific description and normative construction. When analysing contemporary phenomena as potential heritage, the researcher inevitably participates in the process of selection, imposing a particular system of values. Such a position demands reflexivity to avoid substituting analytical objectivity with normative judgement. In this study, this risk was mitigated by introducing the klironomical model of evaluation criteria based not on aesthetic preferences but on parameters of temporality, innovation, social resonance, and technological sustainability. Nevertheless, the model still requires refinement and verification through interdisciplinary expert review and broader empirical testing. The relationship between individual and collective memory within born-digital phenomena also remains unresolved. On one hand, digital culture democratises the creation and storage of cultural artefacts, allowing anyone to become a co-author of future heritage (for example, digital photography, user-generated content, or meme culture). On the other, the abundance of data produces a “profusion effect” (Harrison et al., 2020a; Harrison et al., 2020b), in which the valuable 22 becomes indistinguishable from the trivial. Therefore, instead of expanding the range of preserved phenomena, new semantic filters of long-term relevance are needed. This task cannot be addressed within a single discipline—it requires a synthesis of cultural studies, information science, philosophy of technology, and ethics. The authors also highlight the difficulty of operationalising the concept of “ethical admissibility”. Within cultural theory, the ethics of heritage remains insufficiently formalised. Translating ethical principles into selection criteria risks reducing the value dimension to administrative procedures. Meanwhile, cultural justice and inclusivity demand flexible, contextsensitive solutions that reflect the specificities of each cultural environment. Consequently, the development of klironomy necessitates a new ethical paradigm that integrates universal human rights with respect for local cultural autonomy. Despite these limitations, the findings confirm that the klironomical model can serve as an effective instrument for analysing future heritage. Its strength lies in integrating multiple dimensions—philosophical, sociocultural, and technological. It enables not only the classification of phenomena but also the evaluation of their potential for long-term existence, which is particularly critical for born-digital and hybrid forms subject to technological instability. In this sense, the very concept of klironomy complements the global heritage futures agenda, offering a theoretical foundation for understanding continuity as a process of culture’s selfreproduction of meaning (Buychik, 2024a; Buychik, 2024b). Several directions for future research can be proposed. First, expanding the empirical base through the analysis of digital archives, online museums, and hybrid art projects would enable testing of the klironomical model across diverse data. Second, algorithmic tools for cultural evaluation, grounded in artificial intelligence and semantic analysis, should be developed to automate the preliminary identification of born-digital objects. Third, international interdisciplinary research platforms are needed to unite philosophers, cultural theorists, IT specialists, lawyers, and museum professionals. Finally, the ethical and ontological foundations of klironomy should be further elaborated, particularly concerning cultural memory in the era of posthumanism and artificial intelligence. Thus, the discussion demonstrates that the study not only confirms the importance of transitioning from the conservation to the anticipatory paradigm of heritage but also reveals a number of theoretical and methodological gaps requiring further exploration. Klironomy, as a new science of cultural continuity, opens space for interdisciplinary dialogue in which the past, present, and future are comprehended as a single dynamic process of humanity’s cultural selfpreservation. Conclusion The fulfilment of the research aim—the development of a theoretical and methodological model for the anticipatory interpretation of contemporary cultural phenomena as future heritage—confirmed the initial hypothesis that in the digital and hybrid era, heritage ceases to be a purely retrospective category. It becomes a space of meaning-making directed toward the future, where the interpretation of the present serves as the key mechanism of continuity. The findings demonstrate that the concept of klironomy can integrate diverse theoretical traditions 23 and disciplinary perspectives, providing a foundation for a new paradigm—the science of cultural continuity. A conceptual reconstruction of the heritage field was carried out, correlating traditional categories such as “monument”, “tradition”, and “preservation” with modern notions of heritage futures, born-digitality, hybridity, and intangible practices. This reconstruction enabled the transition from a static model of heritage to a dynamic, klironomical one, where the process of continuous production and transmission of meanings becomes central (Buychik, 2024a; Harrison, 2015). Consequently, klironomy is not merely an auxiliary discipline but an integrative framework linking philosophy, cultural studies, art history, technology, and ethics. A second major outcome is the development of a matrix typology of future heritage objects. This typology systematises cultural phenomena along three axes—“tangible–intangible–digital”, “local–global–networked”, and “traditional–innovative–hybrid”. Such a structure reflects the complexity of the contemporary cultural environment, in which physical and digital forms coexist and cultural value depends not solely on origin but on context. The matrix model thus provides an analytical tool applicable to museological and archival practice in the age of networked culture. A third result is the creation of the klironomical model of anticipatory interpretation criteria, encompassing parameters of temporality, cultural innovation, social resonance, technological sustainability, and ethical admissibility. This model demonstrates that the evaluation of cultural phenomena must account not only for their historical or present value but also for their potential to retain meaning in the future. Digital art, interactive installations, and online practices, in particular, exhibit high degrees of innovation and social engagement, making them essential components of future klironomy (Charter……, 2003; Rinehart & Ippolito, 2014). The practical validation of the model through case studies—digital archives, virtual museums, craft communities, and hybrid projects—confirmed its applicability. These cases show that phenomena previously considered peripheral to traditional heritage possess significant potential for continuity when supported by social resonance and technological stability. However, the challenges identified—platform instability, lack of unified digital archiving standards, and legal uncertainties—underscore the need for institutional reform and the development of new regulatory tools. Particular attention should be devoted to the ethical and philosophical dimension of klironomy. Anticipatory heritage requires a different moral framework—one that replaces universalist hierarchies with a polycentric, dialogical model in which diverse cultural communities co-define what is meaningful. This ethical turn in heritage theory entails respect for the plurality of cultural futures and the rejection of value hierarchies. Klironomy thus becomes not only a theory of continuity but also a practice of cultural equality. At the institutional level, the study’s results can inform the creation of national and international registers of future heritage, the revision of educational standards in museology and heritage management, and the design of digital preservation strategies. The proposed model also enables the integration of futures literacy (Anticipating Futures for Heritage, 2023; Miller, 2018) into professional training for heritage specialists, combining philosophical reflection, technological expertise, and ethical responsibility within a unified framework. 30 documentary sources for reconstructing the political background of the 1713 treaties. These editions, complemented by Browning’s English Historical Documents (1953), illuminate the institutional and ideological dimensions of Queen Anne’s foreign policy and the mechanisms through which diplomacy shaped national identity in Britain. The correspondence of Alexander Pope, meticulously edited by Sherburn (1956), provides a parallel insight into the intellectual milieu of Queen Anne’s reign, in which literary production mirrored political debates about war, peace, and moral order. The interdisciplinary dialogue between diplomatic history and literary studies is evident in Richetti’s Cambridge History of English Literature, 1660–1780 (2005) and Weinbrot’s Cambridge History of British Literature from Dryden to Ossian (1993). Both authors situate 17th-century and 18th-century English poetry within the context of ideological transition from Restoration absolutism to Enlightenment rationalism. They interpret the poetic responses to the War of the Spanish Succession as reflections of evolving concepts of national mission, moral virtue, and civic humanism. Within this framework, the Peace of Utrecht emerges as a discursive symbol that allowed poets to negotiate between patriotism and cosmopolitanism. The same thematic balance informs the analysis by Williams (2005), who investigates how Whig and Tory poets constructed distinct literary cultures yet shared a common rhetoric of sociability and “politeness”. Her research challenges the traditional binary of Whig versus Tory poetry by revealing the mutual permeability of their aesthetic and ideological agendas. Robert Rogers (2005) deepens this discussion by analysing Pope’s Windsor Forest as a political allegory that embodies Stuart loyalism and Tory pastoral ideology. He argues that the poem transcends mere party propaganda and articulates a universal principle of harmony rooted in the classical notion of concordia discors. This interpretation aligns with Duffer’s (1988) reading of Pope’s work as both political and pastoral: a vision of peace as the natural culmination of divine and social order. Together, these scholars elucidate the symbolic interplay between politics, nature, and morality in early Enlightenment literature. Aestheticised representations of peace were not confined to Pope alone. Studies by Cummings (1988) and Williams (1987) show that Addison’s and Tickell’s works—especially The Prospect of Peace and Cato—embody the rhetorical transformation of military triumph into civic virtue. In Cato, Addison juxtaposes the sacred imperative of peace with the tragic obstinacy of war, thereby framing the Treaty of Utrecht within a moral-philosophical discourse on liberty and reason. Cummings (1988) emphasises Addison’s ambivalence toward Tory triumphalism while recognising the unifying cultural sentiment that accompanied the cessation of war. Williams (1987) adds that Pope’s “painted scene” aestheticised the peace process by blending allegory, landscape, and political theology, turning Windsor Forest into a metaphor for cosmic and civil concord. The literary representation of peace also intersects with the economic and social transformations of early 18th-century Britain. In the poems of Trapp (1713), Higgons (1713), Parnell (2024), Tickell (1713), and Waller (1713), the Peace of Utrecht is portrayed as the foundation of national prosperity and commercial freedom. Their emphasis on trade, navigation, and maritime symbolism—echoing the metaphors of “ships”, “oceans”, and “winds”—corresponds with the emerging discourse of Pax Britannica, in which economic productivity replaces military conquest as the measure of greatness. These poetic tropes mirror 31 the socio-economic realities recorded in contemporary documents (Brown, 1935; Legg, 1925) and prefigure Britain’s eighteenth-century transition toward global mercantile hegemony. From a comparative standpoint, the poetic reactions to peace in Britain can be situated within a pan-European framework of representation. Bely (1995) and Duchhardt (2019) note that continental intellectuals perceived peace congresses as “theatres of civilisation,” where nations performed their political maturity. This metaphor of theatricality—further explored by Dingel et al. (2018) in Theatrum Belli – Theatrum Pacis—helps contextualise English poetic responses as part of a broader cultural diplomacy that visualised peace through spectacle, art, and language. Ivonina’s reliance on these works underscores her methodological synthesis of cultural history, public history, and affect theory, particularly in analysing the “emotional history” of peace celebrations. Parallel developments in legal and political theory also inform the literary discourse. The works of Klesmann (2007) and Duchhardt (1987) highlight how the codification of peace in the early modern period transformed political legitimacy into a performative act. Their findings complement the constructivist and systems approaches adopted in recent historiography, bridging the gap between diplomatic ritual and the cultural semantics of representation. Within this paradigm, poetry operates as a discursive medium that both documents and shapes the collective consciousness of peace. The interrelation of diplomacy and poetics reaches a distinctive expression in Brunstrom’s (2014) analysis of Matthew Prior. Brunstrom shows that Prior’s dual role as poet and diplomat epitomises the merging of artistic sensibility with political pragmatism. His phrase “In Prose and Business lies extinct and lost” encapsulates the tension between bureaucratic responsibility and poetic vocation, demonstrating how diplomacy itself could become an aesthetic practice. This insight complements Ivonina’s view that the Utrecht Peace represented a cultural performance as much as a political settlement. Equally, the contemporaneous poetic corpus—including works by Smith (1713), Crispe (1713), Wesley (1713), and Newcomb (1713)—illustrates how writers translated legal and diplomatic concepts into accessible moral allegories. The repetitive invocation of divine sanction and maritime imagery symbolised a new moral economy in which commerce and virtue were mutually reinforcing. Such texts anticipate later Enlightenment ideals of rational internationalism and balance of power, as theorised by the Abbé de Saint-Pierre and embedded in the treaty language itself (Duchhardt, 1987; Bely, 1995). Collectively, the cited scholarship and poetic sources reveal that the representation of peace in early eighteenth-century Britain was not confined to political discourse but permeated artistic, theological, and emotional registers. Historians and literary critics alike (Duchhardt, 1996–2019; Richetti, 2005; Rogers, 2005; Williams, 2005) concur that the Peace of Utrecht marked a shift from the rhetoric of victory to that of reconciliation, from martial heroism to civic virtue. The intertextual synthesis of historical documentation and poetic expression thus serves as an interpretive key to understanding the emergence of a European consciousness of peace—one that foreshadowed Enlightenment humanism and the ideological foundations of modern international relations. 32 Results The conclusion of agreements in Utrecht caused a storm of emotions in Great Britain, expressed in poems dedicated to the peace treaty. These works, most of which contain a form of propaganda, put a final end to the political debates of continuing the war of the Spanish Succession and introduced new ideas. What were these ideas? I will consider this with the most notable poems—both in the political and historical as well as in the poetic and emotional aspects. Joseph Trapp (1679–1747) was an English clergyman, academic and the first Oxford Professor of Poetry. His poem “Peace” was dedicated to Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke, whose chaplain he became in 1712, a position Swift had held. On April 1, 1713, Swift would not dine with Bolingbroke because he expected to “look over a dull poem” of Trapp’s. Nevertheless, afterwards he did correct the poem, printed anonymously at Dublin, which was put to music by William Croft. Indeed, Trapp’s poem was like a song. “It’s done! Great job done! Britain today is so wise, as great!” This is the beginning of Trapp’s poem, after which he immediately evaluated the positions of Britain, Queen Anne and the work of his patron. The plot of the poem continues in this vein: for a long time, her sons had died for Belgian greed and Austrian pride, suffered combat fire, but then the just “Patriots of Britain” united strongly against the warlike forces of the Earth and the Sky. The author appreciates the military achievements of the hero (the Duke of Marlborough), who won on the battlefields of the War of the Spanish Succession. However, the poet also recognizes their terrible price (especially referring to the bloody battle of Malplake on September 11, 1709), and asks why the brave British, who had gained a triumph, had to destroy what could be saved? Trapp believes that the more glorious hero is he who “saved us [the British] from our own Victorious Arms”, i.e, to say “More Courage shewn in Making Peace than War.” The real heroes were the Queen Anne and her wise counsellors. In the complex restoration of balance in the world and order in the warring countries the poet saw the power and wisdom of Anne, her superiority over other monarchs, awaiting their fate at her throne. Thus, he emphasized the leading role of London in the Congress of Utrecht. Anne is the arbitress of all states; she preserves the balance in strong hands and manages a variety of interests. The great King Louis is proud of her friendship: While States averse to Peace in Feuds engage And fruggling Nations obstinately rage Supreme and Eminent Great Anna stands And holds that Balance with unherring Hands[…] Tho’ by Hir Frienschip mighty Louis grac’d With Joy the Happy Pledge of Peace embrac’d […] Trapp prized the work of Anne’s supporters—British ministers and diplomats, who were concerned with preparation of the peace treaty, Bolingbroke, Oxford, Shrewsbury, Strafford, Bristol, etc. For example, Anne’s minister, the brilliant Bolingbroke, graced the court of the French King: The boasted Elegance of France out don By Anna’s Minister and Britain’s Son […] And it is difficult to wish for a larger contribution, or a longer experience at foreign courts, 33 and the fair strength and fire of loyal Strafford: What in a Collegue could he more desire Than Loyal Strafford’s prudent Force and Fire? By long Experience vers’d in Foreign Courts, He aids their Sovereigns, and his own supports. (Trapp, 1713) The political sympathies of Bevil Higgons were more than obvious. The son of Sir Grenville and first cousin of Count Grenville, he originated from a Jacobite family, and followed former King James II into exile in France after 1688. And yet, he was not imbued with the French spirit and in his poem about the Peace, devoted to the Earl of Oxford, he says that Britain whose “Blood like Water spilt” could but be saved when “[...] balmy Peace her Wounds cou’d only heal.” Bourbon (King Louis) should listen to the verdict of the British Queen, and after that the belligerent countries will put on peaceful clothes: Attend, O Bourbon, and receive thy Doom, From Britain’s Queen by Heav’ns Command I come. In Peace let Austria wear his Iron Crown, The trembling Lombard dread his awful Frown. His dear-bought Lands let crafty Savoy keep, And underneath his Alpes in Safety sleep. […] By strong Barriers let Belgia guarded be, And only fear her ancient Foe the Sea; Then lasting Friendship shall your Nations join, And Bourbon be preferr’d to Austria’s Line […] Like Trapp, the poet praises the sanity and strength of the British Queen—all nations wait for her solution: […] Thy QUEEN has triumph’d more Now by her Goodness, than her Arms before; Expecting Nations her Decision wait, Let her Decrees be mine, and Europe’s Fate. Britannia’s QUEEN to Tenderness inclin’d, Assumes to France a more pacifick Mind […] Higgons emphasized the patience and wisdom of the Earl of Oxford and Viscount Bolingbroke, who led to the conclusion of the glorious peace: This Harley saw, and touch’d with gen’rous Grief, Flew to his Country’s, and his QUEEN’s Relief; Him St. John follow’d, proud to be Disgrac’d, With Harcourt join’d, the Gen’rous Cause embrac’d. It is noteworthy that Higgons mentioned the economic consequences of the Peace of Utrecht: Anna broke up the clouds of war, and now traders would not be afraid of dangers, winds and seas. They were now under strong protection, and unknown nations would become Britain’s friends: Here suppliant Crouds for ANNA Heav’n invoke, For ANNA’s Life the new-rais’d Altars smoak, The Merchant now shall sail with every Breeze, 34 And fear no Dangers, but from Winds and Seas. His yearly Fleets Silurian Harley sends, And unknown Nations make Britannia’s Friends. (Higgons, 1713) Thomas Parnell (1679–1718) is close in spirit to the first two above-mentioned poets. Parnell was born in Dublin into a wealthy family and became deacon in the Episcopal Church. He was member of the Scriblerus Club—an informal group of friends that included Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, John Gay, John Arbuthnot and Henry St. John. Robert Harley occasionally joined the club for meetings. Thomas Parnell’s poem is dedicated to the Queen, because he identifies the peace concluded in 1713 as the peace of Anne. At the beginning of the poem, he called the Queen “mother of plenty and daughter of the sky”. For twelve years Britain had suffered from losses and blood, but with the help of her valiant arms Britain defeated the Gaul (France), which had pursued the idea of universal monarchy: Now twelve revolving years has Britain stood With loss of wealth and vast expence of blood Europa’s Guardian; still her gallant arms Secur’d Europa from impending harms. Whilst Gaul, aspiring to erect a throne O’er other empires, trembled for her own, Bemoan’d her cities won, her armies slain, And sunk the thought of universal reign. Parnell raised the issue of balance of power in the world, which was very urgent in international law at that time. He noted how difficult it was to rally the British allies. Having won the war and showing width and depth of thought, Anna acted as a guardian of public order and returned social values and peace: This done, the Guardian on the wing repairs Where Anna sat revolving publick cares With deep concern of thought. Unseen he stood Presenting peaceful images of good On Fancy’s airy stage; returning Trade, A sunk Exchequer fill’d, an Army paid, The fields with men, the men with plenty bless’d, The towns with riches, and the world with rest. As his colleagues, Parnell praises the faithful servants of the Queen—Oxford and Bolingbroke: Her Oxford prudent in affairs of state, Profoundly thoughtful, manifestly great In ev’ry turn, whose steddy temper steers Above the reach of gold or shock of fears […] These toils the graceful Bolingbroke attends, A Genius fashion’d for the greatest ends […] When schemes are fix’d, and each assign’d a part, None serves his country with a nobler heart […] The poem is full of praises to the blessed Anne, who brought good fortune and abundance 35 in all spheres of life: She comes the Blessing comes, where’er she moves New springing Beauty all the land improves […] She comes the Blessing comes in easy state, And Forms of Brightness all around her wait: Here smiling Safety with her bosom bare Securely walks, and chearful Plenty there; Here wond’rous Sciences with Eagles sight, There Liberal Arts which make the world polite, And open Traffick joining hand in hand With honest Industry, approach the land. The poet comes to the conclusion that the most important global value is peace (Parnell, 2024). When the ministers of Queen Anne were negotiating with France, Tickell published “The Prospect of Peace”, a poem which aimed at reclaiming the nation from the pride of conquest to the pleasures of tranquillity. How far Tickell, whom Swift afterwards mentioned as “Whiggissimus”, had then connected himself “with any party I know not”—so said Samuel Johnson about one of the poets who had turned their creativity to the conclusion of peace. However, in the “Spectator”, Addison who was known for his Whiggish sympathies praised a poem by Thomas Tickell (1685–1740), the son of a clergyman and professor of poetry at Oxford. And rightly so, even if we take into consideration the statement of the same Johnson that “[...] The Haughty Gaul in ten campaigns o’er thrown, [was] a poem to be approved rather than admired.” (Richetti, 2005, p. 193) One of the most remarkable qualities of “The Prospect of Peace” was the fact that it praised the result of the Tory policy—peace. However, the military and diplomatic achievements leading to peace occurred while the Whigs were in office. And the distinctive feature of Tickell’s poem is its genuine, consistent character – way to peace is in its rhymes. In the poem there are no repetitions and unnecessary comparative images, which are characteristic of the above-mentioned authors, even if the poetic part of the work suffers from it. The protagonist of the poem is Britain. Tickell writes that “His proud Bulwark smoaking on the Ground […], his Legions did the Fight decline”, but “At Her Decree, the War suspended stands, And Britain’s Heroes hold their lifted Hands”. Describing the exploits of “proud heroes” in the field of war from Flanders to Germany, Tickell does not forget them: Our eager Youth to distant Nations run, To visit Fields, their valiant Fathers won; From Flandria’s Shore their Country’s Fame they trace, Till far Germania shows her blasted Face. Heroes are all those who had contributed to the victory of England in the War of the Spanish Succession: the diplomat Stepney, the Duke of Marlborough, the “Holy” Bishop of Bristol, Lord Grenville, Robert Harley etc. Spreading the influence of his strong and fair Queen all over the world to those who want her friendship, Tickell thinks on a large scale. Into this world—as one of the first among English poets—he included Russia, a mighty great power that 36 needed to be civilized: Who conquers, wins by Brutal Strength the Prize; But ‘tis a Godlike Work to civilize. Have we forgot how from great Russia’s Throne The King, whose Pow’r half Europe’s Regions own, Whose Sceptre waving, with one Shout rush forth In Swarms the harness’d Millions of the North, Through Realms of Ice pursu’d his tedious Way To court our Friendship, and our Fame survey! […] His Bands now march in just Array to War, And Caspian Gulphs unusual Navies bear; With Runick Lays Smolensko’s Forests ring, And wond’ring Volga hears the Muses sing. Evidently, “Churchill’s sword “first of all delivered the “imperial diadem to Godlike Anna”, a halo shining around her head, but peace and “European freedom” were achieved by the cost of blood. Accept, Great ANNE, the Tears their Mem’ry draws, Who nobly perish’d in their Sov’reign’s Cause: For Thou in Pity bid’st the War give o’er, Mourn’st thy slain Heroes, nor wilt venture more. Vast Price of Blood on each victorious Day! (But Europe’s Freedom doth that Price repay.) Anna decides fates of nations in a hundred languages. Savage Indians “swear by ANNA’s Name”, Poles “shall own thy rightful Sway”, and Louis buys her friendship with “the mighty Prize”. But the peaceful achievement of the Queen would have been impossible without “faithful Nobles” and “guards of the Church” near her throne. Among them, Tickell singles out diplomats, the poet Matthew Prior, and the Bishops of Bristol, Strafford and Oxford (Tickell, 1713). Essentially, Tickell’s critics were right commending his poem as politically neutral. Perhaps the most famous poetic essay, which came to be identified as allegorical equivalent for the Peace of Utrecht and the political debates surrounding this event, was the poem “Windsor Forest” by Alexander Pope (1688–1744), a Catholic by confession. Dedicated to George Grenville, Lord Lansdowne, a poet and politician involved in effecting the peace treaty, the poem celebrates the Tory rule in England as the height of civilization. Pope creates an allegorical story dedicated to the values of the Peace of Utrecht, and celebrates not only the fate of science, but also of the whole world. Why “Windsor Forest”? In the winter of 1712– 1713, when the poet was preparing it for the press, he wrote to his friend John Caryll: “I am endeavouring to raise up around me a painted scene of woods and forests in verdure and beauty, trees springing, fields flowering, Nature laughing.” (Sherburn, 1956, p. 168) However, to read the poem as a mere allegory is to misread it. In his praising of a harmonious Tory state, Pope gives us his pastoral vision of an idealized nature (Duffer, 1988, p. 1). At the beginning of the poem—as a metaphor of political stability of post-war Britain—a forest landscape appears: Here Hills and Vales, the Woodland and the Plain, 37 Here Earth and Water seem to strive again, Not Chaos-like together crush’d and bruis’d, But as the World, harmoniously confus’d. In the forest prosperity reigns, including “industry” which “sits smiling on the Plains”. Pope considers it a result of the reign of Anna and the signing of peace: “Peace and plenty tell a Stuart reign”. Declaring this, the poet expresses his thoughts about the Utrecht: the Whigs had rejected Louis XIV’ offer of a peace treaty, and it was not until the Tories came to power that a treaty was signed and peace came to England. Thus, through Anne, the Tories returned peace to the country. Therefore, they brought plenty to England, not by way of conquest in the West Indies, as the Whigs would like to have done, but by favourable conditions for trade. Let India boast her plants, nor envy we The weeping amber or the balmy tree, While by our oaks the precious loads are borne, And realms commanded which those trees adorn. Here the trees are British ships, or even the entire Stuart monarchy, since its traditional symbol is an oak. The poet is sure that the Tories did not only create a harmonious state but returned financial stability to England (Pope, 1951, pp. 13–42). The poem can be read as a closely integrated expression of the doctrine of “concordia discors” as the desirable universal norm, a norm to which the benefits of the Peace of Utrecht are seen to conform. The idea that the numerous conflicts between the four elements in nature (air, earth, fire, and water) paradoxically create an overall harmony in the world can be traced back to the Greek philosophers: Pythagoras, Heraclitus, and Empedocles. The theory that reconciliation of opposites produces a harmony works in this poem as a fitting order for Windsor Forest. Pope sees it as the law of nature. In principle, taking the necessity for diversity, the poet manifests himself not only as a Tory: opposing forces (Whigs—Tories) should contain each other, and if one is absent, the harmony is disturbed. He gives pastoral examples in the form of three hunting scenes, historically associated with the using of the forest in Hampshire for a royal hunt by William I the Conqueror. William established his order in the forest, and as a result the forest turned into a desert. Pope considers William the Conqueror’s rule as tyranny, and contrasts its despotic and savage nature to the new Stuart stability. Even the nickname of William—Nimrod (the traditional personification of a cruel hunter, tyrant and warlike man)—pointed to the absurdity. By naming William I, a tyrant Pope had the opportunity to attack William III of Orange because they had much in common. Both were foreigners, both liked hunting and war, and even their deaths were hastened by riding accidents. The poet condemned the burden of taxes and heretical tendencies of Dutch theology under William: Aw’d by his nobles, by his commons curst, Th’ Opressor rul’d Tyrannick where he durst, Stretch’d o’er the Poor, and Church, his iron rod, And served alike his Vassals and his God In contrast to William, Pope represents the succeeding monarch as pitying her subjects, observing the forest’s laws and happily looking at peaceful villages. Anna replaced Nimrod of the Whig era. 38 Britannia is godless, who rears He cheerful Head, and leads the Golden years. (Pope, 1951, pp. 73–76, 91–92) Borrowing from Ovid’s “Metamorphosis”, in another hunting scene Pope gives a somewhat different interpretation of the famous myth of Pan and Syrinx. Competing with Olympus, the forest is full of deities. Syrinx was a nymph who lived in Arcadia, revered Artemis and strictly preserved her virginity. Once, Pan met the nymph and tried to chase her, but Syrinx ran to the river Ladon and begged her sisters, the naiads, to save her. Naiads transformed Syrinx into cane that mournfully sounded in the wind. Pan made a flute out of that cane, bearing the name of the nymph (in Greek syrinx means “flute”), and he loved this unpretentious tool. Embodying the flow of the Thames, Lodona in the form of Syrinx goes on a hunt beyond the forest’s boundaries, fires a desire in Pan and begins to flee from him. Pan overtakes her, rapes her, and then Lodona apologizes to the Goddess Diana the Huntress. This scene is both political and pastoral. Its pastoral meaning is an illustration of the necessity of harmony— nature has the capacity of violence when humans ignore natural limits. In a political sense, Lodona represents the Whigs continuing a war that has become a heavy burden for the British. Thus, they violated the harmony, which, in contrast, was embodied by the Tories concluding the Utrecht peace and reflecting the “concordia discourse” of the forest. Anne, who acts as a Diana of the woods, appears as a divine incarnation of the peace, as an earthly God, able to create order out of chaos: At length Great Anna said – let Discord cease, She said, the World obeyed, and all was Peace. (Pope, 1951, pp. 327–328; Williams, 1987, p. 60) Anne roams Windsor Forest as a huntress, but as a peaceful one. She controls the process of hunting in accordance with the supreme law of nature—the order in a variety. Around her, there is a picture of economic prosperity shown by silver eels and golden carps in the river. In principle, the poem represents man as an aggressive animal, personified in the images of William I and III. Forest is an allegory, a microcosm of the universe, intended for the protagonist of Pope— his patron and inspirer of the poem, Grenville. An assured person, Pope shows him true life, emphasizing the benefits of peace, which promoted not only economic, but also spiritual and intellectual prosperity. Sir William Trumbull, a former Secretary of State, retires to Windsor Forest and transforms gradually from a statesman to an intellectual. In the forest, Trumbull studies chemistry, astronomy, religion, and other subjects by contemplation rather than by experience. His rejection of politics and war proves the merits of a harmonious life and a compromise between the Tories and the Whigs. In another contemplative scene, an imaginary poet (here Pope keeps in mind Grenville himself, who was also a poet, and for whom it was time to leave politics and to turn to poetry) returns to Windsor Forest and asks the muse to help him find inspiration. Turning to them, Grenville embraces the end of the war and the return to the harmony of Windsor Forest as a goal of contemplation and reflection. The muse calls him to glory the British monarchs who had won victories over France, and fought for the unity of the kingdom—Edward III, Henry VII, Edward IV, and others. Pope is proud of the fact that England had always surpassed France. In the final part of the poem, London appears as centre for world trade uniting people and 39 England as a model of prosperity in the world. The poem ends by “concordia discourse” in the world, the stability of which was provided by the Treaty of Utrecht (Pope, 1951, p. 54; Duffer, 1988. p. 12–15). As a result of my review of Pope’s poem it should be added that it is difficult to attach a pure political label to the author. While praising the reign of the Tories, he glorifies peace, universal reconciliation and agreement, and unlike Trapp and Parnell, does not sing praises to major Tories like Oxford and Bolingbroke. Well-known was his friendship with the Whig writers Addison—he contributed to the staging of a play by Addison—and Steele. Poems of the other above-mentioned authors praising the peace agreements, Queen Anne, Britain, or Oxford are no less solemn, and carry no fewer ideas. For example, the poem of a London customs officer Henry Crisp, who was inspired by the economic prospects of the Peace of Utrecht, was his only published work. Here one important feature characteristic to all poets who responded to the Utrecht Peace is worth noting. All of them emphasized British political and commercial supremacy in the world, based on the knowledge that England is ahead of other states in economic development. And peace is natural and beneficial for it. At the same time, common metaphors of peace in poetic language were water (river or ocean) and ships (Britain) as a sign of freedom of movement and the restoration of trade. The need for freedom was dictated by physical security, and so all warships should be converted into trading ships, the guns of which had been so far used only for fireworks. For example, Trapp’s ships “Greet alternate, all the Ocean o’er / And only in saluting Thunder roar”, Crispe’s ships “saluting Thunders rend the Sky”, while William Waller’s ships “vent their Thunder only to salute”. Wesley’s “A Hymn on Peace” shows the ships not carrying welfare to the world by war, but by return to trade, which is protected by a peace-loving God (Trapp, 1713, p. 17; Waller, 1713, p. 7; Crispe, 1713, p. 13; Wesley, 1713, pp. 10–11; Smith, 1713). In the poems about peace, the poets used a positive “modern” argument—opposition of the constructive trade to the destructive “ancient” war. In fact, they illustrated the clash of “Pax Romana” and “Pax Britannica”, ethics of war and ethics of trade. Of course, “Pax Romana” was personified by France. In the poem “Pacata Britannica”, England has exceeded “Rome”, and leads the world into a new era: What she th’Old World’s Extremest Limits drew, We make a Passage only to New; Beyond her Fabled Pillars we prevail, And triumph, where she trembled but to sail. A year later, an unknown poet, in a poem dedicated to Bishop John Robinson, said that the nations had fought with each other for a long time, but together with the “Europe Godlike Abitress”, the Bishop had reached what “Caesar by the Sword could scare obtain”. As can be seen, the Roman conquest and the British civilization are the antithesis of “peace-loving” Poets (Newcomb, 1713, p. 7; The Congress…, 1714, p. 4; Weinbrot, 1993, p. 237). The analysis of the representation of Utrecht Peace in English poetry would be incomplete without mentioning two other well-known artists of the time—Joseph Addison and Matthew Prior. Joseph Addison (1672–1719) responded to conclusion of peace creatively, but in a different way. His literary and political activity was associated with the Whigs: in 1704 he composed for 46 Nina N. Gontar [a][4] Hybrid Justice in the Russian Federation, 2020–2025: The Impact of the Link between E-Justice, Court-Annexed Mediation and ODR on the Quality of Judicial Reasoning and the Stability of Judgments in Appeal and Cassation (Micro-Level NLP Analysis and Quasi-Experiment) [3] Abstract: The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the impact of digital reforms carried out in 2020–2025— namely e-justice, online proceedings, and court-annexed mediation—on the quality and stability of judgments delivered by courts of general jurisdiction in the Russian Federation. The relevance of the study lies in the need to assess the effects of large-scale judicial digitalisation not only through quantitative indicators but also through substantive criteria such as argumentation, coherence, and predictability of judicial reasoning. The scientific novelty of the research consists in developing and applying an interdisciplinary framework combining a quasi-experimental difference-in-differences methodology with natural language processing (NLP) tools to measure the cognitive quality of judicial reasoning. The subject of the study includes judges and litigants engaged in the use of electronic procedures and mediation practices. The object of the study is the hybrid model of justice that integrates digital technologies, mediation, and online dispute resolution (ODR). The study aims to identify and quantitatively assess the influence of digital and mediation instruments on the quality of judicial reasoning and the resilience of decisions in appeal and cassation proceedings. The study employs quasiexperimental and empirical–statistical methods (difference-in-differences, panel regression, event-study), as well as natural language processing (NLP) tools to assess the cognitive quality of judicial reasoning based on open data from the Judicial Department, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, and international court corpora (PCT, TOL, BAILII). The empirical basis comprises a corpus of judicial acts issued in 2020–2025, analysed using NLP models and statistical methods. The findings demonstrate that the introduction of electronic document management, video hearings, and mediation procedures statistically significantly improves the quality of judicial reasoning (by 10–12%) and reduces the proportion of overturned decisions in appeals and cassations (by 8–10%). The strongest effects are observed in civil and family cases, where the communicative interaction of the parties plays a decisive role. A comparative analysis with Italy and the United Kingdom revealed that Russia has completed the stage of primary digitalisation, approaching European standards of judicial quality while maintaining a gradual and adaptive institutional development model. The author concludes that hybrid justice represents a stable trajectory in the evolution of 21st-century judicial systems: the combination of digital technologies and conciliation procedures enhances transparency, argumentative depth, and the legitimacy of justice. The effectiveness of these reforms, however, depends not only on technological factors but also on cognitive and ethical dimensions—judicial training, the development of mediation institutions, and the preservation of judicial autonomy in reasoning. Keywords: e-justice; hybrid justice, courts of general jurisdiction; mediation, online dispute resolution (ODR), quality of judicial reasoning, stability of decisions, difference-in-differences, judicial text analysis, natural language processing (NLP), comparative justice. Abbreviations: 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 is difference-in-differences, 𝑂𝑂𝐷𝐷𝑂𝑂 is online dispute resolution, a Associate Professor, Candidate of Law Sciences (Ph.D.), Department of State and Municipal Administration, North-West Institute of Management. St Petersburg, Russia. 47 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 is Open Justice Lab, 𝑁𝑁𝑂𝑂𝑁𝑁 is natural language processing 𝑁𝑁𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 is Processo Civile Telematico, 𝑂𝑂𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is Reasoning Quality Score, 𝑂𝑂𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is robust standard errors, 𝑃𝑃𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 is Tribunale Online. Introduction In recent years, the Russian judicial system has undergone a large-scale digital transformation encompassing not only the technical aspects of document management but also the fundamental elements of the legal process—the communication between parties, methods of evidence presentation, procedures for rendering judgments, and their subsequent appeal or cassation. The period 2020–2025 has been marked by the active implementation of e-justice mechanisms: the operation of “electronic cabinets” for parties to proceedings, remote participation in hearings via videoconferencing, automated case allocation, and full electronic document workflow. Parallel to these digital innovations, the institutions of conciliation procedures—primarily mediation and the emerging ODR systems based on it—have been consolidated in judicial practice. The combination of these developments has shaped a new model—hybrid justice—which integrates digital technologies with human-centred mechanisms of dispute resolution. The relevance of this study lies in the fact that neither Russian nor international practice has yet developed stable criteria for assessing the impact of digitalisation and mediation on the substantive quality of justice—i.e., on the reasoning, motivation, and stability of judicial acts when reviewed on appeal or in cassation. The priority of state judicial policy remains the reduction of case duration and the enhancement of procedural accessibility, yet quantitative indicators do not always correlate with the quality of legal reasoning or the depth of factual analysis. As artificial intelligence and automated document management algorithms are increasingly employed in the judicial sphere, there is an urgent need for systematic monitoring of their consequences for the legitimacy and predictability of judicial decisions. The scientific novelty of the research lies in formulating and addressing an interdisciplinary task—analysing the impact of the “e-justice—mediation—ODR” triad not on general statistical indicators of efficiency but on the quality of judicial reasoning and the stability of judgments in appeal and cassation. Unlike most previous studies, which are limited to evaluating procedural speed or judicial workload, this paper considers the quality of a judgment as the outcome of a cognitive and communicative process altered by digital interfaces and conciliation practices. The use of NLP and the quasi-experimental difference-in-differences approach enables the identification of causal effects of digital and mediation reforms at the micro level—within the structure and content of judicial texts. The subject of the study encompasses judges, litigants, and mediators engaged in the use of electronic and online forms of interaction. The object of the study is the hybrid model of justice in Russia, grounded in the integration of e-litigation, court-annexed mediation, and ODR mechanisms. This model is conceptualised 48 as a dynamic system in which technical and communicative components jointly shape new standards of judicial performance. The study aims to empirically identify and theoretically explain the influence of digital and mediation tools on the quality of judicial reasoning and the stability of judicial acts in review procedures. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were defined: − analyse the legal and institutional frameworks for implementing e-justice and mediation in Russia; − define measurable indicators of the quality of judicial reasoning and to design a method for their automated assessment using NLP technologies; − compare the dynamics of these indicators across courts actively employing electronic procedures and mediation with those of traditional courts; − determine the presence and magnitude of the reform’s effect on the stability of judicial acts in appellate and cassation review; − develop recommendations for improving digital and conciliation instruments with a view to enhancing the overall quality of justice. The practical significance of the study lies in the potential application of its findings for improving state judicial policy, developing internal audit methodologies for assessing the quality of judicial reasoning, and optimising the professional training of judges and mediators. For judicial administrators and developers of digital platforms, the study’s results may inform the refinement of interfaces and service algorithms in light of their impact on the quality of legal reasoning. For mediators and specialists in alternative dispute resolution, the findings offer deeper insight into how the online format affects perceptions of fairness and the willingness of parties to reconcile. For legal scholars and researchers of digital governance, the study provides an empirical basis for constructing new models of judicial efficiency assessment in the context of the digital economy. Thus, the presented research contributes to forming an integrated scholarly understanding of hybrid justice as a new stage in the evolution of the Russian judicial system—one in which technological innovation and humanistic approaches to dispute resolution do not conflict but interact, creating a resilient and adaptive legal environment. Methods The study is based on an interdisciplinary methodology combining legal, institutionaleconomic, statistical, and digital-analytical approaches. Since the object of analysis is a hybrid model of justice that encompasses formal legal, technological, and communicative components, the methodological framework integrates both classical legal methods and quantitative and computational text-analysis instruments. The purpose of this comprehensive strategy is to obtain not merely a descriptive but also a causal-explanatory picture of how digital and mediation reforms affect the quality of judicial decisions and their stability upon review. The first stage involved a systematic analysis of the legal and regulatory framework of the Russian Federation governing e-justice, mediation, and other forms of alternative dispute resolution. The study examined the provisions of Federal Law No. 262-FZ On Access to 49 Information on the Activities of Courts (as amended 2020–2024), Federal Law No. 123-FZ On Alternative Dispute Resolution with the Participation of an Intermediary (Mediation Procedure), the Codes of Civil, Commercial, and Administrative Procedure, as well as the by-laws of the Judicial Department under the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation regulating the operation of the “Electronic Case File” system, online submission of documents, and video hearings. In parallel, an institutional analysis was performed of the development of court-annexed mediation, including pilot projects of the Ministry of Justice and the Council of Judges of the Russian Federation. The comparative-law section encompassed international models of e-justice: the Italian PCT and TOL platforms, the UK Online Civil Money Claims system, and the Council of Europe and OECD recommendations on ODR (2021–2024). Their examination served as a benchmark for comparing the structural and procedural features of the Russian reforms and for verifying the universality of the observed effects. The empirical database includes: • judicial statistics from the Judicial Department under the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (https://cdep.ru) for 2018–2024, containing indicators of caseload, case duration, appeals, and reversals; • data from the official portal of judicial statistics (https://stat.cdep.ru), presenting aggregated tables by type of proceedings and region; • open datasets of judicial acts (the State Automated System “Justice”, https://sudrf.ru) and regional court portals; • texts of appeal and cassation rulings of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (https://vsrf.ru); • data on mediation practice from the Ministry of Justice, the Federal Institute of Mediation, and regional reconciliation centres; • international corpora of judicial acts (Italy, the UK, Canada) accessed via EuroCases, Italgiure Web, BAILII, and CanLII. Based on these sources, a micro-panel of at least 15,000 judicial decisions of Russian courts of general jurisdiction for 2020–2025 was constructed, annotated with attributes such as region, court level, case type, and appellate outcome. Separate subsamples were created for courts participating in pilot projects on electronic document management and court-annexed mediation. All texts were anonymised and stripped of personal data in accordance with research ethics and data-protection legislation. To establish causal relationships between the implementation of digital and mediation tools and changes in the quality of judicial reasoning, a quasi-experimental DiD methodology was applied. The 2020–2025 period enables observation of the phased introduction of electronic technologies across Russian regions, forming a natural “staggered” design in which courts are incorporated into reform at varying times. The control group consisted of courts where digitalisation was delayed or partial. Dependent variables include indicators of reasoning quality (see below) and the proportion of overturned decisions in appeal and cassation. Models were estimated with regional and temporal 50 fixed effects and covariates (case type, number of judges, workload, regional digitalisation index). An extended specification was used: 𝑌𝑌 𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡 =𝛼𝛼+𝛽𝛽𝑅𝑅𝑂𝑂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐷𝐷𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡 +𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐷𝐷𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡 +𝛿𝛿(𝑅𝑅𝑂𝑂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐷𝐷𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡 ×𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐷𝐷𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡) + 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖+𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡+𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡, where 𝑌𝑌 𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡 is the reasoning-quality metric; 𝑅𝑅𝑂𝑂𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐷𝐷𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 and 𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸𝐷𝐷𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 are implementation indicators; 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖 and 𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡 are fixed effects; 𝜖𝜖𝑖𝑖𝑡𝑡 is the error term. Robustness was tested through event-study plots and placebo tests to exclude pre-reform anticipation effects. For textual assessment, a suite of NLP methods adapted to Russian legal texts was used. Morphological normalisation and syntactic parsing were performed with spaCy ru, Natasha, and DeepPavlov. The following indicators were then constructed: • Structural completeness index is share of sentences containing legal references and logical connectors (“because”, “therefore”, “at the same time”); • Legal argumentation index is number of unique citations of laws, precedents, and doctrinal sources; • Coherence index is average semantic similarity between paragraphs (cosine similarity of sentence-BERT embeddings); • Reasoning depth index is ratio of the reasoning section to the total decision length; • Linguistic complexity index is average sentence length and Flesch–Kincaid readability score for the legal Russian corpus; • Template index is share of repeated formulaic expressions indicating standardised drafting. Each indicator was normalised and aggregated into the composite RQS, the dependent variable in econometric models. Additional metrics of emotional neutrality (sentiment analysis) and stylistic variability were calculated to reveal how digital formats and mediation affect judicial rhetoric. For cross-linguistic comparability, analogous indices were computed for the Italian PCT/TOL and British Online Civil Money Claims corpora, enabling international comparison. The quantitative analysis employed R and Python packages (statsmodels, pandas, linearmodels, ggplot2). Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, panel regressions with fixed effects, and RSEs were applied. Robustness checks included exclusion of outliers and alternative model specifications. Heterogeneity effects were examined using interaction terms (e.g. digitalisation × case category) and clustering of standard errors at court level. Results were visualised through event-study diagrams depicting preand post-reform dynamics. Special attention was given to validating the NLP metrics: manual expert verification of 5% of random decisions compared automated and human evaluations, and inter-rater reliability was measured using Cohen’s Kappa to ensure statistical reliability. In addition to quantitative analysis, qualitative methods were used, including content analysis of decisions and structured interviews with judges, mediators, and court administrators. This part identified typical reasoning strategies and the formulation of conclusions under digital 51 conditions. Interviews were structured around three dimensions: perception of digital tools, the impact of mediation on workload, and changes in decision-writing logic. A comparative-law method was also applied to juxtapose organisational and technological aspects of hybrid justice in Russia and the EU. OECD’s Digital Justice Framework (2024) and the Council of Europe’s ODR Guidelines (2021), along with Italian and UK empirical data, were analysed to build a typology of digitalisation models and correlate the Russian trajectory with European trends. The research recognises limitations, including incomplete regional data, possible parsing errors, and external factors such as staffing changes or variations in caseloads. To minimise bias, control variables and bootstrap confidence intervals were used. Reproducibility is ensured through open algorithmic descriptions and the planned publication of code and metadata in the OJL repository. Thus, the methodological framework integrates legal analysis and empirical hypothesis testing through modern digital tools. The use of NLP technologies and quasi-experimental methods enables the transition from describing digital reforms to quantitatively and qualitatively evaluating their real effects on hybrid justice—capturing transformations in judicial reasoning, motivation, and resilience in appellate and cassation procedures. Literature Review The issues of judicial digitalisation and the introduction of mediation as a tool for enhancing the efficiency of the judiciary have undergone significant development in recent years, both in Russian and international scholarship. Researchers emphasise that the digital transformation of judicial power has altered not only the forms of interaction between the court and the parties but also the very logic of legal reasoning, the structure of judicial motivation, and the standards of procedural fairness (Susskind, 2022; Reiling, 2022). The theoretical foundation of the contemporary discourse on digital justice is Richard Susskind’s concept of online courts, according to which justice is gradually moving from an institutional to a service–technological model (Susskind, 2022). This approach has been developed further in studies by the OECD (2024) and the Council of Europe (Guidelines…, 2021), where electronic platforms are viewed as instruments for improving access to justice and reducing transaction costs. The works of Reiling (2022) and Cowan (2020) analyse the challenges of managing electronic court systems, emphasising the risks of diminishing judicial autonomy and the threat of algorithmic standardisation of judgments. Similar problems are reflected in Online Courts— Comparative Study (Online Courts, 2022), which demonstrates that the extent of digitalisation is directly dependent on the organisational culture of the judicial system. A special place is occupied by Italian research on PCT and the TOL platform (Antonucci, 2014; Mendola, 2022; Nissi et al., 2019). These studies show that the introduction of mandatory electronic filing has reduced the average duration of proceedings and improved the predictability of judgments, yet it has also led to the formalisation of judicial texts and a decline in the originality of reasoning. Mendola (2022) demonstrates that digitalisation promotes the unification of judicial language and reduces the degree of individual interpretation. 52 Another group of studies focuses on assessing the efficiency of judicial systems through economic and legal methods, including production function analysis and DEA modelling (Judicial System…, 2014; Nissi et al., 2019). They confirm that the introduction of digital technologies is among the most significant drivers of institutional efficiency growth in courts, all other factors being equal. Alongside the development of electronic justice, interest in online mediation and ODR has increased. Reviews by the OECD and SIDRA (Online Dispute Resolution Framework, 2024; International Dispute Resolution, 2024) emphasise that ODR has become a key element of hybrid justice, enabling a balance between the autonomy of the parties and state guarantees of enforceability. Analyses by Azmi and his colleguages (2023) show that online dispute resolution is most effective in small and medium-sized business conflicts and cross-border consumer cases. Studies by Giacalone and Salehi (2022) and by Grajzl et al. (2025) provide empirical evidence that court-annexed mediation reduces the average duration of proceedings and increases the probability of settlement, particularly in family and property disputes. Canadian and British reports (Effectiveness…, 2022; Alternative Dispute Resolution…, 2024) document a steady increase in the number of cases resolved before judgment and underline that digital technologies serve as catalysts for the integration of mediation into the judicial process. In international encyclopaedias and surveys (Online Dispute Resolution, 2024; Global ODR Projects Database, 2024; ODR…, 2025), ODR is viewed as the next stage in the evolution of access to justice, where efficiency is measured not by the speed of adjudication but by user satisfaction and the reduction of repeat disputes. In Russia, the academic tradition has initially interpreted e-justice primarily as a mechanism for enhancing the transparency of court operations. Monographs edited by Gabov (2024) and Burdina (2021) provide a systematic review of the legal and technological aspects of judicial digitalisation, focusing on issues of participant identification, data protection, and verification of evidence. Studies by Malinsky (2021) and Apushkina (2022) describe the technical and organisational barriers to implementing electronic systems in courts of general jurisdiction, including regulatory shortcomings and a shortage of qualified personnel. Works by Vashurina (2025) and Karasev (2021) highlight the constitutional and legal dimensions of digital justice, especially the principles of equal access and adversarial procedure. A substantial contribution has been made by studies on the communicative efficiency of civil proceedings (Sukhorukova, 2021), which demonstrate that the quality of communication between the court and the parties is a crucial determinant of the legitimacy of judicial decisions. Ulyanov (2024) proposed a theoretical model for assessing judicial efficiency based on balancing speed and fairness, which is particularly relevant for analysing digital reforms. Official data from the Judicial Department of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (2024) and the Federal Judicial Statistics Portal (2024) serve as primary empirical sources for evaluating caseload dynamics, case duration, and the proportion of overturned judgments. These datasets are widely used in scholarly publications but remain predominantly at the aggregate level, without textual analysis of judicial acts. In Russian literature, the institution of mediation is seen as an alternative dispute resolution mechanism that helps reduce the courts’ workload and fosters a new culture of legal 53 communication (Solovyov, 2020; Turanin, 2024). However, most studies focus on legal and organisational issues, while empirical analyses of mediation effectiveness remain scarce. Comparative legal works (Fedorenko et al., 2017) contrast the Russian and European mediation models, highlighting the weak institutionalisation of court-annexed mediation in Russia. More recent research (Bril et al., 2024) shows that mediation practices are gradually spreading to family and labour disputes, although their integration into the judiciary remains fragmented. At the international level, the Canadian Ministry of Justice (Effectiveness, 2022) report and SIDRA (International Dispute Resolution…, 2024) analysis confirm that the combination of digital platforms and mediation ensures a consistent increase in participant satisfaction, making hybrid justice the next stage in judicial system evolution. The methodological landscape has shifted from descriptive and normative models to empirical and computational approaches. Studies by the IMF (Judicial System Reform in Italy, 2014), Nissi et al. (2019), and the OECD (2024) employ econometric and data-analytical tools to evaluate judicial efficiency. In legal informatics, the Legal NLP direction is actively developing, focusing on automatic classification of judicial acts, assessment of reasoning quality, and detection of argumentation patterns. Examples include works by Susskind (2022) and Mendola (2022), where digitalisation is treated as a factor of cognitive transformation in legal writing. In Russia, this approach is only beginning to emerge: the works of Gabov et al. (2024) and Burdina and Zuev (2021) stress the need for tools of internal quality auditing of judgments, while Courtmonitoring.org (Guide, 2024) proposes indicators for assessing the openness and efficiency of judicial systems. A synthesis of Russian and international literature reveals several consistent trends. First, most authors agree that digitalisation improves the transparency and speed of proceedings, though its impact on the quality of legal reasoning remains ambiguous (Gabov et al., 2024; Mendola, 2022; Reiling, 2022). Second, mediation—particularly court-annexed mediation and ODR—reduces the courts’ workload and enhances trust in the judicial system, though institutional consolidation is still required (Grajzl et al., 2025; Solovyov, 2020). Third, Russian scholarship rarely employs quantitative methods or automated text analysis, limiting the ability to identify causal effects. Thus, the scholarly niche of this research lies in the absence of comprehensive studies combining macro-level analysis of judicial statistics with micro-level text analytics of judicial acts. While international research increasingly uses NLP and quasi-experimental methods, Russian studies remain mostly descriptive. The present research fills this gap by integrating empirical and linguistic analysis, enabling the evaluation of not only efficiency but also the cognitive quality of justice in the context of digitalisation and mediation development. Results General Characteristics of the Empirical Findings The quasi-experimental analysis based on the difference-in-differences model made it possible to identify a consistent impact of digital and mediation reforms on key indicators of the quality and resilience of judicial decisions. The research covered a corpus of more than 15,000 judicial 54 acts issued by courts of general jurisdiction of the Russian Federation during 2020–2025, divided into two groups: courts actively applying e-justice and court-annexed mediation, and control courts operating predominantly in the traditional procedural format. Estimates for the main dependent variables indicate a statistically significant positive effect of digitalisation and mediation on the average level of reasoning quality in judicial acts, expressed through the composite RQS index. Following the introduction of electronic document management and video hearings, the mean RQS increased by 6.8%, while the presence of mediation procedures raised it by 9.3%. The combined impact of both factors (e-justice × mediation) demonstrated a synergistic effect—an average rise of 12.1% in RQS compared with the control group of courts, with a significance level of 𝑝𝑝 < 0.01. Differences by case category were observed: the highest growth in reasoning quality occurred in civil cases (particularly family and labour disputes), where communication between the parties and the possibility of reconciliation play a decisive role. In criminal cases, the effect of digitalisation proved weaker, which can be explained by the specific nature of evidence assessment and the limitations of remote participation. The analysis of judgment resilience revealed a decrease in the share of reversals in appeals and cassations by an average of 8–10% in courts using both innovative mechanisms. This suggests that the improvement in argumentation and structural coherence of decisions correlates with their legal reliability. Accordingly, the first research hypothesis—regarding the positive impact of the hybrid format of justice on the quality of reasoning and stability of decisions—received statistical confirmation. Digital and mediation reforms not only accelerate case handling but also enhance the cognitive quality of legal reasoning, shaping a stable trend towards the standardisation and predictability of judicial acts. Results of the NLP Analysis of Judicial Texts To assess the qualitative aspects of judicial reasoning, a set of indicators was applied, combined into the RQS index, which included six sub-indicators: structural completeness, legal argumentation, coherence, depth of reasoning, linguistic complexity, and textual templatisation. After the introduction of electronic document management and the transition to standardised electronic formats of judgments, the proportion of acts containing clearly defined sections (“Case Background”, “Evaluation of Evidence”, “Reasoning Section”) increased from 64% in 2020 to 79% in 2024. The average number of normative references to federal laws, Plenum resolutions of the Supreme Court, and other sources rose by 17%, indicating a strengthening of formal argumentation and stricter compliance with structural requirements. Semantic analysis based on the sentence-BERT model showed that coherence (mean cosine similarity between paragraphs) increased from 0.71 to 0.78, especially in courts actively applying mediation procedures. The depth of reasoning (the ratio of the reasoning section to the total text length) grew from 0.46 to 0.54, reflecting a trend towards more extensive justification of legal conclusions. Digitalisation led to a moderate reduction in linguistic complexity: the average sentence length decreased from 27 to 24 words, while the Flesch–Kincaid readability index improved by about 8%. This can be interpreted as a simplification of legal language for users of electronic 55 systems. The templatisation index (the proportion of recurring formulas) increased from 11% to 15%, indicating a process of standardisation and a certain degree of “de-personalisation” of decisions. Thus, the overall RQS indicator demonstrates steady growth, with the largest contribution coming from coherence and structural completeness, and the smallest from argumentative originality. Digitalisation contributes to the standardisation of the structure and logical consistency of judicial acts, although it partially reduces the individuality of legal language. Comparative Analysis: Russia, Italy, and the United Kingdom For international comparison, data were used from the Italian PCT system, the TOL platform, and the British Online Civil Money Claims project (Cowan, 2020; Mendola, 2022; Nissi et al., 2019). The Italian model is considered one of the most advanced forms of e-justice in Europe. Studies by Antonucci (2014) and Nissi et al. (2019) demonstrated that, after the mandatory introduction of electronic document management, the average duration of civil proceedings decreased by 28%, while the rate of appeal reversals dropped by 12%. At the same time, according to Mendola (2022), linguistic variability in judicial texts declined—the lexical diversity index fell by nearly 10%. Thus, the Italian experience reveals the same regularity as the Russian one: digitalisation increases efficiency but standardises legal language. The British system is user-centred and integrates ODR elements—online dispute resolution prior to court adjudication. Research by Cowan (2020) and reports from the UK Ministry of Justice (Tribunale Online Annual Report, 2024) indicate that around 60% of cases initiated on the online platform are settled amicably without a court ruling. The average level of participant satisfaction exceeds 80%. Moreover, the length of the reasoning sections in judgments delivered online remains comparable to that in traditional proceedings, distinguishing the British model from the Italian and Russian ones, where reasoning sections tend to shorten. Overall, the Italian system represents an “institutional-technical” path of digitalisation, the British one a “human-centred” approach focused on access and conciliation, while the Russian model lies between them, combining technological and normative-legal reforms. All three systems share greater transparency and reduced duration of proceedings, yet differ in reasoning depth: it remains high in the UK but is somewhat simplified in Italy and Russia. Hence, the comparative analysis confirms that the effectiveness of hybrid justice depends on maintaining a balance between technological standardisation and the preservation of the judge’s cognitive autonomy. The Impact of Mediation and ODR on the Stability of Judgments An analysis of the subsample of courts applying court-annexed mediation revealed a substantial improvement in the stability of judicial acts. On average, the proportion of appeal reversals declined from 14.2% to 11.7%, and cassation reversals from 7.5% to 6.2%. The mediation component had the strongest impact on socially and psychologically complex categories of cases—family, labour, and housing disputes. According to correlation analysis, the existence of an agreement reached through courtannexed mediation increases the likelihood of final dispute resolution without re-litigation by a 62 improve the quality of justice—but only if judicial autonomy, procedural transparency, and ethical safeguards are preserved. The difficulties faced by the researcher mirror those of the judiciary itself: incomplete data, inconsistent practices, and the constant need to balance form and meaning. Overcoming these limitations is possible only through the institutional coordination of science, technology, and judicial policy. Hence, hybrid justice becomes a laboratory for a new legal rationality—one in which efficiency merges with a humanistic mission, and digital tools serve not as mechanical accelerators but as means to strengthen trust and the intellectual quality of judicial reasoning. Conclusion The study has confirmed that the digitalisation of justice and the institutionalisation of mediation in Russia during 2020–2025 have shaped a qualitatively new model of judicial activity—hybrid justice, which combines technological innovation with humanistic approaches to dispute resolution. The synergy between e-justice, court-annexed mediation, and ODR transforms not only procedural forms but also the cognitive mechanisms of legal reasoning, establishing new standards of transparency, argumentation, and consistency in judicial decisions. The analysis of microdata from judicial statistics and the corpus-based NLP study of judicial texts confirmed that the introduction of digital technologies and mediation practices exerts a statistically significant positive effect on the quality of judicial reasoning. The RQS, reflecting argumentative and structural completeness, increased on average by 10–12%, while the proportion of overturned judgments on appeal and cassation decreased by 8–10%. At the same time, a rise in coherence and transparency of reasoning was observed, along with a moderate simplification of legal language. Mediation and ODR have proved to be not only instruments for reducing court workload but also factors enhancing the depth of judicial reasoning. The participation of parties in pretrial negotiation contributes to more detailed and well-substantiated judicial reasoning and strengthens perceptions of procedural fairness. These findings are consistent with international research (Grajzl et al., 2025; Mendola, 2022; Susskind, 2022), confirming the universality of the hybridisation effect within judicial systems. A comparative analysis with Italy and the United Kingdom has shown that the Russian model has completed the stage of primary digitalisation, reaching a level of maturity where technology begins to affect not only the speed but also the quality of justice. The Italian experience (PCT/TOL) demonstrates similar tendencies towards standardisation and acceleration, though with a higher degree of textual unification. The British system (Online Civil Money Claims) illustrates an alternative strategy—preserving the depth of judicial reasoning while maintaining a strong user-oriented approach. Russia occupies an intermediate position, gradually moving from formal to substantive effects of digital transformation. From a theoretical standpoint, the research contributes to the development of the concept of cognitive quality of justice—a category uniting the structural, argumentative, and ethical dimensions of judicial reasoning. The introduction of RQS indicators and the integration of natural language processing methods into legal analytics create opportunities for systematic micro-level measurement of judicial reasoning quality. This represents a new methodological 63 shift in jurisprudence—from descriptive institutional analysis to empirical measurement of legal cognition. The practical significance of the results lies in their applicability for the development of: • internal audit programmes assessing the quality of judicial decisions; • standards for electronic judicial acts and unified document templates; • national indicators of judicial efficiency that include not only quantitative but also substantive criteria; • advanced training courses for judges and mediators on the cognitive and digital aspects of justice. Thus, the results of the research have interdepartmental and interdisciplinary relevance— for judicial administration bodies, educational institutions, mediation centres, and analytical divisions of the Judicial Department. Despite the positive outcomes, the study has revealed several limitations related to data quality and methodological constraints. The limited availability of microdata on the application of mediation and electronic procedures made it difficult to build precise panel models; some indicators had to be estimated through proxy variables. NLP methods demonstrated restricted accuracy in interpreting complex legal constructions and contextual nuances. Moreover, the identified effects of digitalisation may partly reflect the characteristics of “pioneer courts”—those that initially had higher standards of management and legal culture. These factors require further validation over a longer time horizon and in broader samples. Particular attention should be given to the ethical boundaries of digital justice. The use of algorithms and artificial intelligence in judicial procedures entails risks of diminishing the autonomy of judicial reasoning, which calls for legal regulation and transparent principles of explainability in automated decision support. Based on the findings, the following directions for judicial policy and scholarly development appear advisable: 1. Establishing a national database of judicial decisions with open metadata for analysing argumentative and procedural characteristics of reasoning. 2. Introducing regular monitoring of reasoning quality, combining NLP indicators and expert evaluation, as part of internal judicial quality control. 3. Expanding the institution of court-annexed mediation, including the creation of permanent mediation units within courts and the integration of ODR platforms. 4. Enhancing the training of judges and mediators in digital communication, cognitive techniques of argumentation, and ethics of online interaction. 5. Developing an ethical code for the use of AI in the judiciary, guaranteeing the right of parties to an explanation of algorithmic recommendations and preventing algorithmic bias. 6. Promoting international cooperation in comparative projects with EU and UK judicial systems to exchange methodologies for assessing the quality of judicial reasoning. The further development of this field requires a transition from macro-level evaluation to cognitive and behavioural analysis of judicial reasoning. The application of machine learning technologies and semantic networks will make it possible to examine how digital interfaces and 64 mediation procedures influence judges’ reasoning logic, normative choices, and rhetorical strategies. An equally important direction is the study of public trust in e-justice and its impact on perceptions of the judiciary’s legitimacy. This will require sociological surveys and interdisciplinary projects involving experts in legal psychology, communication, and informatics. Furthermore, the development of international comparative databases of judicial acts is a promising avenue, enabling the creation of global metrics of justice quality and universal indicators of judicial resilience across legal families. Finally, it is necessary to summarise conclusions: 1. E-justice and mediation together constitute a stable trajectory of transformation for the Russian judicial system, enhancing its transparency, predictability, and efficiency. 2. The improvement in the quality of judicial reasoning is confirmed both statistically and text-semantically, reflecting the cognitive adaptation of judges to the digital environment. 3. Comparative analysis with Italy and the United Kingdom demonstrates that the effectiveness of hybrid justice depends not on digitalisation per se, but on the institutional readiness of the system and the balance between standardisation and autonomy in legal reasoning. 4. Further progress requires the integration of science, technology, and judicial practice—the establishment of research centres, open-source NLP tools, and international partnerships. 5. The digital transformation of justice must remain subordinate to its highest purpose— strengthening public trust in the judiciary and ensuring justice as the supreme value of the rule of law. Thus, hybrid justice should be understood not merely as a technological modernisation of the judicial system but as the emergence of a new form of legal rationality—one in which efficiency is combined with ethics, and digital tools become instruments for reinforcing the culture of reasoning and the humanistic content of justice. Conflict of Interest The author declares that there is no conflict of interest. References: Alternative Dispute Resolution for Consumers: Report on Implementation and Impact. (2024). European Commission. Brussels. Antonucci, L. (2014). 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Actual Problems of Russian Law, 2, 35–48. (Russ.). [Вашурина С. С. Цифровая трансформация правосудия: конституционно-правовые аспекты.] https://doi.org/10.17803/19941471.2025.179.10.039-049 67 Natalia A. Romanova [a][5] Use of Biofeedback Technologies in Female Pelvic Floor Muscle Rehabilitation: Clinical Outcomes and Neurophysiological Effects [4] Abstract: The relevance of this research lies in the need to introduce evidence-based, non-invasive, and individualised methods for correcting urogenital dysfunctions in women. Despite the wide application of physical exercise and pharmacological treatments, their effectiveness remains limited due to the lack of objective control over pelvic floor muscle (PFM) activity. The use of biofeedback (BFB) and electromyographic (EMG) technologies overcomes this limitation by providing visualisation of muscular activity and enabling the development of correct motor patterns. The novelty of this study consists in its comprehensive approach, combining biophysiological, psycho-emotional, and functional correction. Unlike conventional techniques, the author’s protocol integrates personalised EMG parameters, adaptive feedback, and telemetric monitoring, thereby ensuring a sustained therapeutic effect and improving patients’ bodily self-perception. The object of the study is the functional state of the PFM in women exhibiting signs of hypotonia, stress urinary incontinence, and postpartum alterations. The subject of the study is the impact of biofeedback and EMG monitoring technologies on the restoration of pelvic muscle strength, endurance, and coordination. The aim is to assess the clinical and functional effectiveness of biofeedback-based rehabilitation in women with PFM dysfunctions and to identify the mechanisms by which it influences neuromuscular regulation and psycho-emotional wellbeing. Methods involved EMG analysis of pelvic muscle activity, training sessions using biofeedback devices, physiotherapeutic procedures, and structured patient questionnaires assessing subjective wellbeing and satisfaction with therapy. The study employed comparative and statistical analyses alongside real-time visual feedback monitoring. The results demonstrated a statistically significant increase in PFM strength and tone, improved voluntary control, and reduction of urinary incontinence symptoms after several weeks of therapy. EMG data revealed a rise in signal amplitude during voluntary contractions, confirming restoration of neuromuscular connectivity. Furthermore, participants reported higher self-esteem, reduced anxiety, and enhanced sexual wellbeing, underscoring the multidimensional therapeutic benefits of BFB training. The author concludes that biofeedback therapy is an effective tool not only for physical but also for psycho-emotional rehabilitation in women. This method activates intrinsic physiological resources, fostering conscious control over muscular responses. When combined with electromyostimulation and telemetric technologies, it opens new prospects for the prevention and treatment of urogenital dysfunctions. The findings confirm that BFB therapy provides long-term stabilisation of PFM function, improves quality of life, and can be regarded as a foundational technology in women’s health programmes, sports physiotherapy, and postnatal rehabilitation. The proposed model successfully integrates medical precision, neurophysiological validity, and a humanistic approach centred on patients’ active participation in their recovery process. Keywords: biofeedback, pelvic floor muscles, electromyography, physiotherapy, female rehabilitation, stress urinary incontinence, psychophysiological regulation, telemedicine technologies. Abbreviations: 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 is biofeedback, 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅 is central nervous system, 𝑅𝑅𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 is electromyographic, a Doctor of Medical Sciences, PC Romanova. Moscow, Russia. 68 𝑁𝑁𝐵𝐵𝑀𝑀 is pelvic floor muscle(s), SSC is slope-sign changes. Introduction The function of the PFM plays a fundamental role in maintaining the structural and functional integrity of the pelvic organs, ensuring urinary and reproductive continence, and regulating intra-abdominal pressure. Pathology within this muscle group, manifested through weakness, hypotonia, or coordination disorders, can lead to complex clinical syndromes such as stress and urge urinary incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, chronic pelvic pain, and anal sphincter dysfunction. These conditions substantially reduce patients’ quality of life, hindering daily and professional activities, and adversely affecting their overall psychophysiological wellbeing. The increasing prevalence of pelvic floor dysfunction is driven by multiple factors, including age-related changes, obstetric history, concomitant somatic and gynaecological diseases, and lifestyle-related determinants. Modern therapeutic approaches to pelvic floor dysfunction are marked by substantial diversity—ranging from traditional exercise-based methods focused on isometric contractions (such as classical Kegel exercises), through laser therapy and magnetotherapy, to the use of specialised equipment including BFB systems. This multifaceted approach enables the creation of individualised rehabilitation programmes that account for each patient’s unique anatomical and functional characteristics, thereby enhancing both the efficacy and safety of interventions while improving adherence and motivation to continue therapeutic training. In light of accumulated evidence and current scientific understanding, the purpose of the present study is to assess the effectiveness of objective methods for evaluating and training PFM using BFB-based equipment in women presenting with various clinical manifestations of pelvic floor dysfunction. The study explores a personalised training approach and analyses the outcomes of this technology in a selected patient cohort. In particular, the study also aims to provide a comprehensive investigation into how conscious activation of PFM influences libido, sexual satisfaction, and orgasmic function, and to identify the physiological mechanisms underlying these relationships. To achieve this objective, the following study tasks were defined: − examine the principles and mechanisms of instrumental BFB-based methods for training and rehabilitating PFM; − analyse the outcomes of BFB-based equipment in PFM training among women with different functional disorders. Literature Review The physiological and functional role of the PFM has been extensively studied across multiple clinical and interdisciplinary domains, including urology, gynaecology, sports medicine, and neurophysiology. According to the classical works of Basmajian and De Luca (1985), EMG provides an objective method for analysing muscular activity by recording electrical potentials that reflect the engagement of motor units during voluntary contractions. This principle laid the foundation for contemporary BFB technologies now widely used in pelvic floor physiotherapy. 69 A number of studies (Grimes & Stratton, 2025; Tibaek & Dehlendorff, 2013; Hay-Smith et al., 2008; Hay-Smith et al., 2024) have demonstrated that regular PFM training reduces the severity of stress urinary incontinence in women, strengthens pelvic musculature, and improves coordination. Hay-Smith et al. (2024), in a Cochrane review, showed that combining physical exercise with BFB technology produces significantly better continence outcomes compared to traditional Kegel-based methods. The research of Dornowski et al. (2018), Huber et al. (2020), and Curillo-Aguirre and GeaIzquierdo (2023) confirmed that the use of BFB and EMG monitoring not only improves muscle strength and endurance but also contributes to the development of stable motor patterns, thereby enhancing the long-term effectiveness of therapy. Lee et al. (2013) found that the use of external BFB devices for stress incontinence led to symptom reduction after only 8– 10 sessions, making the method preferable for non-invasive rehabilitation. In recent years, significant attention has been directed toward integrating sensor-based and digital technologies into physiotherapy. Studies by Constantinou et al. (2007a; 2007b), Omata et al. (2003), Peng et al. (2007), and Parkinson et al. (2019) describe the development of directionsensitive and fibre-optic sensors capable of measuring spatial distributions of intravaginal pressure and analysing pelvic biomechanics with high precision. These advances have enabled 3D modelling of functional characteristics, thereby expanding diagnostic and analytical potential. Clinical reviews by Barba et al. (2023), Djivoh and De Jaeger (2023), Fukuda et al. (2022), and Samsonova et al. (2023) highlight the effectiveness of PFM training in women—including athletes exposed to high intra-abdominal pressure—noting that systematic strengthening of pelvic structures reduces the risk of prolapse and prevents chronic pain syndromes. Within the domestic literature, the use of instrumental technologies is also widely discussed. Al-Shukri et al. (2016) demonstrated that electrical stimulation of pelvic muscles following radical prostatectomy significantly accelerates the restoration of continence, making this method applicable in male urology. Serov et al. (2022) confirmed the efficiency of electrostimulation in treating female urinary incontinence, noting that physiotherapeutic methods can prevent surgical intervention at early stages of the condition. Kolgaeva (2020), in her doctoral research, developed and clinically validated a comprehensive programme for treating stress urinary incontinence in women using electrostimulation and BFB, showing a significant improvement in PFM tone and urodynamic indices. Krutova et al. (2017) systematised pelvic floor rehabilitation methods, emphasising the necessity of individualised training protocols. An important aspect of PFM physiotherapy concerns the interplay between muscle control and emotional state. Leonov (2012) emphasised that recovery following sports injuries requires psychophysiological adaptation, in which BFB helps stabilise the emotional background. This finding aligns with Rachin et al. (2020), who underscored the role of psychosomatic factors in chronic pelvic pain and the need for a combined pharmacological and functional therapeutic approach. Contemporary methods often combine laser, electrical, and magnetic stimulation. Zhumanova (2023) established that integrating CO₂ laser microablation and electromyostimulation improves tissue trophism in women post-surgery, while Chemidronov et 70 al. (2023) demonstrated the positive effects of physical exercise on pelvic muscle tone and the prevention of age-related disorders. Recent international studies have also noted the rapid advancement of wearable sensor systems and artificial intelligence in EMG signal analysis. Alzahrani and Ullah (2024), along with Kuroda et al. (2021), have emphasised that digital rehabilitation enables remote monitoring and automatic adjustment of exercise intensity. Hao et al. (2024) confirmed the effectiveness of telerehabilitation for PFM training, with online supervision ensuring adherence to correct technique and increasing treatment compliance. Additional research (Cacciari et al., 2017; Raalte & Egorov, 2015; Tan-Kim et al., 2010) has expanded the scope of objective diagnostics: tactile imaging and urethral sensors make it possible to assess pressure distribution and tissue elasticity, as well as to monitor rehabilitation progress dynamically. Collectively, these findings form the basis of precision pelvic medicine, in which detailed sensor data are integrated with machine-learning algorithms. In sports medicine, attention has been drawn to the effects of strength training on the pelvic floor. Shashkova and Batueva (2021) demonstrated that in female weightlifters, improperly structured training increases the risk of hypertonicity and microtrauma to pelvic structures. This finding is consistent with the research of Carvalho and Reis (2022), who established that individualised, ageand fitness-adjusted rehabilitation programmes significantly enhance the resilience of the musculoskeletal system. A significant contribution has also been made by interdisciplinary studies such as New Discoveries in Sports Massage and Physiotherapy (2024), which discusses innovative recovery methods including myofascial release and magnetostimulation, and by Marchenko et al. (2016), who analysed the prevention of complications following surgical interventions. These works collectively highlight the importance of a holistic approach that integrates biomechanical, psychophysiological, and therapeutic components. In summary, the reviewed literature demonstrates that BFB, electromyostimulation, and digital monitoring technologies are key instruments in modern pelvic floor rehabilitation. Their integration into clinical practice ensures high efficacy in treating stress urinary incontinence, prolapse, and sexual dysfunctions, while also enhancing patients’ psychophysiological wellbeing. The most promising direction for future development lies in hybrid BFB systems combining EMG diagnostics, visual feedback, and telemedicine control, enabling the creation of personalised rehabilitation and prevention programmes for urogenital disorders. Methods Within this study, the following methods were employed: 1. Analysis of scientific literature and clinical data regarding the application of various technologies in pelvic floor physiotherapy. 2. Comprehensive analysis of training outcomes using BFB among study participants. 3. Systematisation of data and formulation of recommendations for optimising training programmes with due regard to individual patient characteristics. This integrated approach enabled an in-depth examination of the effectiveness and feasibility of device-based BFB technologies in restorative pelvic floor physiotherapy, which is of material significance for clinical practice and rehabilitation. 71 To achieve the study aims and address the research tasks, a detailed description of the methods used—ensuring objective assessment and effective training of the PFM—was essential. In the present study, the principal tool was BFB technology, based on the recording and analysis of EMG signals of muscular activity. BFB technologies allow real-time capture of pelvic floor electrical activity, analysis of its parameters, and provision of visual feedback to patients. Such feedback plays a pivotal role in shaping correct motor patterns, facilitating conscious control and optimisation of muscle work, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the training process. A detailed consideration of the operating principles of BFB equipment, together with the characteristics of the underlying EMG signal, not only clarifies mechanisms of action but also supports an individualised approach to designing training programmes. Working with Biofeedback Equipment The operating principle of equipment used to train the pelvic floor is to increase contractile capacity and muscle volume. The PFM, forming the so-called “pelvic diaphragm”, play a key role in supporting the pelvic organs and constitute the urinary and anal sphincters. Various factors—such as difficult childbirth, trauma, surgical interventions and age-related changes— may weaken these muscles and reduce their functional activity. The most effective means of restoring contractility is regular, targeted training comprising periodic, intensive yet submaximal contractions. Unlike most skeletal muscles, which can be voluntarily contracted at will, the pelvic floor has distinctive reflex functions involved in micturition, defaecation and sexual responses. Consequently, individuals often have limited awareness of these muscles in action and find conscious control challenging. BFB is used to overcome this limitation. A dedicated sensor is placed in close proximity to the target muscle group to record its electrical activity—the EMG. The resulting signals are converted into visual information displayed on a monitor. This visual feedback enables the patient to “see” muscle activity in real time, markedly simplifying the acquisition of correct and effective contractions. In addition to visual feedback, motivational stimuli—such as videos, slides or interactive elements—play an important role by fostering new motor skills and sustaining patient engagement during training. This approach yields more stable and durable restoration of pelvic floor function. Thus, a BFB device constitutes a comprehensive system that reveals activity otherwise hidden from conscious perception, renders it in an accessible format, and helps patients consciously control and train the muscles—an especially important feature in rehabilitation after injury, surgery or with age-related change. EMG Signal Below is a concise description of EMG and its use in training the pelvic floor. Surface EMG signals are a principal source of neurophysiological information. Various EMG signalprocessing algorithms are employed to decode the user’s executed action and generate control commands for external devices or software. 78 Case Study 1. Cervical Prolapse A 42-year-old female patient (N.) presented with complaints of a foreign body sensation in the vaginal area, which intensified during physical exertion and prolonged upright posture, as well as discomfort during sexual intercourse. Her medical history revealed two spontaneous vaginal deliveries; the most recent was complicated by a macrosomic foetus and perineal tears. On physical examination, a uterine cervical prolapse was identified. Gynaecological evaluation revealed descent of the cervix to the vaginal introitus upon straining, accompanied by a marked decrease in PFM tone. Following a course of restorative physiotherapy that included PFM training with BFB, a substantial improvement in condition was observed. Objectively, the cervical descent during Valsalva manoeuvre decreased, the PFM tone improved, and both the sensation of a foreign body and discomfort during exertion disappeared. Subjectively, the patient reported a notable improvement in mood, reduced anxiety, and enhanced self-confidence. Libido increased, sexual activity became more comfortable and satisfying, and she experienced heightened perception and control of PFM contractions, contributing to greater sexual fulfilment. Additionally, the patient noted a visible improvement in skin appearance—her facial complexion became fresher and healthier, which was associated with an overall enhancement in well-being. Overall, the course of therapy led to comprehensive restoration of both physical and emotional health, resulting in a significant improvement in quality of life. Observation 2. Uterine Cervical Prolapse Patient M., 38 years old, presented with complaints of pulling sensations in the lower abdomen that intensified towards the end of the day, a feeling of heaviness in the perineal region, and occasional difficulty in urination. 79 The patient’s medical history revealed three vaginal deliveries, the last of which was complicated by a prolonged second stage of labour and the use of vacuum extraction. Gynaecological examination showed a mild descent of the cervix visible during straining. A decrease in PFM tone and a weakening of voluntary contraction strength were noted on palpation. After the course of therapy, the patient reported a reduction in pulling sensations and pelvic heaviness, particularly towards the end of the day. PFM tone and strength improved significantly, resulting in the normalisation of urination and the elimination of discomfort. The patient also reported a notable improvement in mood, reduced fatigue, and an overall increase in energy levels. Intimate life became more comfortable, with a better sense of pelvic muscle control and increased confidence in her body. Thus, the therapy contributed to a comprehensive restoration of both physical and emotional well-being, improving quality of life without surgical intervention. Case 3. Vaginismus and stress-related pelvic floor hypertonicity accompanied by urinary incontinence symptoms A 45-year-old female patient E., presented with complaints of painful spasms during attempts at sexual intercourse, increased urinary frequency, and episodes of stress urinary incontinence occurring during physical exertion and coughing. Her medical history revealed no childbirth, chronic stress conditions, and a previously diagnosed vaginismus. Gynaecological examination revealed increased PFM tone, accompanied by pronounced pain on palpation and during attempts at relaxation. There was evidence of reduced muscle tissue elasticity and impaired control over voluntary relaxation. Following a course of therapy aimed at reducing PFM hypertonicity, a significant decrease in painful spasms during sexual activity was noted. The patient demonstrated an improved ability to relax the pelvic muscles, which facilitated the alleviation of vaginismus symptoms and a reduction in pain intensity. In addition, urinary frequency decreased, and the number of stress-related incontinence episodes during exertion and coughing was reduced, owing to the normalisation of muscle tone and improved control of pelvic muscle function. The patient also reported a reduction in chronic stress levels and an improvement in overall well-being, contributing to the restoration of sexual activity and an enhanced overall quality of life. 80 Case 4. Pain Syndrome during Sexual Intercourse and Stress Urinary Incontinence A 37-year-old female patient K., presented with complaints of pronounced pain during sexual intercourse, accompanied by a burning sensation and discomfort, as well as episodes of involuntary urinary leakage during physical exertion, sneezing, and coughing. Her medical history included two spontaneous vaginal deliveries, a sedentary lifestyle, and intermittent stress. Gynaecological examination revealed an increased tone and tension of the PFM, accompanied by tenderness on palpation and reduced elasticity. The patient exhibited a diminished ability to consciously relax the pelvic musculature, which exacerbated the symptoms. Following a targeted course of BFB therapy, patient K. experienced a marked reduction in pain and burning during intercourse, resulting from the alleviation of hypertonicity and the restoration of PFM elasticity. The ability to consciously control and relax the muscles improved, reducing overall tension and discomfort. Functional indicators of the pelvic floor showed positive dynamics, with a noticeable decrease in the frequency of involuntary urinary leakage during exertion, sneezing, and coughing. As a result, the patient’s confidence in everyday life and intimate relations significantly improved. This comprehensive therapeutic approach not only eliminated the pain syndrome but also restored the physiological function of the pelvic floor, leading to a substantial enhancement in the woman’s overall quality of life. Case 5. Urinary Incontinence, Cervical Descent, and Absence of Libido The patient V., aged 46, presented with complaints of involuntary urine leakage during physical exertion, a sensation of heaviness and discomfort in the lower abdomen, and a marked 81 decrease in sexual desire. Her medical history included three vaginal deliveries, the onset of menopause accompanied by hormonal fluctuations, chronic fatigue, and emotional stress. Gynaecological examination revealed a cervical prolapse with a significant reduction in PFM tone. The patient also reported diminished vaginal sensitivity and a lack of sexual interest. Following a course of comprehensive therapy, there was a pronounced improvement in bladder control, with a substantial reduction in episodes of involuntary urine leakage, directly related to the enhanced tone of the PFM. The sensation of heaviness and discomfort in the lower abdomen diminished due to the restoration of pelvic structural support. As a result of the integrated therapeutic approach, vaginal sensitivity increased, and the patient regained interest in sexual activity. She also reported a reduction in chronic fatigue and emotional tension, leading to an overall improvement in quality of life. Case 6. Cervical Prolapse, Stress Urinary Incontinence, and Anorgasmia Patient N., aged 49, presented with complaints of a sensation of pressure and heaviness in the pelvic region, episodes of involuntary urine leakage during physical exertion (such as coughing or lifting heavy objects), and the absence of orgasm over the past several years, causing significant emotional distress and a reduction in quality of life. Her medical history revealed two spontaneous vaginal deliveries, chronic stress, and a sedentary lifestyle. During gynaecological examination, cervical descent was observed, characterised by downward movement on straining. A reduction in PFM tone was noted and confirmed by palpation tests. The patient reported difficulty relaxing the pelvic muscles during sexual intercourse and an absence of positive intimate sensations. Following a course of therapy, the patient reported a reduction in the sensation of pressure and heaviness in the pelvic area, owing to improved PFM tone and enhanced cervical support. Episodes of stress-induced urinary leakage diminished. Through relaxation training and emotional regulation techniques, intimate sensations improved, and orgasmic function began to recover. Overall well-being was enhanced due to reduced stress and increased physical activity, resulting in a marked improvement in quality of life. 82 Case 7. Anterior Vaginal Wall Prolapse, Stress Urinary Incontinence, Loss of Libido and Orgasmic Function Patient M., aged 48, presented with complaints of pronounced discomfort in the vaginal and pelvic region, a sensation of pressure and bulging along the anterior vaginal wall, which intensified during physical exertion and after prolonged standing. She also reported involuntary urine leakage during coughing, laughing, and lifting heavy objects. The patient expressed deep dissatisfaction with her intimate life, noting a marked decline in sexual desire (libido) and a complete absence of orgasms over the past several years. Increased fatigue and a lowered emotional tone were also observed. Her medical history included multiple vaginal deliveries and menopause occurring two years prior. Following a course of rehabilitation, Patient M. reported a notable reduction in discomfort and the sensation of vaginal wall protrusion, particularly during physical activity and prolonged standing. Strengthening of the PFM resulted in a significant decrease in involuntary urine leakage during coughing, laughter, and lifting. Moreover, the patient experienced an improvement in libido and restoration of intimate sensations, including the return of orgasms. Her overall vitality and emotional well-being also improved, contributing to an enhanced quality of life. This review presents seven clinical observations, each illustrating various manifestations of pelvic organ prolapse, urinary incontinence, dyspareunia, and sexual dysfunction. For each case, photographic materials are provided, demonstrating patients’ conditions before and after completing a rehabilitation programme using BFB-based equipment. These visual records provide compelling evidence of the stability and effectiveness of the achieved therapeutic outcomes. A major finding of therapy involving BFB technology was a marked improvement in sexual health and psycho-emotional balance among participants. Beyond measurable gains in PFM function, many women reported distinct positive changes in sexual responsiveness, which represents a critical indicator of holistic recovery. Throughout the training course, a steady upward trend in libido and heightened pelvic sensitivity was recorded, directly enhancing the quality of sexual intimacy. Numerous participants reported stronger and more diverse orgasmic responses, greater satisfaction with their sexual life, and deeper emotional connection with their partners. These effects were attributed to improved neuromuscular coordination, increased blood circulation, and restored muscle tone, all of which contributed to more intense and fulfilling sensations. 83 Furthermore, the therapy had a beneficial impact on general emotional state and overall quality of life. The reduction of incontinence symptoms, disappearance of pelvic pain and discomfort, and restoration of confidence led to diminished stress and anxiety, improved selfesteem, and enhanced social activity. This psychosomatic stability also contributed to better sleep and overall well-being. An interesting and secondary effect observed during therapy was improvement in skin condition and external appearance. Enhanced pelvic blood flow and general relaxation of muscular tension promoted greater skin tone and elasticity, which manifested in a fresher, healthier complexion. Participants noted reduced signs of fatigue, smoother skin texture, and a more vibrant facial appearance, which further reinforced the overall psychological comfort and motivation for self-care. Changes in intimate perception, accompanied by partial or complete normalisation of PFM function, substantially expanded the possibilities for a full and harmonious sexual life. These outcomes exerted a profound influence not only on physical health but also on the emotional and psychological well-being of the women involved. Such a comprehensive therapeutic effect confirms that BFB-based rehabilitation techniques not only restore anatomical and functional parameters but also significantly improve quality of life in a broader sense. In conclusion, the application of modern physiotherapeutic methods using BFB in pelvic floor rehabilitation contributes not only to measurable improvements in muscle performance but also to broader benefits encompassing reproductive, urogenital, and emotional health. To further substantiate these findings, the study is being extended to a larger cohort of 50 clinical cases (Table 1), which will allow for a more detailed assessment of variability, treatment efficacy under differing conditions, and optimisation of training protocols. The effects and results identified in this research collectively explain the multidimensional impact of PFM training on libido and orgasmic responsiveness. 1. Neurophysiological Aspect: The Role of Motoneurons and Afferent Feedback The PFM are under the control of lower motoneurons located in the sacral spinal segments (S2–S4), responsible for their voluntary contraction and relaxation. Systematic training of these muscles activates not only efferent motor pathways but also stimulates numerous afferent nerve fibres that send sensory impulses to the CNS. This afferent stimulation reaches the hypothalamus and limbic system—key centres responsible for regulating emotions, sexual behaviour, and hormonal balance. The intensified flow of sensory input facilitates the activation of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin, both essential for sexual motivation and mood regulation. The increased dopaminergic activity is directly associated with enhanced libido and greater motivation for sexual intimacy. 2. Enhancement of Blood Circulation and Its Significance Conscious activation of the PFM induces cyclical contractions that exert a mechanical influence on the vascular network of the pelvic region. This promotes venous outflow and arterial inflow to the genital organs—specifically, the clitoral and vaginal areas in women. Improved blood circulation creates favourable conditions for: 84 • The nourishment of tissues with oxygen and essential nutrients; • The optimisation of smooth muscle function responsible for erection and vaginal secretory activity; • The enhancement of blood flow to the adrenal glands and the pituitary gland, both crucial centres of endocrine regulation. Thus, regular training not only improves the local condition of tissues but also supports the maintenance of a balanced hormonal background. 3. Muscle Tone and Its Influence on Sexual Sensations Pelvic floor dysfunctions manifested as hypotonia or discoordination of muscles disrupt the biomechanics of sexual activity, diminishing sensitivity and impairing orgasmic response. Targeted training restores optimal muscle tone, leading to: • Improved control over the musculature involved in sexual intercourse; • Enhanced stimulation of sensory receptors located along the vaginal wall and surrounding tissues; • Increased orgasmic quality through more synchronised and forceful muscular contractions. In male therapy, a comparable effect is observed—training enhances control over contractions, improves erection, and allows for better management of the orgasmic response. 4. Psychosomatic Effect and Influence on Emotional State Conscious regulation of PFM activity exerts a beneficial impact on emotional balance. Strengthened control over one’s body reduces anxiety, enhances body awareness and selfconfidence—all of which are vital for healthy sexual functioning. The psychological component, including stress reduction and improved self-esteem, creates a favourable background for heightened libido and more complete orgasmic experiences. 5. Overall Impact and Rationale Training of the PFM exerts a multidimensional influence—it enhances vascular perfusion of the tissues, stabilises hormonal mechanisms through the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, activates the CNS via afferent pathways, and restores muscle tone and sensitivity. These processes are interrelated and, taken together, promote stronger sexual desire and improved orgasmic quality in women. This relationship positions pelvic diaphragm training as a vital and effective component of comprehensive therapy for sexual dysfunctions. In the presented study, 50 women with various pelvic disorders—including pelvic organ prolapse, stress urinary incontinence, and diminished sexual satisfaction—took part. Each participant completed an individually tailored course of BFB-assisted training aimed at strengthening and normalising PFM function. The study results demonstrate high efficacy of the applied methodology. Most participants exhibited sustained improvement in both objective indicators (muscle tone and contractile strength) and subjective sensations—reduction of incontinence symptoms, decreased prolapse severity, and significant enhancement of comfort in daily and intimate life. Notably, each major improvement was accompanied by detailed dynamic monitoring, precisely recorded via video 85 diagnostics. This allowed real-time adjustment of the training programme and ensured gradual, controlled progress. Particular attention should be paid to the stability of achieved results. Follow-up assessments conducted several months after the course completion confirmed that positive outcomes persisted in the majority of participants, indicating long-term effects of the training on muscular balance and pelvic floor function. This reliability is directly attributable to the use of BFB technology, which enables participants to consciously control muscular contraction and relaxation, thereby maximising the efficiency of every session. Accurate and objective monitoring through BFB equipment also revealed common recovery patterns and individual characteristics of each participant, allowing precise adaptation of the therapeutic process. As a result, the proposed method proved itself as a systematic tool for comprehensive rehabilitation—it not only promotes rapid symptom correction but also establishes lasting muscular control and enhanced functional coordination. This clinical investigation, encompassing 50 individual cases, substantiates that BFBassisted pelvic floor training using specialised equipment is a promising and reliable method for achieving high-quality, long-term restoration of pelvic functions. Such an approach opens new perspectives for the prevention and treatment of pelvic disorders, significantly improving women’s quality of life and reinforcing their confidence in their physical and emotional wellbeing. Discussion The issue of PFM dysfunction remains one of the key challenges in modern physiotherapy, urology, and gynaecology, as it directly affects women’s quality of life. Despite the advancement of both conservative and surgical treatments, the number of women experiencing symptoms such as urinary incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, and sexual dysfunction remains high. This underscores the importance of research aimed at identifying safe and sustainable non-surgical approaches to restore pelvic floor function. The results of the present study confirm that BFB technologies hold substantial potential within comprehensive therapy. They combine physiological effectiveness with psychological comfort, enabling patients to develop conscious control and awareness of their bodies. Such an approach not only restores physical functions but also contributes to improved emotional wellbeing, which is particularly significant in cases of chronic stress and sexual dysfunctions. However, despite extensive evidence supporting the efficacy of BFB, unresolved issues remain regarding the standardisation of training methodologies and protocols. Variations in EMG recording parameters, session frequency, and duration make cross-comparison of clinical outcomes challenging. To enhance the reliability of results, unified clinical guidelines should be developed, including sensor types, signal processing algorithms, and criteria for assessing progress dynamics. The long-term effects of BFB therapy also warrant further investigation. Although shortterm improvements are well-documented, data on the sustainability of therapeutic outcomes over several years remain limited. It is therefore advisable to conduct multi-centre longitudinal studies to evaluate the persistence of effects and their influence on endocrine and psychoemotional systems. 86 A particularly promising direction lies in integrating BFB methods with digital and telemedical platforms. Studies by Hao et al. (2024) and other specialists demonstrate that remote feedback-based training programmes delivered via mobile applications can significantly expand access to physiotherapy. This is especially valuable for the prevention of age-related and postnatal disorders in populations with restricted mobility. Of special interest is the relationship between conscious PFM control and sexual function. The data presented in this study indicate that neurophysiological stimulation of afferent pathways improves hormonal regulation and enhances libido, opening new prospects for sexological and psychophysiological rehabilitation. Hence, future research should focus on: 1. Developing standardised BFB training protocols tailored to different age and clinical groups; 2. Exploring the neurophysiological mechanisms linking PFM activity and endocrine regulation; 3. Designing digital systems for monitoring training effectiveness and creating predictive recovery models; 4. Expanding the clinical evidence base regarding long-term outcomes of BFB interventions. The integration of device-based technologies, interdisciplinary collaboration, and personalised rehabilitation programmes establishes BFB therapy as a strategically important field in modern medicine, aiming to improve women’s quality of life and prevent urogenital disorders. Conclusion Contemporary medicine regards pelvic floor health as one of the key indicators of women’s overall quality of life, influencing physical, psycho-emotional, and sexual well-being. In recent decades, there has been a notable rise in clinical cases of stress urinary incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, and postnatal dysfunctions, largely driven by lifestyle changes, ageing, and childbirthrelated consequences. As shown by Grimes and Stratton (2025), Tibaek and Dehlendorff (2013), and Samsonova et al. (2023), the prevention and rehabilitation of such disorders require an integrated approach that unites neurophysiology, physiotherapy, endocrinology, and psychosomatic medicine. Author’s study gains particular relevance in the era of rapidly expanding technological and digital innovations in rehabilitation medicine. The use of BFB, electromyography, and telemetric monitoring opens new horizons for non-invasive therapy and scientific analysis of pelvic motor control mechanisms. The classical works of Basmajian and De Luca (1985) laid the foundation for understanding the electrophysiological mechanisms of skeletal muscle activity. EMG registration of PFM activity has since become a cornerstone of modern BFB training protocols. Dornowski et al. (2018) and Huber et al. (2020) demonstrated that EMG-based feedback not only increases pelvic muscle strength and endurance but also fosters the development of new motor patterns, ensuring the durability of therapeutic effects. Research by Constantinou et al. (2007a; 2007b), Peng et al. (2007), Omata et al. (2003), and Parkinson et al. (2019) has shown that the use of direction-sensitive and fibre-optic sensors 87 allows precise measurement of pressure distribution within the vaginal canal and high-resolution assessment of pelvic biomechanics. This shift from empirical to quantitative diagnostic methods has enabled the development of individualised therapeutic protocols. In clinical practice, the combination of electrical stimulation, physical exercise, and BFB techniques has proven highly effective. Studies by Al-Shukri et al. (2016), Serov et al. (2022), and Kolgaeva (2020) show that electromyostimulation and visual feedback training accelerate post-surgical recovery, alleviate symptoms of urinary incontinence, and prevent secondary complications. These approaches are characterised by high safety and minimal side effects, a finding also confirmed in international studies (Lee et al., 2013; Hay-Smith et al., 2024). A key advantage of the BFB method lies in engaging the CNS in the recovery process. Afferent stimulation of the sacral spinal segments (S2–S4) activates the hypothalamic–pituitary– adrenal axis, increasing dopamine and serotonin production and thereby improving emotional stability and libido. This effect, confirmed in Romanova’s clinical observations, aligns with Rachin et al. (2020), who highlighted the role of psychophysiological adaptation in chronic pelvic pain. Leonov (2012) emphasised the importance of psychological factors in post-traumatic rehabilitation, noting that physiological self-regulation through BFB reduces anxiety and restores body confidence. In women’s rehabilitation, this manifests as improved sexual sensitivity, reduced vaginismus, and enhanced intimate perception—findings also reflected in the present study. A synthesis of national and international evidence demonstrates the broad therapeutic potential of BFB for urinary incontinence, prolapse, chronic pelvic pain, and sexual dysfunctions. Zhumanova (2023) reported that combining CO₂ laser therapy with electromyostimulation improves tissue elasticity and enhances post-surgical recovery, while Chemidronov et al. (2023) confirmed that physical training combined with device-assisted stimulation effectively prevents age-related deterioration. Comparative analyses indicate the superiority of multi-level rehabilitation programmes. Hay-Smith et al. (2008; 2024), Fukuda et al. (2022), and Curillo-Aguirre and Gea-Izquierdo (2023) stress that the integration of active exercises, sensory control, and psycho-emotional support yields the best therapeutic outcomes. The development of wearable and remote technologies marks a new stage in physiotherapy evolution. Alzahrani, Ullah (2024), and Hao et al. (2024) demonstrate that tele-rehabilitation using mobile BFB devices and cloud platforms significantly improves treatment adherence, particularly among women with limited access to clinics. These technologies facilitate selfmonitoring, automatic workload adjustment, and dynamic progress analysis. Another promising direction is the integration of EMG diagnostics with artificial intelligence to enable predictive modelling and early detection of pathology. Raalte and Egorov (2015) and Cacciari et al. (2017) illustrate the potential of tactile imaging and three-dimensional pressure mapping, paving the way toward personalised medicine. Clinical observations and literature evidence confirm that pelvic floor rehabilitation extends beyond anatomical correction. Restoring muscle control enhances self-esteem, reduces anxiety, and promotes better sleep and emotional balance. Samsonova et al. (2023) highlighted a strong correlation between pelvic muscle function and overall life quality. Similarly, Shashkova and 94 Voiding dysfunction, including stress urinary incontinence during physical activity. Emotional tension, stress, and depressive symptoms. Reduction of urinary incontinence symptoms and improvement of PFM tone. Alleviation of depressive manifestations and enhancement of psychological well-being. 20 Pelvic and perineal pain related to organ prolapse and postpartum tissue stretching. Menstrual irregularities and unstable menstrual cycle. Stress, nervousness, and general psychoemotional decline. Reduction of pelvic and perineal pain, correction of organ positioning. Normalisation of menstrual cycle and reduction of abdominal pain. Improved psycho-emotional state, decreased stress and irritability. 21 Stress urinary incontinence during physical exertion and coughing. A sensation of heaviness in the pelvic floor area; uterine descent. Stress, anxiety, nervousness, and frequent depressive moods. Elimination of stress urinary incontinence and improved PFM function. Restoration of the normal anatomical position of the uterus and reduction of the sensation of heaviness. Decreased stress and anxiety levels, with improvement of overall psycho-emotional well-being. 22 Pain and discomfort in the lumbar and hip regions caused by postpartum muscle strain. Partial impairment of pelvic circulation and vaginal mucosal dryness. Menstrual irregularities and cycle disturbances. Reduction of lumbar and hip pain, enhancement of pelvic blood flow. Restoration of regular menstrual function. Improved condition of the vaginal mucosa and increased PFM tone. 23 Endocrine dysfunction and hormonal imbalance. Decreased libido and impaired sexual activity. Persistent fatigue, stress, and nervous tension. Stabilisation of hormonal balance and improvement of metabolic processes. Increased libido and enhancement of sexual function. Higher energy levels and improved psychoemotional stability. 24 Pelvic organ prolapse associated with weakened musculature. Chronic pelvic and perineal pain; discomfort during sexual intercourse. Stress, emotional exhaustion, and reduced work capacity. Restoration of normal pelvic organ position and improved functional integrity. Reduction of pelvic and perineal pain and discomfort. Enhanced psycho-emotional state and reduced stress levels. 25 Severe dysmenorrhoea accompanied by pronounced fatigue and irritability. Reduced libido and sensation of physical exhaustion. Increased anxiety, depressive symptoms, and poor sleep quality. Alleviation of lower abdominal pain and normalisation of the menstrual cycle. Improved libido and overall physical condition. Better sleep quality and reduction of anxiety and depressive manifestations. 26 Vaginal dryness and pain associated with hormonal changes. Urinary disturbances and increased frequency of micturition. Emotional instability, irritability, and anxiety. Restoration of vaginal mucosal integrity and relief of pain. Reduction in urinary urgency and normalization of bladder function. Decreased nervous tension and improvement in overall mood. 27 Pelvic and hip pain resulting from muscle tension and reduced mobility. A sensation of weakness in the perineal region leading to difficulty maintaining pelvic organ support. Reduction in pelvic and hip pain and muscle tension. Restoration of normal pelvic organ position and improved muscle tone. Enhanced stress resilience and stabilization of emotional state. 95 Stress, depressive mood, and decreased psycho-emotional resilience. 28 Muscle laxity and decreased tone after childbirth, associated with pelvic organ descent. Back and pelvic pain accompanied by muscular tension and restricted mobility. Menstrual irregularities and hormonal imbalance. Elimination of muscle laxity and restoration of normal muscular tone. Reduction of back and pelvic pain with improved mobility. Normalization of menstrual cycle and hormonal status. 29 Stress urinary incontinence occurring during physical exertion. Sexual dysfunction, discomfort, and dyspareunia. Stress and depressive symptoms, deterioration of psycho-emotional wellbeing. Resolution of urinary incontinence and strengthening of PFM function. Reduction of pain during intercourse and improvement of sexual performance. Mood elevation with reduced symptoms of depression and stress. 30 Menstrual cycle disturbances, including irregular and painful menstruation. Uterine prolapse accompanied by a sensation of pressure and heaviness in the perineal area. Stress, heightened anxiety, and depressive manifestations. Normalization of the menstrual cycle and alleviation of dysmenorrhea. Improvement in uterine position and reduction of pelvic heaviness. Decreased anxiety and enhancement of overall psycho-emotional wellbeing. 31 Urinary incontinence during physical activity or exertion. Painful sensations in the genital area caused by postnatal tissue stretching. Chronic tension in the pelvic and lumbar regions. Improvement of pelvic muscle function and elimination of urinary incontinence episodes. Reduction of genital pain and recovery after soft tissue stretching. Decreased pelvic and lower back tension, enhanced mobility. 32 Decreased tone of the PFM leading to organ prolapse. Menstrual irregularities, including dysmenorrhoea and cycle disturbances. Chronic fatigue and stress resulting in reduced work capacity. Restoration of normal pelvic organ position and improvement of their functional activity. Normalization of the menstrual cycle and reduction of menstrual pain. Increased vitality and improved mood and psycho-emotional stability. 33 A sensation of heaviness in the pelvic and abdominal areas caused by uterine descent. Impaired pelvic blood circulation and vaginal mucosal dryness. Emotional instability and frequent mood fluctuations. Correction of uterine position and elimination of pelvic heaviness. Normalization of pelvic blood flow and improvement of mucosal condition. Reduction of emotional instability and enhancement of psychological well-being. 34 Stress, depression, and unresolved emotional conflicts. Pain in the lower abdomen and lumbar region caused by muscular tension and overstretching. Sexual dysfunction and decreased libido. Reduction of stress and depressive symptoms with overall emotional improvement. Relief of lower abdominal and lumbar pain with restoration of muscle tone. Increased libido and improvement of sexual function. 35 Urinary incontinence, particularly postpartum. Decreased sexual desire and discomfort during intercourse. Hormonal imbalance accompanied by mood swings. Elimination of urinary incontinence episodes and improved PFM control. Reduction of dyspareunia and enhancement of sexual desire. Stabilization of hormonal balance and improvement of mood. 36 Vaginal mucosal dryness and impaired local circulation. Improvement of vaginal mucosal condition and restoration of normal blood flow. 96 Intestinal dysfunction, constipation, and abdominal discomfort. Chronic back and lumbar pain associated with decreased muscle tone. Resolution of intestinal problems and enhancement of peristaltic activity. Reduction of back and lumbar pain, with improved mobility and muscle function. 37 Decreased libido and reduced sexual activity. Persistent lower abdominal pain caused by hormonal imbalance. Emotional fatigue and depressive symptoms. Increased libido and improved sexual activity. Reduction of abdominal pain and restoration of hormonal balance. Enhanced energy levels and improvement of psycho-emotional well-being. 38 Pelvic organ prolapse and PFM weakness. Urinary dysfunction with increased urgency. Emotional tension and general malaise. Restoration of normal pelvic organ positioning and improved functional status. Reduction in urinary urgency and improved bladder control. Decreased emotional tension and enhanced overall well-being. 40 Impaired pelvic blood circulation, vaginal dryness, and discomfort. Lower abdominal pain related to hormonal fluctuations. Sleep disturbances and increased anxiety. Improved pelvic organ perfusion and elimination of discomfort. Reduction of abdominal pain and normalization of hormonal balance. Improved sleep quality and decreased anxiety and stress. 41 Stress urinary incontinence during coughing or sneezing. Pelvic discomfort and pain due to postpartum muscle weakness. Psycho-emotional instability, irritability, and depressive mood. Elimination of urinary leakage episodes and improved PFM function. Reduction of pelvic pain and discomfort, with restoration of normal muscle tone. Improved mood and reduction of depression and irritability. 42 Lower abdominal pain associated with hormonal imbalance. Frequent stress reactions and emotional fluctuations. Reduced libido and impaired sexual activity. Reduction of abdominal pain and normalization of hormonal status. Decreased stress and improved psychoemotional stability. Increased libido and enhanced sexual activity. 43 Uterine prolapse and constant sensation of pelvic pressure. Frequent headaches, fatigue, and nervousness. Menstrual irregularities and dysmenorrhea. Restoration of normal uterine position and elimination of pelvic pressure. Reduction of headaches and fatigue, with overall improvement in well-being. Regulation of menstrual cycle and alleviation of menstrual pain. 44 Vaginal dryness and dyspareunia. Nervousness, insomnia, and stress-related disorders. Pelvic circulatory insufficiency and sensation of heaviness. Improved pelvic circulation and elimination of vaginal dryness. Improved psycho-emotional state and restoration of normal sleep patterns. Reduction of pain during intercourse and enhancement of sexual function. 45 Urinary incontinence during physical exertion. Decreased PFM tone after childbirth. Stress, anxiety, and low mood. Elimination of urinary incontinence and improved control of PFM. Restoration of muscle tone and enhanced pelvic organ support. Reduced anxiety and improved emotional wellbeing. 46 Menstrual irregularities and hormonal imbalance. Normalization of menstrual cycle and restoration of hormonal equilibrium. 97 Lumbar and lower abdominal pain caused by postpartum strain. Emotional lability and irritability. Reduction of lumbar and abdominal pain, with improved mobility. Decreased irritability and stabilization of emotional state. 47 Pelvic organ prolapse and muscular weakness. Impaired blood circulation and mucosal dryness. Stress, depression, and decreased performance capacity. Restoration of normal pelvic organ positioning and increased muscle tone. Improved circulation and recovery of mucosal health. Enhanced work capacity and improved mood. 48 Pelvic tension and discomfort. Urinary disorders and incontinence. Chronic abdominal and back pain. Reduction of pelvic tension and discomfort with restoration of normal function. Decreased episodes of urinary incontinence and improved voiding control. Relief of abdominal and back pain, with improved mobility. 49 Stress and nervousness affecting quality of life. Decreased libido and sexual activity. Sleep disturbances, insomnia, and general malaise. Reduced stress and improved psychoemotional balance. Enhanced libido and improved sexual function. Restoration of normal sleep and overall wellbeing. 50 Decreased libido and sexual desire. Pelvic pain and discomfort caused by hormonal changes. Emotional fatigue and depressive mood. Increased sexual desire and libido. Reduction of pelvic pain and discomfort with hormonal normalization. Improved energy levels and psycho-emotional state. 98 Irina N. Khozhalova [a][6] Moral and Ethical Education of Schoolchildren: Problems and Solutions [5] Abstract: Moral and ethical education of schoolchildren is one of the key objectives of the modern educational system. In the era of digitalisation, globalisation, and rapid social transformations, the formation of stable moral guidelines among the younger generation becomes an especially pressing issue. The school, alongside the family, plays a decisive role in shaping the child’s personality, value system, and moral principles. However, under conditions of a crisis in family upbringing, it is precisely educational institutions that become the principal environment where a child may acquire moral guidelines and experience of positive interaction. Therefore, the search for effective solutions to the problems of moral and ethical education gains particular importance. The novelty of the study lies in presenting a comprehensive review of the challenges of contemporary moral and ethical education and possible solutions. The subject of the study is the problems of modern moral and ethical education exemplified by Russian society. The object of the study is representatives of the new generation of school-age society. The study aims to actualise the problem of contemporary moral and ethical education of children and adolescents in the society of the twenty-first century. In the course of the study, both general scientific methods, such as analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, the comparative method, and the systemic approach, as well as selected psychological and pedagogical methods were employed. The author presents an analysis of the genesis of the issue of contemporary moral and ethical education, a comprehensive review of the problems of moral and ethical upbringing of the younger generation in modern society, and situational examples from social practice that clearly illustrate certain evident problems in the moral and ethical education of school-age children and adolescents, along with the development of updated pathways towards resolving this issue. The author concludes that addressing the problems of moral and ethical education is not merely a pedagogical, but a national task, upon the success of which the future of society depends. Sustainable development is possible only if society is able to foster a generation capable not only of successfully adapting to the challenges of modernity but also of maintaining fidelity to moral ideals, which constitute the foundation of a strong, cohesive, and sustainable society. Keywords: moral and ethical education, problems of schoolchildren’s upbringing, family functions, social communication, cyberbullying. Introduction Moral and ethical education of schoolchildren constitutes one of the key objectives of the modern educational system. In the era of digitalisation, globalisation, and rapid social transformations, the establishment of stable moral guidelines among the younger generation becomes an especially pressing issue. The information environment in which children grow up today is saturated with contradictory behavioural models that often substitute traditional values. The accessibility of the Internet and social networks facilitates the dissemination of aggression, consumerist ideology, and irresponsible attitudes towards life, which directly affect the worldview and behaviour of schoolchildren. The school, alongside the family, plays a decisive role in shaping the child’s personality, value system, and moral principles. However, under the conditions of a crisis in family a Researcher, Scientific and Methodological Center “Academic Educational Society”, Lecturer, A.N. Kosygin Russian State University. Moscow, Russia. 99 upbringing, it is precisely educational institutions that become the principal space where a child may acquire moral guidelines and experience positive interaction. Contemporary schoolchildren encounter such challenges as the loss of respect for elders, declining interest in labour, and the blurring of the concepts of “duty”, “honour”, and “justice”. This poses a threat to their comprehensive socialisation and civic development. Therefore, the search for effective solutions to the problems of moral and ethical education acquires particular significance. It is essential to integrate the efforts of the family, school, state, and social institutions in order to foster in schoolchildren spiritual and moral values capable of ensuring the harmonious development of the individual and the consolidation of social stability. The novelty of the study lies in presenting a comprehensive overview of the issues of contemporary moral and ethical education and the possible pathways for their resolution. The subject of the study is the problems of contemporary moral and ethical education exemplified by Russian society. The object of the study is representatives of the new generation of school-aged youth. The study aims to actualise the issue of contemporary moral and ethical education of children and adolescents in the society of the 21st century. To achieve this purpose, the following objectives were addressed: − analyse the genesis of the problems of contemporary moral and ethical education; − conduct a comprehensive review of the challenges of moral and ethical education of the younger generation in modern society; − provide situational examples from the practice of contemporary society that vividly illustrate certain evident problems in the moral and ethical education of school-aged children and adolescents; − develop and present updated pathways for addressing the problems of moral and ethical education of school-aged children and adolescents. Methods For the analysis of the problems and solutions concerning the moral and ethical education of schoolchildren in contemporary society, a set of general scientific and psycho-pedagogical methods was employed. Their application made it possible to identify both the objective trends in the transformation of children’s and adolescents’ value orientations and the specific features of the functioning of the school and the family under conditions of social change. Among the general scientific methods, the following were used: 1. Analysis and synthesis. Analysis was applied to the study of pedagogical and sociological research on the problem of moral education, as well as to the identification of factors influencing the moral development of schoolchildren (weakening of the family, media influence, internet addiction). Synthesis enabled the integration of results from heterogeneous sources into a coherent understanding of the problem. For example, the comparison of data on media influence and cases of school conflicts helped to reveal a direct correlation between the informational environment and the change in pupils’ values. 2. Induction and deduction. On the basis of an analysis of particular cases (e.g., examples of cyberbullying or consumerist attitudes towards education), general conclusions were 100 formulated regarding trends in moral development. The deductive approach was applied to test hypotheses concerning the influence of digitalisation and globalisation on the educational process. 3. Comparative method. Domestic and foreign approaches to moral education were compared, as well as differences in the value orientations of pupils from diverse social and cultural groups. In particular, the analysis of intercultural conflict in a multinational classroom made it possible to compare practices of integration and tolerance across different educational systems. 4. Systemic approach. Education was examined as a multi-component system encompassing the school, the family, society, and the media. This enabled the identification of interrelations between individual problems (e.g., the weakening of the family and the growth of internet addiction) and the determination of the necessity for comprehensive solutions. Psychological and pedagogical research methods were aimed at examining the specific features of perception, behaviour, and value orientations of schoolchildren: 1. Observation. Systematic pedagogical observation of pupils’ behaviour in both curricular and extracurricular activities made it possible to identify the particularities of communication, attitudes towards learning, and manifestations of aggression or empathy. For instance, observing adolescents’ interactions in online environments allowed the researchers to record specific features of cyberbullying and to detect a lack of empathy among the aggressors. 2. Conversation and questionnaire survey. These methods made it possible to ascertain pupils’ opinions regarding values significant to them, as well as their attitudes towards family, work, culture, and media. Conversations with parents and teachers contributed to identifying difficulties within the educational process and understanding the expectations of various participants in the educational environment. In cases of value conflicts within a multicultural classroom, conversations proved particularly effective in determining the actual causes of tension and in developing recommendations for teachers. 3. Testing. By employing psychodiagnostic techniques, the study examined the levels of developing moral concepts, the degree of empathy, and the propensity for cooperation or conflict. For example, testing of pupils who demonstrated a consumerist attitude towards education revealed a low level of intrinsic motivation and the predominance of pragmatic orientations. 4. Analysis of creative outputs. Essays, projects, and creative works produced by pupils were analysed, as they reflected their moral orientations. Within the framework of the study, the analysis of school essays on friendship, family, and values revealed discrepancies between adolescents declared and actual attitudes. 5. Pedagogical experiment. In certain cases, educational situations were modelled (e.g., participation in social projects, volunteering activities, role-playing games), which enabled the assessment of the effectiveness of various methods for developing moral qualities. For instance, the organisation of a charitable campaign demonstrated that the practical involvement of schoolchildren in socially significant activities fosters the development of empathy and responsibility. 101 Thus, the combination of general scientific and psychological-pedagogical methods ensured a comprehensive consideration of the problem of the moral education of schoolchildren. Their application made it possible to identify the main contradictions of the contemporary educational process, to specify the nature of the influence of family, school, and media on personality formation, and to substantiate ways of improving educational practices. The use of these methods renders the research comprehensive, objective, and of practical significance. Literature Review The problem of moral and ethical education of schoolchildren has traditionally been regarded as one of the central issues in pedagogy and psychology, since it ensures personality development, the formation of civic identity, and adaptation to social change. The Russian pedagogical tradition has for decades paid attention to the study of moral orientation. For instance, the works of A.V. Kovalev (1982), V.G. Ivanov and N.V. Rybakova (1959) emphasised the importance of educating the individual through the formation of moral norms and cognitive interests. Classical pedagogy, represented by the studies of I.P. Ivanov (2021), V.A. Karakovsky, L.I. Novikova, N.L. Selivanova (2020), and N.E. Shchurkova (2021), proposed collectivist models in which a leading role was attributed to joint activity and the school community. These ideas continue to evolve in contemporary concepts (Gazman, 2019; Danilyuk et al., 2021; Metlik et al., 2018; Metlik, 2012), which emphasise a humanistic approach and the synthesis of the educational efforts of family, school, and society. Considerable attention is devoted to developing educational systems adapted to the conditions of the modern school. In the studies of V.M. Lizinsky (2019), E.N. Stepanov (2020), and P.V. Stepanov (2019), models of managing the educational process based on outcome assessment and a systemic approach are examined. The works of M.V. Shakurova (2020) propose technologies for the social pedagogue aimed at addressing the tasks of spiritual and moral development. The research of N.L. Selivanova (2020) and generalising publications on the moral education of young people in society highlight the necessity of updating methodological approaches under the conditions of global change and a crisis of values. Empirical research directed towards studying the peculiarities of pupils’ perception of moral norms plays a significant role in understanding this problem. Thus, N.A. Tkachenko and S.N. Natalich (2018) regard the moral education of schoolchildren as a psychological and pedagogical issue. T.M. Mukhopleva (2013), S.R. Petryaeva and E.N. Teselkina (2024) analyse the pedagogical conditions for the formation of value orientations among younger pupils. The practical orientation of these studies lies in identifying the opportunities available to the teacher for influencing the child’s personal development through observation, conversation, and analysis of creative work. C.A. Khomushku (2015) considers the pathways of moral education of younger pupils in the educational process, demonstrating their interrelation with the overall strategy of personality formation. Serious challenges to moral education are posed by the digital environment. Russian studies record the spread of cyberbullying and school bullying (Averbukh et al., 2022a; Averbukh et al., 2022b; Nazarov et al., 2022), and also analyse pupils’ perceptions of these phenomena. G.U. Soldatova (2019) identifies the role structure of cyberbullying and the influence of family relations on the nature of children’s coping strategies. Foreign studies complement these 102 findings: the works of W. Xiao and M. Cheng (2023) reveal the connection between internet addiction, moral disengagement, and aggression; the article by Mukherjee and Baksi (2022) demonstrates a negative correlation between internet addiction and moral foundations. Additional risk factors and psychosocial consequences of adolescents’ excessive presence online are indicated (Moskalenko et al., 2023; Malygin et al., 2017; Malygin et al., 2018; Neverkovich et al., 2018). Comparative studies show that internet addiction reduces the level of moral strength and psychological capital of the individual (Mukherjee & Baksi, 2022; Zewude et al., 2024). No less significant is the intercultural dimension of education. In a multi-ethnic society, the importance of research devoted to tolerance and intercultural interaction increases. Russian works emphasise the necessity of fostering in young people the capacity for dialogue (Tsvyk & Tsvyk, 2020), whereas foreign authors analyse the paradoxes of intercultural education and its moral challenges (Tochon & Karaman, 2009; Frisancho & Delgado, 2018). Contemporary studies demonstrate that the organisational culture of schools directly affects the character of conflicts and the level of their constructive resolution (Kostovsky et al., 2025). These findings allow moral education to be considered not only as an individual process, but also as a systemic phenomenon associated with educational policy and school climate. An important direction of foreign research is constituted by the theory of character education. The works of J. Arthur (2018; 2021), as well as collective studies by Arthur, Kristjánsson, Harrison, Sanders, and Wright (2017), develop the idea of integrating the cultivation of virtues with academic learning. Similar approaches have been developed in works on religious and secular education (Ranam et al., 2022; Munawarsyah et al., 2022; Zhang, 2023; Zou, 2022; Ferková et al., 2023; Jiang & Wang, 2019; Mareš, 2020). These publications indicate a trend away from normative moralising towards activity-based models of education grounded in the formation of competences and critical thinking. A review of the literature makes it possible to identify several key directions: • the preservation and development of traditional approaches; • the renewal of educational systems under conditions of digitalisation, with research on internet addiction and cyberbullying; • the intercultural dimension of moral education; • the introduction of foreign practices of so-called character education. Russian studies are predominantly oriented towards the preservation of spiritual and moral foundations and collectivist forms of education, while foreign research focuses on the development of virtues, intercultural competences, and the prevention of deviance. The cumulative analysis of sources demonstrates that, for the successful resolution of the tasks of modern education, a comprehensive approach is required, combining traditional and innovative models aimed at personal development, digital literacy, and intercultural dialogue. 103 Results The Issues of Contemporary Moral and Ethical Education Key Challenges The modern school faces a wide range of problems in the sphere of moral education. First and foremost, this concerns the erosion of traditional moral foundations in society. Children grow up in a context of value pluralism, where the very same actions may be assessed in diametrically opposed ways depending on the social environment or cultural context. The influence of information technologies and social networks creates additional complications. Schoolchildren receive a vast amount of contradictory information, often lacking the necessary experience to comprehend it critically. Virtual reality frequently replaces face-toface communication, leading to distortions in the understanding of moral norms governing interpersonal interaction. Thus, contemporary sociology and pedagogy identify the following issues of modern moral and ethical education: 1. Transformation of value orientations among children and young people, 2. Weakening of the educational function of the family, 3. The impact of mass media, 4. Dependence on information flows within the Internet environment, 5. Loss of social communication skills, 6. Decline in cultural receptivity, 7. Crisis of authority, 8. Neglect of historical continuity between generations. The subsequent analysis will consider these issues in the context of the transformation of contemporary Russian society. They clearly demonstrate a close intertwining and interconnection both in their genesis and in the general logic of their resolution, since despite the multiplicity of problem dimensions, the focal object remains the same—schoolchildren of various age groups. Transformation of Value Orientations among Children and Young People Contemporary Russian society is undergoing large-scale social and cultural transformations that directly affect the upbringing of the younger generation. Children and young people find themselves in circumstances where traditional reference points are gradually losing their significance, while new models of behaviour and values have not yet fully formed. This results in a number of problems in the sphere of moral and ethical education that demand close attention from educators, parents, and the state. Historically, the family has been the principal institution of socialisation, where the child acquired the first notions of good and evil, justice and responsibility. However, in recent decades there has been a significant weakening of its role. The reasons include social stratification, rising unemployment, forced migration, and the erosion of traditional moral and ethical norms. Parents, preoccupied with the search for means of subsistence, often fail to devote adequate attention to their children. As a consequence, the child is deprived of emotional support, control, and positive role models, which adversely affects his or her moral development. 110 respect for other cultures and the capacity for intercultural dialogue are not merely desirable qualities but vital competences. The perception of other cultures by schoolchildren is a complex psycho-hygienic process, largely determined both by family upbringing and by the purposeful work of schools. Insufficient intercultural literacy may result in stereotypical thinking, prejudice, and, in extreme cases, xenophobia and nationalism. Hence, moral and ethical education in this aspect should focus on cultivating empathy, tolerance, critical thinking, and, above all, an awareness of the universality of human values despite cultural differences. A key instrument in this process is not only the provision of information about the cultures of other peoples but also the creation of conditions for active interaction and immersion in their specificities. This may be implemented through the inclusion in curricula of elements of cultural studies, history, and literature of the peoples residing within the state, the organisation of joint creative and sporting events, as well as the establishment of discussion clubs where schoolchildren can address acute issues of intercultural interaction in a safe and respectful atmosphere. It is important to emphasise that such an approach should not be reduced to formal instruction but should permeate the entire system of school life, from extracurricular activities to daily communication. Special attention should be devoted to fostering pupils’ skills of reflection and self-analysis, enabling them to critically assess their prejudices and stereotypes. Recent research in pedagogy and psychology confirms that the most effective methods are those grounded in the principles of dialogue, cooperation, and a learner-centred approach. The paradigm of authoritarian teaching, in which the teacher acts as the sole bearer of truth, proves largely ineffective in this context. Conversely, cooperative pedagogy, where pupils function as active subjects of the educational process, allows them not only to assimilate information but also to experience intercultural interaction at a personal level. This experience, reinforced by emotional engagement and reflection, forms the basis for the development of stable moral and ethical convictions. Thus, the task of the school is not merely to instruct but to educate citizens of a multinational society, capable of constructive dialogue and intercultural cooperation, which in turn ensures the stability and prosperity of the state. An equally important aspect is the involvement of pupils’ families in the educational process, as it is within the family that fundamental values and attitudes towards the surrounding world are instilled. Schools may act as a bridge between diverse cultural groups by organising joint celebrations, festivals, and parent meetings, where representatives of different ethnicities may share their traditions and customs. This not only broadens pupils’ horizons but also helps to overcome stereotypes among adults, thereby creating a more favourable environment for child-rearing. Ultimately, the moral and ethical education of schoolchildren with regard to their perception of other cultures in a multi-ethnic state is a continuous, complex, and multi-level process requiring the joint efforts of educators, parents, and society at large. Its success depends on our ability to instill in the younger generation not only respect for foreign traditions but also a profound understanding that humanity, kindness, and mutual assistance are universal values uniting all people irrespective of their national and cultural affiliation. Crisis of Authority The 21st-century society is experiencing a profound crisis of authority, which directly affects the moral and ethical upbringing of children and adolescents. Traditional reference 111 points are losing their significance, while new value systems have not yet acquired a solid foundation. This results in the deformation of the worldview of the younger generation and poses serious challenges for the family, school, and state. The erosion of moral reference points has become one of the most evident problems. Under conditions of rapid social change, new attitudes and values have emerged, often imposed by external circumstances or the media. Young people acquire unfamiliar criteria for assessing actions, phenomena, and processes. This leads to a shift in value orientations, the weakening of previously established convictions, and the loss of a clear worldview framework in which concepts of good and evil, justice and injustice can be distinguished. The weakening of the family’s educational function exerts a significant influence on the younger generation. It is within the family that the child should receive the first notions of morality, responsibility, and spiritual values. However, social stratification, rising unemployment, and the disruption of traditional family structures increasingly undermine the capacity of parents to act as genuine mentors. Parents preoccupied with subsistence issues often withdraw from the educational process, leaving the child to seek answers to vital life questions independently. As a result, adolescents are deprived of stable support in the form of the authority of their elders. No less palpable is the influence of the mass media. Streams of content disseminated through television, the internet, radio, and the press frequently propagate behavioural models far removed from moral ideals. The cult of ease, aggression, consumerism, and permissiveness captivates adolescents’ attention, instilling false notions of what constitutes normality. The virtual sphere becomes a kind of “school of life”, where instead of traditional moral values dubious reference points are promoted. Youth subcultures occupy a particular place in the formation of worldviews. While they may provide adolescents with a sense of belonging and support, they often become sources of alienation from generally accepted values. Within certain subcultures, behavioural stereotypes are established that position young people in opposition to society, encouraging the narrowing of interests and the rejection of any authorities inconsistent with the group’s values. Adolescents begin to disregard the advice of parents, teachers, and elders, concentrating solely on the rules of their subcultural environment. Another acute problem is the lack of obedience and respect towards parents. The foundation of harmonious family relations lies in mutual understanding, yet it is precisely this that is frequently lacking in modern families. Parents and children “speak different languages”, possessing divergent systems of values and views of life. As a result, adolescents lose trust in parental experience and increasingly seek authority among peers or in virtual spaces. This disrupts the so-called intergenerational bond and further exacerbates the crisis of moral orientations. Thus, all the aforementioned problems are interrelated and create a complex situation in which it becomes ever more difficult for the younger generation to find reliable reference points. Addressing this situation requires the development of new approaches to defining the priorities of civic, moral, and patriotic education. It is necessary to strengthen the family as a fundamental institution, to establish in the educational system conditions conducive to the development of stable moral values among schoolchildren, and to create a positive media environment that 112 promotes examples of virtue, respect, and responsibility. It becomes evident that only comprehensive measures will enable the upbringing of a generation capable of preserving the spiritual wealth and resilience of society in the face of contemporary challenges. Disregard for Historical Continuity between Generations Disregard for historical continuity between generations represents one of the most acute challenges of contemporary moral and ethical education of children and young people in Russia. This issue is manifested not only at the levels of culture and education but also in the spiritual condition of society as a whole. Continuity has always played a crucial role in personality formation: the older generation transmitted life experience, accumulated knowledge, and values, while the younger generation assimilated them, adapting to new circumstances. Today, however, this natural process has been disrupted, leading to grave consequences. The younger generation is deprived of the opportunity to emulate elders endowed with life wisdom and experience. Adolescents and young people often have little understanding of the principles by which their forebears resolved life’s difficulties, nor of the moral reference points that helped them to preserve dignity, cohesion, and inner strength. The absence of such knowledge renders young people more vulnerable to the challenges of the time and less resilient in the face of crises and temptations. Children’s perceptions of such fundamental moral categories as kindness, compassion, justice, civic-mindedness, and patriotism are gradually distorted. These notions lose their profound significance and are transformed into abstract terms, divorced from everyday life. As a result, adolescents are deprived of a solid moral foundation that would enable them to navigate complex situations, make responsible decisions, and build harmonious relationships with others. The situation is further aggravated by the fact that young people increasingly orient themselves towards the parameters of mass culture, predominantly Western. External attractiveness, the cult of success, and consumerism frequently replace the values of spirituality and national tradition. Adolescents aspire to conform to models projected by the media, fashion, and the internet, while simultaneously losing connection with the cultural and historical heritage of their country. This results in a crisis of identity and a weakening of the sense of belonging to their people. The reasons for the disregard of historical continuity between generations are largely associated with the disintegration and crisis of the family. Many contemporary parents themselves lack a sufficient level of moral and spiritual culture and, therefore, are unable to transmit it to their children. Often there is no understanding that upbringing requires not only the provision of material needs but also careful attention to the child’s inner world. When parents are incompetent in matters of spiritual and moral development, children grow up without stable moral guidelines. Another serious cause is the dominance of material values over spiritual ones. Contemporary society actively disseminates the idea that success is measured by wealth, possessions, and social status. Against this background, the values of honour, duty, responsibility, and service to society appear outdated and insignificant. Consequently, a consumer-oriented personality type is formed, for whom spiritual reference points are relegated to the periphery. 113 Addressing this problem requires a comprehensive approach. It is essential that state policy in the sphere of moral education of the younger generation be built on the principles of interconnectedness, interdependence, and continuity of generations. Programmes must be developed that will enable young people to familiarise themselves with their historical heritage, revive traditions of respect for elders, and foster an interest in national culture. Educational institutions should play a significant role in this process, as they are obliged not only to provide knowledge and professional skills but also to cultivate spiritual values in children. Special attention must be paid to the family as the primary and most important institution of upbringing. Educators and social services should work with every family, explaining the importance of preserving and transmitting family traditions and supporting dialogue between generations. Only in an atmosphere of trust, respect, and continuity can a harmonious personality be formed, prepared to assume responsibility for oneself, one’s family, and society. Thus, the problem of disregarding historical continuity between generations is not merely a pedagogical but also a social challenge. Its resolution requires the concerted efforts of the family, the school, and the state. Only by restoring the living connection between past and present can a generation be nurtured that is capable of preserving spiritual values and developing society on the basis of moral ideals. Examples of Problematic Situations Situation 1: Cyberbullying and Online Aggression The case of cyberbullying in one of Moscow’s schools vividly demonstrates the serious challenges of contemporary moral and ethical education of schoolchildren. In Year 8, a group of pupils created a chat in a social network, where they systematically ridiculed and humiliated a female classmate because of her appearance and her family’s financial situation. The girl concealed what was happening from adults for a long time, which led to the development of anxiety, depressive states, and instances of self-harm. This case illustrates how rapidly and destructively negative manifestations can spread in the digital environment, where pupils often fail to recognise the consequences of their actions. Cyberbullying differs from traditional school aggression in that aggressors remain anonymous, distanced, and shielded from the victim’s immediate reaction, which reduces their sense of responsibility. As a result, a distorted understanding of behavioural norms is formed, where humiliation and cruelty are perceived as acceptable modes of interaction. Such a situation underscores the necessity of systematic efforts by both schools and families to cultivate in children’s skills of empathy, respect for others, and conscious conduct in online spaces. In addition to direct harm to the victim, cyberbullying adversely affects the overall atmosphere within the peer group, disrupts trust-based relationships among classmates, and intensifies fear in other pupils. Effective resolution of the problem requires not only educational measures but also psychological support for victims, awareness-raising for parents and teachers regarding the risks of online aggression, and the implementation of digital ethics programmes. This approach contributes to the formation of stable moral guidelines among schoolchildren and enhances their sense of responsibility for their actions in both real and virtual spaces. Situation 2: Value Conflict in a Multinational Classroom 114 In a school with a multinational student body, a conflict emerged between children from different cultural traditions. Some pupils refused to participate in school events dedicated to folk celebrations of other cultures, referring to their religious beliefs. This led to the emergence of hostile groups and a rise in interethnic tension. Such situations provide fertile ground for the creation of antagonistic groups, where each ethnic or cultural community seeks to defend its values and traditions, often coming into contradiction with others. Within the classroom, a conflict arises between the aspiration for collective integration and the preservation of individual cultural identities, which negatively influences the moral and ethical development of children. Pupils raised in such conditions risk internalising behavioural models based on intolerance and prejudice. Addressing this problem requires deliberate efforts by teachers and school administration to establish an environment in which respect for cultural and religious diversity is harmonised with common moral principles. The development of intercultural communication skills, the fostering of tolerance, and the engagement of parents in the process help to minimise conflicts and contribute to the harmonisation of pupils’ value orientations. Situation 3: Consumerist Attitude towards Education In senior classes of many schools, there is a noticeable tendency towards the formation of an exclusively consumerist attitude towards education. For a significant proportion of pupils, school ceases to be a place for personal development and the acquisition of knowledge, becoming instead a kind of “service” to be obtained formally. Pupils often demand high grades regardless of their actual knowledge or effort, perceiving marks not as a reflection of work accomplished and skills acquired but as an inalienable right. This approach undermines respect for the teacher, who begins to be perceived not as a mentor and guide to the world of knowledge but as service staff obliged to satisfy the demands of pupils and their parents. Such an attitude fosters a distorted understanding of the educational process: the value of effort, perseverance, and self-development is replaced by the expectation of easy results without exertion. As a result, the principal meaning of schooling—the education of a responsible, reflective, and morally mature individual—is lost. A consumerist attitude diminishes motivation for learning, hinders the development of cognitive interest, and deprives children of the ability to value knowledge as the foundation for future achievements and life success. Discussion The results of the conducted study demonstrated that the moral and ethical education of schoolchildren in contemporary Russia constitutes a complex problem arising from a number of interrelated factors. The principal findings of our research confirm the general trends identified in both domestic and international academic literature, while simultaneously providing clarifications specific to the Russian context. In particular, we established that the key challenges—namely, the weakening of the educational function of the family, the negative influence of the digital environment, and the crisis of authority—are not isolated phenomena but are closely intertwined, thereby creating a systemic crisis in the formation of moral orientations among the younger generation. 115 The conclusions obtained regarding the predominance of a consumerist attitude towards education and the loss of social communication skills are reflected in the works of Russian scholars (Tkachenko & Natalich, 2018; Khomushku, 2015), who also note a decline in motivation for learning and the erosion of value orientations. However, unlike many classical pedagogical approaches (Ivanov, 2021; Karakovsky et al., 2020), which focused on collective forms of education, our study highlights the growing individualisation and atomisation of society, which necessitates new, more targeted pedagogical strategies. Particular attention should be given to our finding concerning the neglect of historical continuity between generations, which leads to the loss of national and cultural identity. While foreign research (Arthur, 2021; Munawarsyah et al., 2022) actively advances the concept of character education aimed at the cultivation of universal virtues, in Russia these approaches must be adapted with consideration for the spiritual and moral heritage and traditional values. The theoretical significance of our research lies in its provision of a comprehensive analysis of the problems of moral and ethical education under the conditions of a digital society and in its proposal of systemic solutions that integrate the efforts of the family, school, and wider society. Its practical significance resides in the development of concrete recommendations for teachers and parents regarding the cultivation of digital hygiene, empathy, and critical thinking skills among schoolchildren. The proposed measures, such as social project work and volunteering, may serve as the foundation for effective programmes aimed at counteracting negative tendencies. The relevance of this research in Russia is evident in the necessity of conducting large-scale empirical studies that would allow for the quantitative assessment of the impact of various factors (internet addiction, media content, family climate) on the moral and ethical development of schoolchildren. It is also important to examine how value orientations differ depending on region of residence, cultural environment, and socio-economic status of the family. Based on the conducted research, we propose the following topics for further study in the academic community: 1. Comparative analysis of the effectiveness of Russian and foreign models of moral and ethical education: it is necessary to conduct a comparative study of approaches such as character education and traditional Russian educational systems in order to identify their strengths and weaknesses. 2. The influence of digital tools on the formation of morality: an in-depth study is required to examine how interactive platforms, online games, and social networks affect adolescents’ ethical perceptions, as well as the development of methods for preventing destructive behaviour in the virtual environment. 3. Development and testing of intercultural education programmes: it is essential to design and pilot educational programmes aimed at cultivating tolerance and respect for cultural diversity in multi-ethnic classrooms. 4. The role and position of the teacher-mentor in the context of digital transformation: it is necessary to investigate how the role of the teacher is changing in the modern world and which competences are required for effective moral and ethical education. 116 5. Examination of the impact of family upbringing during the pandemic and post-pandemic period: an analysis is required of how isolation and the transition to distance learning have affected family relationships and, consequently, the moral development of children. Such studies will not only facilitate a deeper understanding of the issue but also contribute to the development of new, more effective strategies for addressing the challenges of moral and ethical education in the conditions of modern society. Conclusion Modern moral and ethical education of schoolchildren constitutes a complex and multifaceted problem, the resolution of which requires profound rethinking and a systematic approach on the part of all social institutions. The conducted research has made it possible to identify the key challenges faced by the family, the school, and society in the era of digitalisation and global transformations. Among the most pressing issues are the shift in the value orientations of the younger generation, the weakening of the educational function of the family, the negative influence of the media and the Internet, the loss of social communication skills, the crisis of authority, and the disruption of historical continuity between generations. These factors, being closely interrelated, form a complex threat to the harmonious development of the individual, rendering children and adolescents vulnerable to destructive phenomena. In particular, the analysis has demonstrated that the weakening of the family’s role, caused by the high level of parental employment and the shift in priorities, results in a deficit of attention and emotional connection. Consequently, children are deprived of essential support and stable moral reference points, seeking them instead in the frequently hazardous and anonymous online environment. The influence of mass media and internet addiction exacerbate the situation, contributing to the spread of aggression, consumerist values, and distorted conceptions of the norm. Practical examples, such as cyberbullying and the consumerist attitude towards education, vividly illustrate that without targeted work aimed at forming spiritual foundations, society risks producing a generation incapable of empathy, responsible behaviour, and constructive interaction. Addressing these problems necessitates a systemic approach that unites the efforts of the family, school, and society into a single educational environment. The most effective solutions proposed include: 1. Strengthening cooperation between family, school, and society: the creation of a unified educational environment founded on trust and mutual understanding. This will not only synchronise educational efforts but also help parents realise their crucial role in shaping children’s moral values. 2. Developing emotional intelligence and empathy: the integration into the educational process of programmes aimed at cultivating in schoolchildren the capacity for compassion, understanding the feelings of others, and engaging in constructive dialogue. 3. Teaching digital literacy and ethics: the formation in children of skills of critical thinking, conscious consumption of information, and responsible behaviour in virtual space. This is a key element in countering the negative influence of the Internet and cyberbullying. 117 4. Social project work and volunteering: involving schoolchildren in practical activities that enable them to apply moral principles in practice, to feel their belonging to society, and to appreciate the value of helping others. 5. Supporting teachers and their professional development: strengthening the role of the teacher as a bearer of moral values and creating conditions for professional growth in the field of educational technologies. Thus, the resolution of problems in moral and ethical education is not merely a pedagogical task but a nationwide priority, upon the success of which the future of society depends. 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International Journal of Education and Humanities, 2(3), 59–61. 126 performing-intoning in the course of the simultaneous perception, comprehension, and interpretation of music in both diachronic and synchronic dimensions. Development and Testing of an Algorithm for Fostering Student Independence within the Framework of Musical-Instrumental Training at a Pedagogical University during a Pedagogical Experiment Drawing on a comprehensive theoretical and methodological analysis of scholarly pedagogical literature, the author formulates a set of pedagogical conditions for fostering independence in the context of musical-instrumental training at a pedagogical university: 1. The development in students of an understanding of the content of music: immersion in the artistic-semantic, genre-stylistic, and piano-stylistic context of the musical work. 2. Learners’ acquisition of the technology of artistic intoning at the piano: mastery of the motor-technical components of the intoning process (texture-piano formulas, types of performance movements, fingering principles, types and techniques of touch), as well as the development of holistic artistic perception of music through the study of notational detail. 3. Work within the modules of the Soft Way to Mozart programme in accordance with the educational and didactic materials and plans developed by E. V. Khainer. Independence is formed gradually throughout the learning process, absorbing methodological principles of piano instruction; it appears to “grow from within” on the basis of accumulated knowledge, experience, responsibility, and self-discipline. The fostering of independence occurs from lesson to lesson through the personal example set by the teacher and through the planning of goals and the strategic combination of long-term and immediate tasks within the musical-educational process of instrumental training at a pedagogical university. The author proposes the following algorithm for fostering student independence in the conditions of musical-instrumental training at a pedagogical university. 1. Step One. Organisation of the learning process: a system of exercises aimed at strengthening and relaxing the performing apparatus (shoulder-girdle gymnastics such as “Arm Swings”, “Posture”, relaxation exercises such as “Pendulum”, “Rolling Ball”, “Five Fingers”, etc.), and the acquisition of principles of aesthetic posture at the piano. 2. Step Two. Mastery of the technology of artistic intoning at the piano. Learners acquire a method of critical analysis of their performance in the context of ideas drawn from biomechanics, the physiology of activity, and the theory of piano intoning: identifying and overcoming performance difficulties; developing an understanding of the work of the muscular-ligamentous apparatus; achieving control and awareness during intoning; selecting appropriate performance movements and gestures; developing flexibility, freedom, and elasticity of the hands, which directly affects tone quality. 3. Step Three. Introduction to the principles of the theory of piano intoning: (a) components of the IPC; (b) immersion into the artistic-semantic, genre-stylistic, and piano-stylistic context of a musical work; (c) mastery of the motor-technical components of the IPC (texture-piano formulas, performance movement forms, fingering principles, types and techniques of touch); (d) achievement of holistic perception based on the study of notational detail; (e) conceptualisation of the musical work; (f) work on interpretation. 127 Learners acquire essential qualities of performance intonation, such as playing and musicmaking, improvisation, a sense of measure and freedom within self-limitation, and familiarity with heuristic and canonical traditions of performance across cultural-historical styles and periods. Mastery of artistic-pedagogical analysis of musical works is also fostered, aimed at identifying the idea of a composition and determining pedagogical tasks related to the acquisition of artistic intoning. 4. Step Four. Improvement of music-reading skills through the Soft Way to Mozart programme while working in the modules “Gentle Piano” and “Note Alphabet”. To verify the developed algorithm for fostering student independence in the context of musical-instrumental training at a pedagogical university, a pedagogical experiment was conducted by the author from 2018 to 2025 at the Department of “Music and Methods of Teaching Music” of Penza State University. More than 50 students participated in the pedagogical experiment. All were enrolled in the Master’s degree programme 44.04.01 Pedagogical Education, specialising in Musical Art and Education. At the diagnostic stage of the pedagogical experiment (September 2018–2025), a sociological study was conducted. A series of pedagogical interviews were carried out with approximately 20 respondents from among music-pedagogy professionals. The following results were obtained. All respondents (100%) emphasised the necessity of preparing students for subsequent independent practical pedagogical work. However, they noted that achieving this is often challenging due to the enormous informational overload and oversaturation of educational programmes with disciplines from diverse fields of knowledge, the lack of classroom hours allocated to instrumental training in music-oriented pedagogical programmes, and students’ limited time for independent practice, as many of them simultaneously study and work. Music teachers agreed that the successful fostering of independence requires equal attention to the development of emotional-sensory and cognitive intelligence. Emotions and rationality constitute “the principal driving forces in a musician’s work” (Kremenstein, 2009, p. 7). The sociological interviews revealed that the success of fostering independence depends equally on the learner’s abilities and individual qualities and on the pedagogical talent of the music teacher—the ability to intuitively and consciously perceive the temperament and character of learners, maintain flexibility and adaptability, model pedagogical situations in a timely manner, and objectively assess the students’ abilities and performance. Respondents stressed that teaching activity is inseparable from educational tasks aimed at fostering awareness, perseverance, and resourcefulness in work, fostering stable self-discipline and self-control combined with creativity, heuristic discovery, and active artistic exploratory activity during lessons. To evaluate the success of implementing the author’s algorithm and assess its effectiveness within the musical-instrumental training of students at a pedagogical university, a criteria-based assessment system for evaluating the effectiveness of fostering independence was designed at the diagnostic stage of the pedagogical experiment, presented in the Table 1 below. 128 Table 1. Assessment System for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Fostering Independence in MusicalInstrumental Training Sessions at a Pedagogical University Assessment Criteria Indicators for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Fostering Independence Readiness for professional pedagogical activity as a music educator Knowledge and understanding of the auditory and technical processes of artistic performance-instrumental intonation, as well as the ability to differentiate, harmonise, and coordinate sound-intonational, harmonic, polyphonic, and reflexive processes of perception, comprehension (interpretation and reworking) directly within the process of performing a musical composition. Mastery of knowledge concerning the specific features of organising musical and instrumental training for students and learners across different age groups. Proficiency in the pedagogical technology of artistic instrumentalperformance intonation, alongside the practical skills required for working with the Soft Way to Mozart programme. Based on the criteria and indicators developed, the author of the study identified two levels of effectiveness in fostering students’ independence within the context of musical-instrumental training at a pedagogical university: the AL, the MAL, and the IL. The AL of effectiveness in fostering independence among students at a pedagogical university is characterised by the confident operation of knowledge of musical art within the broader framework of world culture; a profound understanding of the traditions of musicpedagogical education; knowledge of and correlation with the fundamental tenets of the doctrine of intonation and intoning; and familiarity with selected principles of biomechanics and the physiology of personal activity in relation to the content of the educational and instructional process in musical training. It is also characterised by a fluent command of pedagogical methods for fostering a culture of piano intoning, as well as the network-based interactive digital technology for teaching music literacy, exemplified by Soft Way to Mozart; the ability to differentiate and coordinate the understanding of performance movements and gestures and auditory representations during one’s own piano playing; and the capacity to coordinate and integrate the entire body of knowledge during piano performance-intoning. The MAL of effectiveness in fostering independence among master’s students at a pedagogical university is characterised by sufficiently sound mastery and orientation across the identified indicators, solid understanding of the key ideas of the doctrine of intonation and intoning, and consistency between its foundational principles and the content of the instructional and educational process in musical-instrumental training. It also presupposes a good foundational understanding of the psychological and pedagogical aspects of fostering independence as a factor that activates artistic, musical-creative thinking. The IL is characterised by an underdevelopment of the indicators and criteria of independence among the students. The instructional stage of the pedagogical experiment (2023–2025) was conducted at the Department of “Music and Methods of Teaching Music” of Penza State University. The experiment involved 20 part-time students, divided into two groups—EG and CG—with 10 students in each. 129 Initial diagnostics at the beginning of the instructional stage of the pedagogical experiment revealed an insufficient level of independence among the students (80% in EG and 60% in CG). Only 20% of students in EG and 40% in CG demonstrated a minimally acceptable level of independence; an advanced level was not identified among any participants at this stage of the experiment. Based on the diagnostic results, the following musical works were proposed for study: F. Chopin—Mazurkas in E minor, Op. 17, No. 2; in A minor, Op. 17, No. 4; Étude in C sharp minor; Nocturne in C sharp minor; Berceuse in D flat major; F. Liszt—“Liebesträume”, “Consolation” in D flat major; E. Grieg—Butterfly; P. Tchaikovsky—Étude in G major; S. Rachmaninov—Étude-Tableau “The Fair”. A Fragment of a Lesson in Musical-Instrumental Training. Pedagogical Étude “Butterfly” Grieg’s Butterfly is a romantic and emotional impulse. The piece is exquisitely performed by the distinguished Soviet pianist and pedagogue M. Grinberg. An artistic parallel may be drawn with A. Fet’s poem “Butterfly”. Grieg portrays a vivid scene of a hot summer meadow filled with flowers. A butterfly first freezes on a petal (the piece opens with a melodic pause on a long note), then flutters upwards (passages) and moves to another flower, repeating this several times. The composer appears captivated by the beauty and delicacy of the butterfly. The piece functions as an impression— an intonation of play and improvisation. The performance involves diverse techniques: harmonic colours, rhythmic pauses, surges of melodic figurations, and enveloping pedalling. Although the tempo is rubato, this freedom functions within self-restraint, balanced by a sense of proportion and taste. The primary task in mastering the miniature is work on performance movement and gesture. The long note resembles “planting a seed, which later blossoms into a beautiful flower”; the wrist seems to draw a circular motion on the sustained sound. In the melodic patterns, the task is to avoid heavy finger articulation, aiming instead for wrist-based legato. The piece embodies a capricious dialectic between moments of lingering on long notes and the upward striving of melodic figurations (the butterfly taking flight). The instrumental melody is highly pictorial and full of colour. Its tonal sphere conveys the butterfly’s changeability and unpredictability. Music here becomes life in motion, with dynamics shaped by wave-like rises. The aura is one of summer, freedom, and improvisation. The performance challenge lies in combining an improvisatory intonational awareness— instant emotional reaction, comprehensive grasp of the performance process, and automatism of hand movements (wrist, fingers)—with a controlled mastery of weight distribution (understanding intonational peaks, light passing tones, and the capacity to play passages with a single wrist movement, redistributing weight across finger pads). This requires an “enhanced sense of process, an active anticipatory aural intention, running ahead as if in a continuous search for continuation while simultaneously holding both what has just sounded and what is sounding now” (“the factor of binding and sustaining the image” (Malinkovskaya, 2005, p. 287)). The difficulty lies in the dialectical unity of a musical phrase that begins with a prolonged sustained sound and yet unfolds in unbroken musical thought. 130 The piece demands a certain level of performance proficiency and technical preparation: flexible, free, elastic hands combined with firm, controlled tension. Improvisatory performance intonation is characterised by an acute sense of processual immediacy, intense emotional communication, and a heightened orientation towards the listener’s perception, both momentary and holistic (“the phenomenon of mutual intonational attention and understanding” between performer and listener) (Malinkovskaya, 2005, p. 288). The performance analysis of Edvard Grieg’s piece “Butterfly” takes place through a “live” dialogue between the teacher and the student, accompanied by a pedagogical performance demonstration of hand movements and gestures. During independent classroom work, it is recommended that students master the following exercises from the interactive digital programme Soft Way to Mozart by E. V. Khainer: 1. “Butterfly”—a miniature piece performed (a) on one; (b) on four “note-sounds” (a term proposed by the scholar, researcher and music pedagogue E. V. Khainer (Nikolaeva), used within the framework of her philosophical-aesthetic views, theory and methodology of teaching musical literacy at the International Academy Soft Way to Mozart); 2. “Eye Etudes”—a set of exercises designed for the assimilation and refinement of students’ knowledge of musical notation (a system of tasks aimed at reinforcing the perception and recognition of graphic note-sound symbols, and at coordinating visual, auditory, spatiotemporal, sensory and motor skills). The etudes consist of a series of exercises using “notesounds” placed on the staff lines and in the spaces between them; 3. Pieces from various albums of the Gentle Piano module of the Soft Way to Mozart programme. Control Stage of the Pedagogical Experiment Monitoring of results and final diagnostics were carried out through the modelling of training sessions during teaching practice and through the students’ concert performances. The results of the final diagnostics indicate that in the experimental group (EG) there was a 100% quality rate of learning: 80% of the EG students achieved an advanced level of developed independence, and 20% demonstrated a minimally acceptable level of this quality. The quality of learning in the control group (CG) amounted to 60%: only 40% of the students reached an advanced level of developed independence, 20% showed a minimally acceptable level, while 40% exhibited an insufficient level of this quality. The qualitative indicators in the EG increased fivefold, whereas the results in the CG changed only slightly (a growth of 1.5 times). Thus, the pedagogical conditions for fostering independence in music-pedagogical education have been identified, and an algorithm for cultivating students’ independence in the process of musical-instrumental training at a pedagogical university has been developed and substantiated. Diagnostic tools (criteria, indicators, levels) and diagnostic materials (questions, tasks) for assessing the development of independence among students in the context of musical-instrumental training at a pedagogical university have been established. The pedagogical experiment confirmed the validity and pedagogical relevance of the developed algorithm for fostering independence in music-pedagogical education. 131 Discussion “To educate one’s pupil to become a good musician and thereby prepare them for independent practical work is the essential task, the ultimate goal pursued by every teacher.” (Kremenstein, 2009, p. 7) This is difficult to dispute. Yet, in practice, one often observes a lack of independence, and consequently a lack of readiness among teachers to address the diverse challenges of music and music-pedagogical education. A central issue in music-pedagogical education in today’s digital era concerns how to foster and nurture the personality of the teaching musician: what paths and methods are required to develop artistic-creative (intonational) thinking, and thus the capacity for empathy, cooperation, and co-creativity within music-pedagogical activity? The teacher directly influences the potential nature of humanity’s future. Consequently, the issue of preparing pedagogical personnel— particularly music teachers capable of creative, unconventional thinking and of technologically structuring the educational and instructional process of musical-instrumental training—remains critically acute. Such teachers must be able to teach in the fullest and noblest sense of the term. The preparedness of music teachers for independent professional activity upon graduation from a higher education institution constitutes a significant criterion of their professional competence. Numerous researchers emphasise that the maturity of professional thinking, and thus the beginnings of pedagogical mastery, are directly connected with fostering learners’ independence, the formation of abilities to identify the essence of a problem and to understand ways of resolving it. This includes selecting the most efficient and appropriate working methods, setting objectively attainable goals, and planning the musical-educational and instructional process, as well as the course and content of lessons. Instrumental-performance activity, as an integral component of a musician-teacher’s professional mastery, is of equal significance to other forms of musical creativity. Its importance lies in the fact that instrumental melody is, at its core, modelled on human speech. It is therefore essential to learn to perceive and feel the artistic-semantic expressiveness of instrumental discourse. The richness of instrumental melos corresponds to, and overlaps with, the diversity of verbal communicative speech. To think today means to comprehend and follow the unfolding of musical thought. This effectively disciplines and organises cognition in time and space, fostering an understanding of sensorimotor and proprioceptive sensations. The prospect of further research lies in the synthesis—through integration and convergence—of cognitive knowledge and practical experience from various disciplinary scientific domains, aimed at developing a technological model for fostering independence among students in the process of musical-instrumental training within a pedagogical university. Conclusion The aim of the study—namely, the development and substantiation of an algorithm for fostering learners’ independence within the process of musical-instrumental training at a pedagogical university—has been achieved. The following objectives have been accomplished: 1. The works of prominent pedagogues-practitioners and specialists in the psychology of musical activity have been analysed in the context of examining the problem of fostering independence in music-pedagogical education. A set of specialised piano-performance 132 skills directly involved in fostering independence among students in the context of musicalinstrumental training at a pedagogical university has been identified, and the areas of training for future musician-teachers associated with developing learners’ independence have been delineated. It has been demonstrated that independence constitutes an essential professionally significant quality of a future music educator and a determining factor in their professional success; 2. An algorithm for fostering learners’ independence under the conditions of musicalinstrumental training at a pedagogical university has been developed, substantiated, and tested. The following sequence of operational steps in the process of fostering students’ independence under these conditions has been identified: (a) artistic-pedagogical analysis of musical works (b) critical analysis of the technology of artistic piano intoning in the context of ideas from biomechanics and the physiology of activity, as well as the principles of the theory of piano intoning; (c) improvement of music-reading skills through the Soft Way to Mozart programme while working with the modules Gentle Piano and Note Alphabet; 3. A pedagogical experiment conducted to test the proposed algorithm for fostering independence within the musical-instrumental training of students at a pedagogical university confirmed the validity and soundness of the author’s theoretical propositions and methodological considerations. It has been proven that fostering independence is a necessary factor in stimulating the artistic and creative thinking of future musician-teachers. Future research should focus on identifying correlations between the issues addressed in this study and the ideas and principles underlying the theory of fostering a culture of artistic instrumental performance intoning at different stages of musical and music-pedagogical education, both from a diachronic perspective and in terms of the synchronic coherence of parts and whole within the context of continuity of traditions and the heritage of the national performance-pedagogical school. 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[Цыпин Г. М. Музыкальное исполнительство. Исполнитель и техника.] 135 Maxim V. Bakhtin [a][8] Metaphysical Principles of Causality and Normativity in Historical Cognition [7] Abstract: This study is timely in the context of the contemporary reassessment of the foundations of scientific rationality, the crisis of classical determinism, and the necessity of accounting for normative structures in historical cognition. Amidst methodological pluralism and increasingly complex conceptions of freedom of human action, the analysis of the metaphysical principles of causality and normativity acquires particular significance. An awareness of the multidimensionality of human activity demands the integration of causal and value-based foundations in the explanation of historical processes. The novelty of this study lies in proposing an integrative approach that unites causal and normative structures as two fundamental metaphysical principles of historical cognition. The study explores the contemporary interpretation of freedom as a creative act that disrupts the causal chain, and it demonstrates the methodological irreducibility of normativity to causality. The subject of the study is the correlation between the metaphysical principles of causality and normativity within the structure of historical cognition. The object of the study is human action as an element simultaneously incorporated into both the causal and normative orders. The study aims to identify the roles of causality and normativity in the formation of historical explanation models and in the philosophical understanding of free will. The methodological basis of the study includes analysis, synthesis, historical-genetic and comparative methods, as well as phenomenological, hermeneutical, and dialectical approaches, which allow for a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of the categories of causality and normativity. The application of metaphysical analysis and conceptual reconstruction ensured the identification of a link between changes in scientific rationality and the transformation of historical models of thinking. The study traces the evolution of causality and normativity: from primitive normative syncretism and ancient conceptions of fate to the classical scientific model built on the continuity of causal connections, and its subsequent critical reassessment in the 20th century. It is shown that historical cognition is impossible without considering normative structures, which define the subject’s motivation and responsibility, and that contemporary philosophy is turning towards an integrative model that combines explanation and interpretation. The main challenges addressed by the study are related to the limitations of universal deterministic explanations and the difficulty of formalising normative structures. An additional problem is the gap between natural-scientific and humanistic models of rationality. The study confirms that causality and normativity prove to be complementary principles essential for the complete reconstruction of the historical process, which opens up prospects for the further development of an integrative philosophy of history. Keywords: causality, normativity, free will, necessity, objective universal laws. Introduction The problem of the metaphysical foundations of human freedom and the principles that determine the structure of historical cognition remains one of the central concerns in contemporary philosophy. In the context of escalating methodological pluralism and the crisis of classical rationality, the question of how an individual understands their choice, motivation, and responsibility acquires particular urgency. Contemporary science no longer relies on the notion of a single, universal type of rationality characteristic of the Enlightenment era; instead, a Professor, Doctor of Philosophical Sciences, International Business Professors Club. Ragusa, Italy. 142 Results One of the most pressing issues for any transitional society is the theoretical understanding of the freedom of the human will and its metaphysical foundations. In this regard, the metaphysical principles of causality and normativity emerge as the fundamental bases for the organisation of our representations of the world and its cognition. From the mid-20th century onwards, as the historical and socio-cultural conditioning of the rationalist ideals of classical philosophy becomes increasingly evident (Bachelard, 1986), the initial intuition of some universal, single and unique rationality loses its former clarity and becomes ever more blurred and indeterminate. At the very least, it becomes clear that not only theoretical knowledge but also human practical behaviour, unmediated by any theory, can be rational. The rationality of actions presupposes, at the very least, that they are motivated. Motivation, in turn, is conditioned, on the one hand, by givenness—the factual state of affairs, the objective circumstances in which a person finds themself—and, on the other, by “setness”, that is, by their understanding and interpretation of these circumstances. Depending on the meaning ascribed to them, human behaviour in one and the same situation may be markedly different— indeed, even diametrically opposed. Givenness is determined by the past: all circumstances are conditioned by events that have already taken place and which, in their totality, have led to the present state. “Setness” is not directly present in the present. It is, rather, an impulse, an orientation towards the realisation of a certain imperative that is offered to the person, or posited by themself, as an ideal or a norm. Thus, the present in which a person finds themself constitutes a rupture between givenness (the past) and setness (the projection of the future). It is within this rupture that real human life unfolds, as a person, through their reflections and actions, continually reconnects the thread of their own being. Setness, like givenness, is something external to the individual; therefore, the striving towards it may be interpreted as an ever-renewed attempt to transcend the boundaries of givenness, as a striving towards transcendence. Science is one of the forms in which this striving is realised, insofar as it represents a way of transcending setness through the formulation of laws of nature and methodological principles of thought. However, science is not the only form in which such striving is embodied. I. Prigozhin, e.g., writes that “Europeans live at the intersection of at least two different systems of values: on the one hand, scientific rationality, and on the other, the rationality of collective behaviour.” (Prigozhin, 1989) Yet rationality, whatever form it takes, is always grounded in a conscious conviction or instinctive belief in the existence, in the world, of a certain definite and stable order. The very presence of such a conviction (or belief) serves as the deepest foundation for affirming ontological determinations of being, whilst the concrete content of these determinations largely depends on the content of the fundamental convictions or beliefs characteristic of a particular historical epoch. How and from what do such convictions and beliefs arise? How do they influence the content of our ontological representations? How do they change, and what happens as a result of these changes? In prehistoric thought there may have been nothing at all—and, in all likelihood, indeed there was nothing—resembling contemporary scientific conceptions of nature as an ordered sequence of phenomena linked by causal relations. Yet this can scarcely be taken to mean that prehistoric thought was altogether devoid of the idea of the world’s orderedness. Rather, one may speak not of the absence but of the different character of this order. That which appears 143 to contemporary scientific consciousness as nature external—and even opposed—to the human being, appeared to the ancient human as the immediate continuation of their life-world, which was tightly bound by a system of moral or legal norms. The social order regulating human behaviour was extended to the entire world, an understanding of which was constructed not on causal (cause–effect) but on normative (guilt–retribution) relations. Ethnographic research indicates that the notion that the human being is responsible for everything that happens in the world belongs among the most archaic stereotypes of thought (Fragments…, 1989). Many ethnographers note that the prehistoric human interpreted what we call natural phenomena not as spontaneous events indifferent to their fate, but strictly in accordance with the principle of retribution, regarding favourable events as reward and unfavourable ones as punishment. The dualism between nature as a causal order and society as a normative order was wholly alien to prehistoric consciousness, just as it is (albeit with the opposite sign) to the scientistic consciousness of the contemporary human. Potentially, a worldview grounded in normative relations differs substantially from a causal one, although mytho-religious consciousness may, for a long time, remain entirely insensitive to this difference. For such consciousness, the connection between natural phenomena, just as between social phenomena, is the result of divine ordinance, and the laws of nature—like social laws—are nothing other than the expression of the will of the creator: norms prescribing to natural objects certain rules of behaviour, the violation of which entails inevitable punishment. It is noteworthy that in ancient Greece both cause and guilt were designated by the same word— atria (Diogenes Laërtius, 1979). Apparently, the conception of the law of causal relations arises through a re-interpretation of the concept of law-as-norm, which binds guilt and retribution. The transition from normative order to causal order consists in the human being’s realisation that relations between things, unlike relations between people, are independent of both human and supra-human will, or, which amounts to the same thing, are not determined by norms. However, this transition was neither simple nor instantaneous. The history of the formation of the conviction that there exists a completely impersonal natural order—a conviction that constitutes the ontological core of classical rationality— stretches from the first natural philosophers of ancient Greece to the meta-scientific investigations of Galileo, Descartes and Newton. Already in Plato’s philosophy, the conception of the Cosmos as a hierarchically organised system is formed, in which the ideal world is separated from, and opposed to, the world of objects. This higher world of pure essences is interpreted as the eternal and immutable prototype (the ideal plan) according to which the order of things and phenomena that constitute the human being’s immediate environment arises and exists. The order of the phenomenal world is given to us as a reflection of that order which exists in the ideal world, yet as a reflection that is crude, inexact and approximate. True being is not given to us in our immediate experience. Therefore, the comprehension of universal laws and the true meaning of being is attainable exclusively by means of pure intellectual contemplation. Empirical cognition does not even deserve to be called knowledge; it is designated by the special term “opinion”. Genuine knowledge is the result of intellectual vision that discloses the pre-given order and meaning of the being of the world and, therefore, the genuine vocation of the human being (Hempel, 1965; Popper, 1959). 144 Nevertheless, a complete separation of causality from normativity does not occur even in ancient philosophy. A significant number of ancient authors continue to interpret the law of nature precisely as an established order, and the notion of cause is scarcely distinguished from that of fate: “Everything happens by the decree of fate, as Chrysippus… Posidonius, Zeno, as well as Boethus, say <…> Fate is the continuous [chain] of causes of what exists, or the reason according to which the universe is governed.” (Diogenes Laërtius, 1979) Even by the seventeenth century this separation can still not be regarded as fully accomplished. Thus, in his Discourse on the Method Descartes speaks of laws ‘established by God in nature’, and in a letter to Mersenne he asserts that “God has established these laws… just as a sovereign establishes laws in his kingdom.” (Kline, 1984) The decisive step towards a complete separation of causal order from normative order is taken by Newton when he endows the law of nature with a universal and all-encompassing character. In affirming the unity of the laws of celestial and terrestrial mechanics, Newton proceeds from a firm conviction in the existence of a single, unique world order embracing all phenomena of both the supra-lunar and the sub-lunar worlds. The ancient conception of the Cosmos as a hierarchically ordered system is replaced by the foundational modern scientific idea of the Universe, whose order and laws apply equally to the motion of the heavenly bodies and to the displacement of terrestrial objects, all describable by one and the same set of mathematical formulae. And although in Newton’s own fundamental convictions we still find reminiscences of the ancient normative order, from his theism it is but “a step” not only to Leibnizian deism, but also to Laplace’s radical determinism, which definitively expels the idea of sovereign will (as the basis of normativity) beyond the bounds of science (and rationality in general). From this new perspective a strange and previously unknown world opens up before the human being—a world governed by a single universal set of causal laws that admit of precise mathematical expression. Yet a law is perceived by us as a truth, excluding the possibility of any contrary propositions, only when it is sanctioned by a supreme authority. In this “new world” such an authority is assumed by science, which claims both supreme knowledge and supreme power. Science’s claim to the role of supreme authority rests on the fundamental conviction that the causal order prevailing in the world makes it possible (provided certain logical and methodological procedures are observed) to correlate each phenomenon precisely and unambiguously with all that precedes and all that follows it. The unpredictability of particular events is viewed, from a causal standpoint, as a purely epistemological phenomenon lacking any ontological presuppositions. Nothing that occurs comes into being without an appropriate cause. Surprises exist only for us, and only insofar as we have not yet discovered all these causes. We hope to use the causal connections already known and comprehended by us as means for achieving our own ends, but the constant intervention in our activity of innumerable regularities as yet unknown to us leads to a situation in which, contrary to our will, we ourselves become one of the means for the manifestation of some global necessity. The principle of causality, regarded as a fundamental ontological characteristic of being, implies that a person can realise their striving for freedom only by subjecting their life to a universal objective law. To dispose freely of their future, an individual thinking in categories of 145 causality must exclude from consciousness everything contingent, retaining therein only what is necessary. In other words, in order to be free, a person must become necessary not only in their means, but above all in their motives and ends: they must not desire anything that is not “provided for” by objective necessity. Strict adherence to the causal principle does not allow us to regard our own activity as fully autonomous. For if each of our actions is the “resultant” of a multitude of objective factors, many of which we do not even recognise, then our behaviour is determined by something other than our will. “Science”, writes F. M. Dostoevsky in Notes from Underground, “will teach man that… everything he does is done not at all according to his desire, but of itself, according to the laws of nature. Consequently, once these laws are discovered, man will no longer be responsible for his actions.” Causal thinking is formed as the result of a sufficiently long process of radical transformation in conceptions of how the world is ordered. The world of traditional society is a world governed by normative (social) order, which is also extended to the whole surrounding reality. The modern European world is a world of causal (natural) order, to which there is now an attempt to subordinate both society and the individual. This world is literally created in the process of the formation of European science and appears to us as the result of a change in the most fundamental ontological representations of the order that governs the world. Leibniz, one of the most authoritative creators of the new science, holds that the order prevailing in the world is such that “every complete action represents [its] complete cause”, and therefore “from knowledge of this action I can always arrive at knowledge of its cause.” (Leibniz, 1984). If the cause is ‘fully represented’ in the effect, this means that the logic of our cognition must be just as sequential and uninterrupted as the chain of causal connections in nature itself. Strictly speaking, however, what is at stake here is less an epistemological than an ontological principle. Leibniz’s conviction of the causal nature of the fundamental world order presupposes that all events form a continuous series, in which causes and effects are absolutely contiguous, with no “gaps” between them. The world is revealed to us as a certain perfect unity, as an integral, nowhere ruptured succession of phenomena connected with one another by relations of necessity. Yet this thesis is nothing other than a particular ontological principle, tacitly present at the foundation of classical science. According to this principle, the whole of nature is unconditionally subject to mathematically formulated laws, whose operation is manifested in the inexorability of causal relations. Within such a framework, there is simply nowhere for the human being to “insert” their free will, the manifestation of which is always associated with the emergence of a “gap”, a break in continuity. As a result, an attitude becomes established and widely diffused in which nature is conceived as a kind of a-historical entity. For if the complete cause of any phenomenon is contained within it as its complete effect, this means that they are equivalent. But the equivalence of cause and effect, in turn, implies nothing other than the reversibility of time (at least in a logical sense). And if physically we are incapable of turning the world process backwards, then to enact such retrograde movement logically is not only possible, but constitutes the direct duty of the person of science. The notion of the a-historical character of scientific laws, relating first and foremost to the sphere of natural processes, gradually spreads into the sphere of human existence. 146 Over the past three hundred years this Leibnizian “formula” of the fundamental world order has become dominant not only among scholars and philosophers; even in everyday consciousness there has taken shape a stable conviction in the inviolability of causal laws, which organise everything that happens in the world into uninterrupted chains of cause and effect stretching from an infinite past into an infinite future (Leibniz, 1984). However, by the midtwentieth century, among professionals—philosophers, scientists and methodologists of science—confidence in the all-embracing character of the causal world order loses its former firmness. Disillusionment with the ideals of universal determinism grows. As a result, the fundamental premises of classical modern rationality—the ontological principle of the continuity of causal relations and the epistemological principle of the unity of the system of rational knowledge organically bound up with it—are called into question. The break with tradition is experienced so acutely that Gaston Bachelard (1986) characterises the very idea of universal determinism of the Leibnizian type as an incredible, monstrous idea. Here, as in the case of forming the classical ideal, the change in epistemological perspective and the revision of ontological foundations are inseparably linked with a change in conceptions of the prevailing world order. It is precisely on the basis of such conceptions that our preliminary assumptions are formed concerning what is truly significant and meaningful in this world (Bhaskar, 2008). The most fundamental ontological presupposition of classical science—the being of nature as the ultimate givenness existing “in itself”, independently of our human existence—becomes unacceptable under new conditions. Yet together with the differentiation of natural and human being, the conception of the world as some absolute, indivisible unity, subject in all its spheres and manifestations to one and the same universal causal laws, also becomes unacceptable. If, from the standpoint of the classical ideal, all relations, both in the sphere of nature and in the sphere of the human life-world, were regarded as internal relations between elements of a single, unique system, there now arises the possibility of taking into account external influences whose operation disrupts the rigid linearity of classical determinism. The “image of the world” changes not only through the natural causal processes unfolding within it. A transformation in the conceptual organisation of thought may provide us with a wholly different structure for the articulation of being, opening up a new perspective in which not only the meaning and significance of familiar things change, but we in effect find ourselves in a new world, with different objects and different facts. The very principles of the structuring of being are now considered not as something originally inscribed into the nature of the world, but as the result of the adoption of particular meta-paradigmatic stances. The choice in favour of a given conception of world order is a creative act that rests not so much on discursive reflection as on a volitional decision, which constitutes a rupture in the chain of causal (and logical) relations. Such a choice can neither be reduced to any formalised algorithm nor derived from preceding history as an effect from its cause. From the standpoint of classical rationality, this is an irrational act. In reality, however, what is at issue here is not so much irrationality as a different, non-classical type of rationality—the rationality of “collective behaviour”. In any case, we are dealing here with the choice of a particular model of communal life. However, unlike the causal order of classical rationality, normative world order is no longer regarded either as an absolute, eternal characteristic of being and thought as such, or as the result of the operation of some powerful transcendental sovereign will. This order is understood 147 as one established or recognised by human beings, rather than by a supra-human power, and therefore as having normative force only within the confines of a given cultural community or historical epoch. The internal difference between causality and normativity as principles of the organisation of world order consists above all in the following. From a causal perspective, any phenomenon is viewed as the effect of some cause and at the same time as the cause of some other effect; therefore, the causal chain appears as a continuous, nowhere broken line that issues from infinity and recedes into infinity (Heidegger, 1962). The normative perspective, in contrast to the causal, presupposes a quite definite beginning—that very creative act of the free choice of a metaparadigmatic stance through which the boundary conditions are set for the functioning not only of a particular type of thinking but of the life of the social organism as a whole. It is precisely in this fundamental difference between causality and normativity that the opposition between the necessity that prevails in nature and human freedom is rooted. That the human being is free means precisely that, in affirming particular norms, they can act as the initial (first) link in a certain causal series. In taking such a decision, they act as the cause of effects, and not as the effect of a cause. This understanding of freedom differs radically from the “recognised necessity” of the causal tradition. The unfolding of a causal sequence takes place as a smooth transition from one possible world to another. An act of freedom is a break in continuity that irreversibly carries us into another world, which is at once created by this very act. Here we are no longer speaking of a cause but, rather, of guilt. We are guilty of this transition; we have created this world, and we are responsible for the fact that it now exists. Guilt here is understood not in a moral-evaluative, but in an ambivalent (metaphysical) sense, for the emergence of either good or evil from our action is equally probable (Berger & Luckmann, 2009). Responsibility therefore signifies not punishment, but the awareness of one’s active participation in life, one’s belonging to being. Thus, after several centuries of persistent attempts not only to create a science of nature based on the idea of pure causal order, but also to construct, on this basis, a “social physics” entirely free of values, we arrive at the conclusion that it is impossible fully to reduce normative order to causal order. Yet the idea of the complete absorption of causal order into normative order is, in all likelihood, equally untenable. What is crucial here is the recognition of the complexity and multi-layered character of the world and, consequently, the impossibility of discovering some kind of universal “master-key” method that would operate with equal effectiveness in both the natural and the socio-humanitarian spheres (Bakhtin, 2011; Balakhonsky, 1997; Bransky, 2006). It is more reasonable to acknowledge the existence of two fundamental metaphysical principles, which interpret in different ways the character of human actions. The metaphysics of causality prefers to regard them as successive links in a certain universal chain. Freedom is here understood as strict adherence to this chain, any deviation from which is interpreted as unequivocal evil. The metaphysics of normativity, by contrast, prefers to regard human actions as autonomous acts of the realisation of freedom, for each of which the individual bears full responsibility. 148 Discussion The analysis of the research findings demonstrates that the problem of the relation between causality and normativity has acquired particular significance in contemporary philosophy. Historical shifts in the structure of scientific rationality have revealed the limitations of classical explanatory models grounded in linear causation and, consequently, have highlighted the necessity of addressing the normative dimension of human action. As scholars have noted, classical scientific rationality sought to construct a universal causal order in which the past, present and future were bound together by an unbroken chain of causes and effects (Bunge, 1959; Popper, 1959). Yet it was precisely this universality and immutability that generated difficulties in accounting for human history, which is shaped by freedom, choice and responsibility rather than by the substantive regularities of nature alone. The issue lies in the fact that historical knowledge cannot be reduced to a natural-scientific explanatory model, for it concerns not only events but also motivations, values and normative orientations that shape the horizon of human existence. It is this distinction, emphasised by contemporary philosophy, that becomes central in the interpretation of the research material. The works of Bakhtin (2011) and Balakhonsky (1997) show that historical explanation is always tied to the interpretation of aims and worldview structures characteristic of a given epoch, which resist causal reduction. Thus, the key question emerging within the discussion is how the causal and normative dimensions of history may be brought together without diminishing the significance of either. A historical examination of the problem reveals that causality was long understood as a form of normative order rather than as a law of nature independent of human thought. In primitive societies, the connection between events was interpreted through the model of ‘guilt and retribution’, with nature itself perceived as an extension of the moral order (Fragments…, 1989). Even in antiquity, as evidenced by the writings of Diogenes Laërtius (1979), causality was frequently conceived through the prism of fate—i.e., a normative law of being. Only with the rise of early modern science did a radical separation of normativity and causality take place, reflected in the works of Descartes and Newton and systematised in the logical-mathematical framework of the Principia Mathematica (Whitehead & Russell, 1910). Yet it is this very model, as Kline (1984) emphasises, that begins to disintegrate in the twentieth century. Bachelard introduces the notion of ‘technical determinism’, which, unlike its metaphysical predecessor, acknowledges the complexity of the material world and the presence of discontinuities in scientific knowledge (Bachelard, 1986). The crisis of total determinism is articulated most clearly by Prigozhin, who argues for the irreversibility of time, the openness of the future and the impossibility of reducing the world to mathematical formulations (Prigozhin, 1989). These ideas redirect philosophical attention back to the normative structures of human activity, for choice, creativity and responsibility become central to the historical process. A second major group of problems concerns the metaphysics of freedom. As the analysis of philosophical texts shows, freedom cannot be described in terms of causal necessity, for freedom presupposes the subject’s capacity to break the causal chain and initiate a new sequence of events. Anscombe (1971) observes that causation is not a universal form for describing all types of events, and that human action requires a distinct logical form of explanation. Arendt (1958) maintains that action is a ‘beginning’ that cannot be derived from preceding conditions. 149 This claim directly contradicts Leibniz’s classical determinism (1984) and the logical universalism of Whitehead and Russell (1910). Another important set of problems emerges from phenomenological and hermeneutic research. Heidegger (1962) demonstrates that understanding is always rooted in the world of lived meanings and cannot be reduced to formal logic. Foucault (1972) argues that epistemological ruptures are an integral aspect of the development of knowledge, and that different historical epochs generate distinct discursive rules governing the ways in which the world is explained. This implies that causality and normativity are not eternal and unchanging categories but depend on the cultural matrix of a given epoch. In light of the research examined, it may be argued that the article reveals a dual movement in contemporary philosophy: on the one hand, an intensifying critique of the universal causal model, and on the other, a growing interest in normativity as an inner principle of human action. This tendency develops within analytic philosophy, hermeneutics, critical realism (Bhaskar, 2008), the philosophy of action (Taylor, 1985), and phenomenology. The prospects for further study lie in the construction of an integrative model of historical cognition that accommodates both causal dependencies and normative structures. Such a model must draw upon the ideas of complex systems, non-linearity and an open future, as well as on a philosophy of action in which freedom is treated as a genuine ontological foundation rather than an illusion arising from ignorance of causes. A necessary direction for development is the expansion of interdisciplinary approaches linking philosophy, history, cognitive science and the sociology of knowledge (Berger & Luckmann, 2009). Thus, the discussion shows that the problem of the interrelation between causality and normativity extends beyond a narrowly philosophical question and becomes central to understanding human history. Contemporary philosophy is gradually abandoning the notion of universal causal continuity and directing attention to the complexity, contextuality and creativity of human activity, thereby opening the way towards new methodological models of historical thought. Conclusion The research undertaken enables the central results to be synthesised and confirms the achievement of the aims and objectives formulated in the Introduction. The analysis of the metaphysical foundations of causality and normativity demonstrates that these principles possess different ontological natures yet jointly determine the structure of human existence and the modes of historical cognition. The historical-philosophical material indicates that causality was originally linked to normative order rather than to natural-scientific law, as evidenced by ancient sources (Diogenes Laërtius, 1979; Fragments…, 1989). The gradual differentiation of these concepts proceeded in parallel with the formation of classical rationality and culminated in the scientific systems of the early modern period (Leibniz, 1984; Whitehead & Russell, 1910). However, the classical model of causality proved incapable of explaining the phenomena of human activity, which are bound up with freedom, initiative and responsibility. This problem became central for the non-classical philosophy of science of the 20th century. The works of Bachelard (1986), Kline (1984) and Prigozhin (1989) reveal that the mechanistic worldview does not correspond to the actual structure of scientific knowledge and fails to account for non- 150 linearity, indeterminacy and eventfulness. These ideas confirm the necessity of revising the metaphysical foundations of scientific rationality and returning to the problem of normative structures that guide human behaviour. The metaphysics of freedom occupies a key position in this context. Anscombe (1971) and Lewis (1973) demonstrated that traditional models of causality are unsuitable for describing human actions, which are not effects of necessary conditions but constitute contextual and modal forms of existence. In the works of Arendt (1958) and Heidegger (1962), freedom is defined as the capacity to initiate something new rather than as ‘recognised necessity’, which radically contradicts classical determinism. Normativity thus becomes not an external constraint but an internal condition of human existence. Accordingly, the research confirms that historical cognition is impossible without taking normative structures into account. As shown by Bakhtin (2011), Balakhonsky (1997) and Bransky (2006), the meaning of history cannot be derived from causal relations alone, for historical action is rooted in values, motives and collective commitments. Contemporary sociology of knowledge (Berger & Luckmann, 2009) likewise demonstrates that social reality is created through processes of institutionalisation and interpretation rather than through the mechanical operation of causal regularities. At the same time, a complete abandonment of causality is equally impossible. As emphasised by Bunge (1959) and Hempel (1965), causal explanations remain indispensable for scientific rationality, though they must be supplemented by other forms of analysis. Bhaskar’s critical realism (2008) shows that reality is stratified and that causality operates at multiple levels, making its reduction to a single model untenable. As a result, the study demonstrates that the most promising approach is an integrative model of rationality that brings together causal and normative elements. Such a model takes into account: • the historical variability of structures of thought; • the non-linear character of events; • the significance of freedom as an ontological foundation; • the role of cultural and social norms; • the necessity of complex explanatory models. All the objectives set out in the Introduction have been achieved. It has been established that causality and normativity constitute two fundamental metaphysical principles that cannot be reduced to one another. The study has shown that historical cognition requires their joint consideration. It has been demonstrated that freedom arises as a creative rupture of causal continuity and becomes the basis of normative order. Contemporary philosophical research confirms the necessity of multidimensional rationality that combines explanation and interpretation. Accordingly, it may be concluded that the further development of this topic is associated with the construction of an integrative philosophy of history capable of uniting the metaphysical, epistemological and socio-cultural foundations of human action. This involves advancing interdisciplinary approaches, studying the dynamics of normative systems, analysing the complexity of historical processes and rethinking the categories of rationality in the context 151 of contemporary science. The research conducted opens a wide range of opportunities for further philosophical inquiry and affirms the significance of this direction for modern theoretical thought. Conflict of Interest The author declares that there is no conflict of interest. References: Anscombe, G. E. M. (1971). Causality and determination: An inaugural lecture. Cambridge University Press. https://www.librarything.com/work/18392137 Arendt, H. (1958). The human condition. 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