Entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries: a literature review

Moritz, Alexandra; Block, Joern H.; Morina, Fuad Article — Published Version Entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries: a literature review Review of Managerial Science Provided in Cooperation with: Springer Nature Suggested Citation: Moritz, Alexandra; Block, Joern H.; Morina, Fuad (2023) : Entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries: a literature review, Review of Managerial Science, ISSN 1863-6691, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, Vol. 18, Iss. 10, pp. 3025-3083, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-023-00705-1 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/318239 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Vol.:(0123456789) Review of Managerial Science (2024) 18:3025–3083 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-023-00705-1 1 3 REVIEW PAPER Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature review AlexandraMoritz1· JoernH.Block2,3 · FuadMorina2 Received: 15 September 2022 / Accepted: 28 September 2023 / Published online: 25 October 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Many countries are in a state of post-conflict, a situation where an armed conflict between countries or within a country has just come to an end. Such countries are typically poor and characterized by political instability, economic problems and social unrest. Entrepreneurship is considered crucial for such countries as a driver of economic recovery and peacebuilding. However, the exact role and effect of entrepreneurship in a post-conflict context is not well understood and an integrative perspective is needed. Our study reviews the fragmented knowledge on entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries. We structure the literature into four distinct categories (when and where, who and why, how, and impact) and develop an integrative conceptual model. Our review reveals research gaps and suggests directions for future research on entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries. Our study also helps policy-makers to design an effective entrepreneurship policy considering the specific requirements of post-conflict contexts. Keywords Entrepreneurship· Post-conflict country· Peacebuilding· Economic recovery· Systematic literature review JEL Classification M13—Business Administration—New Firms/Startups· O43—Economic Growth—Institutions and Growth· P45 Economic Systems— International Trade, Finance, Investment and Aid * Joern H. Block [email protected] Alexandra Moritz [email protected] Fuad Morina [email protected] 1 Hochschule Koblenz, Konrad-Zuse-Straße 1, 56075Koblenz, Germany 2 Professur für Unternehmensführung, Trier University, 54296Trier, Germany 3 Erasmus School ofEconomics, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box1738, 3000DRRotterdam, TheNetherlands 3026 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 1 Introduction When an armed conflict between countries or within a country comes to an end, a post-conflict phase starts. Following the definition of the Upsala Conflict Data Program (USDP) such a phase requires a stop of armed hostilities and an annual tally of battle-related deaths below 25. This transitional phase is often characterized by the triumph of one party, the commencement of peace negotiations, and/or the establishment of a ceasefire (Kreutz 2010). Many countries are (or were) in such a situation.1 Such post-conflict countries frequently remain in a state of instability and struggle with a legacy of violence over a long time (Junne and Verkoren 2005). They are often poor and characterized by political instability, economic problems and social unrest (Brown etal. 2009). There is no universally fixed duration for a postconflict phase, and it can last for years or even decades in some cases. Signs that a post-conflict phase comes to an end are the establishment of stability and security through disarmament, the restoration of law and order, the implementation of peace agreements, and ultimately, the resolution of the underlying issues. Developing countries that are in a post-conflict phase, which account for approximately 1.8 billion people worldwide (OECD 2018; UNDP 2019), is an important challenge of our time (George etal. 2016). Governments and governmental institutions have undertaken efforts to support these countries in their transitions to peace and economic stability (Reychler and Langer 2006). During such transition processes, the countries are typically fragile, and recurring instances of violence challenge the peacebuilding efforts (Junne and Verkoren 2005). However, peace and functioning legal systems present important prerequisites for sustainable development and are among the main goals of the United Nations (George etal. 2016; UN 2015). The ways in which countries address these challenges vary, and different approaches to post-conflict reconstruction can be observed (OECD 2007, 2016; World Bank 1998). Many of these approaches have in common that they aim to establish an environment where business activity can prosper. Entrepreneurial activity, in particular, has been argued to be a way to achieve fast progress in rebuilding efforts, sustainable economic development and the transition of post-conflict countries (Berdal and Mousavizadeh 2010; Bozzoli etal. 2013; Bray 2009; Castillo 2003; Desai 2011; Kang and Meernik 2005; Kusago 2005; Rapp and Olbrich 2021). However, entrepreneurship in a post-conflict environment differs from entrepreneurship in a normal business context. The post-conflict environment constitutes a specific context for entrepreneurial activities, and our knowledge from the literature about entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship policy cannot be simply applied. This calls for a contextualized view of entrepreneurship that considers the particular historical, temporal, institutional, spatial, and social context of post-conflict countries and societies (Welter 2011). However, to date, the knowledge regarding the role and impact of entrepreneurship in a post-conflict context is fragmented across a multitude of disciplines, research fields, and academic journals. Our study aims to consolidate and structure this literature in a systematic and integrative way (Kraus etal. 2020). 1 Please also refer to the UCDP Conflict Termination Dataset, available at: https:// ucdp. uu. se/ downl oads/ index. html# termi nation. 3027 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Our review is guided by the following two research questions: How does the postconflict context affect the entrepreneurial process? What is the impact of entrepreneurship on post-conflict countries? Answering these questions is important to understand whether, how and under which circumstances entrepreneurship can support post-conflict countries on their way to economic recovery and peacebuilding (Acs 2006). In our efforts to structure the literature and develop a conceptual model we are guided by prior research about the entrepreneurial process in different contexts (Welter 2011; Welter and Baker 2020). Accordingly, we classify the identified literature in four distinct categories: where and when entrepreneurship occurs in post-conflict countries, who is involved and why, how entrepreneurship occurs and with what impact. Our literature review comprises 71 articles from 2001 to 2022. We conduct a comprehensive, evidence-based and content-centric review of the current body of knowledge, identify research gaps and offer ideas for future research about entrepreneurship in a postconflict context. Our review contributes to entrepreneurship research in two ways. Our first contribution concerns the literature on entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries (e.g., Bardasi etal. 2011; Boudreaux 2007; de Mel etal. 2014; Krasniqi 2007; Riddle and Brinkerhoff 2011). This literature stream is not only highly fragmented but also multiand interdisciplinary and lacks a summary of the current evidence. Even more importantly, it lacks a clear conceptual and theoretical perspective or model that incorporates the existing knowledge and provides a starting point for impactful future research. The result of our literature review is such a conceptual model based on concepts from the broader entrepreneurship literature contextualized to the specific context of post-conflict countries. Our study reveals the mechanisms of how entrepreneurship is influenced by a post-conflict context and shows how entrepreneurship affects the economic recovery and peacebuilding in post-conflict countries. In light of the political efforts undertaken in this area and given the current global developments, answering these questions is more important than ever. Furthermore, our model helps to identify promising research gaps and provides avenues for future research. Our second contribution refers to the discussion of context in entrepreneurship research (Welter 2011; Welter and Baker 2020). The results of our study show that the interplay of entrepreneurship and context is not a unilateral process but a bidirectional one. The phenomenon of entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries is a good example of how the contextualized view of entrepreneurship can be understood as both a top-down and a bottom-up process (Welter 2011). The particular context of post-conflict countries determines where, when, and how entrepreneurship is pursued by whom, why, and with what impact (top-down) and how entrepreneurship changes and affects the situation in post-conflict countries through economic recovery and peacebuilding (bottom-up). Next to these contributions to the literature, our study helps policy-makers in post-conflict countries and guides them in their transition efforts using entrepreneurship (policy) to put their countries on a path to economic recovery and peace (Abramov 2009; Desai 2011; Krasniqi 2007; Tobias and Boudreaux 2011). Our review provides evidence about the impacts of specific entrepreneurship initiatives 3028 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 and programs and under what conditions such an impact occurs. It shows possible directions for targeted programs and initiatives to support entrepreneurship in postconflict countries. 2 Conceptual foundations andresearch questions This section briefly describes our understanding of the main concepts in our study, namely post-conflict country, entrepreneurship, and (entrepreneurship) context. These concepts are then used to formulate our research questions. Post-conflict countries are countries where a prior warfare situation has come to an end, and which are in a transition period to peace. A post-conflict period, as defined by the Upsala Conflict Data Program (UCDP), refers to the time period after an armed conflict. Such an armed conflict is characterized by three elements: (1) a declared incompatibility, (2) the involvement of organized groups, including at least one government entity, and (3) the occurrence of armed activities leading to a minimum of 25 battle-related deaths within a given year (Kreutz 2010). As per this definition, a conflict is considered terminated once the armed activities have come to an end and the number of battle-related deaths within a year falls below 25. In addition, such a situation is typically marked by the victory of one party, the start of peace negotiations and/or a ceasefire agreement (Kreutz 2010). Entrepreneurship is not a single task or step but a process that unfolds over time (Baron 2007; Shane and Venkataraman 2000). Shane (2003) puts entrepreneurship into a framework describing the steps of the entrepreneurial process and considers the influence of the environment and the individual on the process. The entrepreneurial process is about opportunities that must be created or discovered (Ramoglou and Gartner 2022), then exploited and finally realized. Whether these opportunities are discovered and how they are exploited, however, depends on the individuals involved and their specific characteristics (psychological and demographic). Furthermore, Shane (2003) highlights that environmental factors can affect the entrepreneurial process in various ways. Shane’s primary focus lies in the entrepreneurial process and does not explicitly explore contextual aspects. This gap is closed by the contributions of Welter (2011) and Welter and Baker (2020), who conduct a comprehensive examination of context as a critical determinant in shaping entrepreneurial (decision-making) processes. According to their context model of entrepreneurship, context comprises a temporal (when) and a local (where) dimension, which is the spatial location where entrepreneurship occurs (Welter 2011). The where dimension can be further subdivided into business, social, spatial and institutional contexts (Welter 2011). While the business context involves industry and market conditions such as the industry lifecycle stages and market competition, the social context refers to the structure and density of social networks as well as household and family conditions. The spatial context covers the influence of geographical characteristics such as the infrastructure of a country and local communities. Lastly, the institutional context includes cultural and societal characteristics as well as the political and economic system (Welter 2011). Context can either be an asset or a liability for entrepreneurship as it 3029 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… provides individuals with entrepreneurial opportunities and influences their choices on how to exploit those opportunities (Rapp and Olbrich 2021) but also sets boundaries to their actions (Fernandes and Ferreira 2022). Hence, in addition to the questions about who becomes involved, why individuals act and how the entrepreneurial process unfolds, the context in which individuals act and in which entrepreneurship takes place must be viewed as an overarching element (Welter 2011; Welter and Baker 2020). Welter and Baker (2020) further argue that an impact dimension needs to be considered and that this dimension is not unilateral but bidirectional, that is, the context not only influences entrepreneurship but entrepreneurship also has an impact on the context. To understand the phenomenon of entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries, one needs to consider both the entrepreneurial process and the entrepreneurial context. The two elements work together in shaping entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries. The particular context of post-conflict countries provides opportunities for entrepreneurship but also sets boundaries andcreates specific challenges. Yet, the relationship is bidirectional. The outcome of the entrepreneurial process also has an influence on the context and impacts the situation of post-conflict countries through economic recovery and peacebuilding. Combining these different foundational concepts, our literature review is guided by the following research questions: (1) How does the specific post-conflict context (where and when) affect the entrepreneurial process (who, why and how)? (2) What impact does entrepreneurship (or the outcome of the entrepreneurial process) have on post-conflict countries? 3 Literature search andstudy selection To identify the relevant literature, we used a systematic approach following three steps. First, we determined the appropriate search keywords. Second, we identified all relevant papers, and third, we analyzed and structured the studies that we identified (Tranfield etal. 2003). Based on recommendations by Clark etal. (2020) and Fisch and Block (2018), we used academic research databases, such as ‘Web of Science’, ‘JSTOR’, and ‘Google Scholar’, to identify studies investigating entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries. Subsequently, we searched journal publisher databases (Emerald, Taylor & Francis, SAGE, Springer, Elsevier, Wiley) for further publications. The topic of entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries involves two terms: entrepreneurship and post-conflict. To ensure the inclusion of both terms and the related keywords in our search, we used two search strings. While the first string included all possible entrepreneurshipand small-business-related keywords,2 the second string included all post-conflict-related keywords.3 Figure 1 depicts our 2 Entrepreneurship-related keywords used: “entrepreneurship” or “entrepreneurial” or “entrepreneur” or “SME” or “small and medium enterprises” or “start-up” or “startup” or “venture” or “micro-firm”. 3 Post-conflict-related keywords used: “post-conflict” or “postconflict” or “post-war” or “post-civil conflict” or “post-civil war” or “post-ethnic conflict” or “fragile state”. 3030 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 methodological approach step by step to provide transparency and enable replicability (Kraus etal. 2020). Initially, our title and abstract search identified 698 studies (step 1). To identify the studies relevant for our review, we first removed duplicates (step 2) and focused only on studies in the subject areas of entrepreneurship and (small) business creation and excluded studies about established firms. At the second evaluation stage, we excluded book chapters, reports and conference papers due to their inconsistent and nontransparent peer review process. We also limited our review to English language journals (Tranfield etal. 2003). At this point, 345 articles remained (step 3). We read all abstracts (step 4) and decided to exclude another 57 articles focusing on governance and business conflict management, leaving 288 articles for the full textbased screening (step 5). After reading the papers, we excluded additional articles focusing on the pre-conflict and conflict period (113 articles) and papers that were not directly connected to entrepreneurship (23 articles), resulting in a sample of 152 articles (step 6). To ensure a high quality of the articles in our review, we finally excluded all articles published in journals without an impact factor. After this final step, 71 articles remained in our sample (step 7). These studies were published between 2001 and 2022. IDENTIFICATION SCREENING ELIGBILITY INCLUDED (1) Records idenfied through database searching [n=698] Idenfied from SCOPUS, Web of Science, World Bank and OECD database (tle and abstract search) (2) Records aer duplicates removed [n=685] (3) Records aer first screening [n=345] Records excluded [n=340] •Arcles other than in the area of entrepreneurship and business creaon •Conference proceedings/Book chapters/Reports/Working Papers •Limited review to English language journals (4) Abstracts read for eligibility [345] (5) Arcles included for further assessment [n=288] (7) Arcles included in review [n=71] Records excluded [n=81] 1. Excluded all arcles published in journals without an impact factor Records excluded[n=57] •Excluded arcles on governance and business conflict management (6) Arcles included aer final assessment [n=152] Records excluded[n=136] •Excluded arcles on pre-conflict and conflict periods [n=113] •Excluded arcles not directly connected to entrepreneurship [n=23] Fig. 1 PRISMA chart 3031 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… We categorized the 71 studies according to the dimensions when and where (with the sub-dimension ‘business’, ‘social’, ‘spatial’ and ‘institutional’ identified by Welter (2011) and described in Chapter2), who and why, how and impact. While all three authors of this paper were involved in the development of the coding scheme, two of the three authors conducted the final classification of studies. One author provided the initial proposal for classifying the papers, while the second author double-checked this classification. In addition, an experienced researcher who was not involved as an author independently classified all papers into the different categories. We discussed coding differences and adapted the allocation of the respective studies accordingly. 4 Descriptive analysis oftheidentified literature 4.1 Publications byyear Prior to 2001, no studies that met our research criteria could be identified. Between 2001 and 2011, the number of published articles did not exceed two articles per year. Since then, the research output has reached its peak with 11 published articles in 2018. There are two possible reasons for this development. First, the importance of entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries has gained increasing recognition among politicians and academics. Second, the number of conflicts in the world has grown, especially after the Arab Spring in the Middle East starting in 2011. The number of studies decreased after 2018, which can be explained by the end of many conflicts, especially in the Middle East. It remains to be seen how publication activity will develop in the future given the current conflicts and wars. 4.2 Publication activity bygeographical location ofconflict In terms of regional coverage, with 15 publications,4 Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Uganda were the most researched regional contexts for entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries, followed by Rwanda (n = 6) and Sri Lanka (n = 6). Overall, with 28 publications, Europe was the most researched continent in our sample, followed by Africa (n = 26), Asia (n = 17), and the Americas (n = 1). Two articles did not have a specific geographical focus. 4.3 Publication activity bydiscipline andjournal The 71 articles in our sample were published in 47 journals from different disciplines, such as entrepreneurship, economics, development studies, management and organization, public policy, conflict studies, and sociology. The distribution of articles across a 4 The total number of studies across the different countries does not match the number of studies investigated in this review. This discrepancy arises from the fact that certain studies encompass multiple countries in their research scope. 3032 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 wide range of journals and disciplines highlights the broad interest in the topic. Nevertheless, 41 studies in 20 journals can be attributed to the field of entrepreneurship and small businesses. In the area of economics, ten journals with 12 studies are included in our sample. In total, 25 studies are in the area of development studies, public policy and conflict studies. This also emphasizes the high political interest in the phenomenon. In total, the eight main contributing journals (> two publications each) published approximately 40% of our sample. It is noteworthy that we identified many journals from different research areas with only a few publications each underlining the fragmented nature of the research field. 4.4 Theories, concepts andbodies ofliterature used The range of theories or concepts to explain the phenomenon of entrepreneurship in post-conflict contexts is broad. Explicit references to specific theories are rare. Those studies that do mention theories use institutional theory (n = 9), social capital theory (n = 2), human capital theory (n = 1), the resource-based view (n = 1) and different theories of firm growth (n = 1). However, most studies do not make use an explicit theory but draw on prior research from different bodies of literature. In this context, concepts and frameworks from the entrepreneurship literature such as the determinants of entrepreneurship (and their relation to firm performance) (n = 5), female entrepreneurship (n = 5), entrepreneurial networks (n = 5) and entrepreneurial intentions (n = 2) are applied. Furthermore, the studies draw on different concepts from the strategic management and sociological literature. Moreover, another important research stream is the research on the importance of the private sector and trade for peacebuilding. Overall, the literature on entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries is fragmented with regard to its theory or literature base, and thus far, no dominant theoretical concept or perspective has emerged. 4.5 Methods used Twenty-eight studies in our sample are of a qualitative-empirical nature, whereas 41 studies are quantitative-empirical (two are conceptual). The most widely used research methods are surveys (n = 32), case studies (n = 15) and interview-based studies (n = 12). A smaller number of studies use mixed-method approaches, typically combining interviews with surveys or case studies (n = 10). 5 Findings oftheliterature review To answer our two research questions, we draw on the prior research described in Chapter2 and classify the literature on entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries into the four categories representing different research streams: when and where, 3039 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Furthermore, such countries tend to struggle with resources, widespread poverty (Langevang and Namatovu 2019; Sserwanga etal. 2014) and many other challenges affecting their aspiration to recover from conflict (Sserwanga etal. 2014). There is a broad consensus among researchers that entrepreneurial activities can play a crucial role in supporting economic recovery in this particular environment (Boudreaux 2007; Bray 2009; Kusago 2005; Matul and Tsilikounas 2004; Tobias etal. 2013). In the case of East Africa, entrepreneurial activities in Rwanda had a positive impact on the social exchange between former conflict parties, enhancing economic conditions and reducing poverty (Langevang and Namatovu 2019; Sserwanga etal. 2014; Tobias and Boudreaux 2011). In Uganda, social entrepreneurs were able to gather the required resources to solve social problems, help society, and achieve post-conflict recovery (Langevang and Namatovu 2019; Sserwanga et al. 2014). Moreover, they were promoters of change and solved many challenges that had been unaddressed by the government (Sserwanga etal. 2014). Boudreaux (2007) argues that the commercial activities of profit-oriented and hybrid organizations that combine social with economic aims (Kolk and Lenfant 2016) are a valuable path to reconciliation in post-conflict countries, as they promote cooperation between different parties including former enemies (Kopren and Westlund 2021). This can create prosperity as well as peace in such societies (Bray 2009; Tobias etal. 2013). 5.4.2 Peacebuilding Entrepreneurial activities can also play a decisive role in supporting peacebuilding efforts in post-conflict areas (Boudreaux 2007; Tobias etal. 2013; Tobias and Boudreaux 2011; Yoosuf and Premaratne 2017). By promoting exchange between former conflict parties and building social capital across ethnic lines (Kopren and Westlund 2021), entrepreneurship can reduce conflicts and encourage peace (Boudreaux 2007; Tobias etal. 2013). Rettberg (2016) argues that the three main factors that allow businesses to be involved in peacebuilding efforts are business needs (need), social change (creed), and profitability motivations (greed). In addition to the direct effects of entrepreneurship on peacebuilding, previous studies provide the first indications that entrepreneurship can also lead to cultural change in such societies. Particularly with regard to female entrepreneurship, some authors highlight that female entrepreneurial activities can have a positive effect on their social position not only within the family but also within the community in which they are embedded, which may initiate a redefinition of the role of women in society (Karki and Xheneti 2018; Xheneti etal. 2019). To summarize, studies investigating the impact dimension have observed that entrepreneurship plays a crucial role in revitalizing the economy, resolving social challenges, supporting peacebuilding, and initiating cultural change (e.g., Boudreaux 2007; Bray 2009; Djip 2014; Kusago 2005; Tobias etal. 2013). 3040 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 6 Discussion 6.1 Summary andintegrative conceptual model The aim of our literature review was to understand how the post-conflict context affects the entrepreneurial process and what impact entrepreneurship has on the development of post-conflict countries. We categorized the 71 studies identified according to their main topics into four categories, specifically when and where entrepreneurship happens, who and why individuals become involved in entrepreneurship and how the entrepreneurial process unfolds. Furthermore, we investigated the impact of entrepreneurship on the development of post-conflict countries in terms of economic recovery and peacebuilding. Based on our findings summarized in the previous chapter, we develop an integrative conceptual model (Fig.2). The model integrates the process model developed by Shane (2003), the context view of Welter (2011) and our findings about entrepreneurship in a post-conflict environment. Our literature review highlights that the post-conflict context influences not only the process of entrepreneurship (arrow A3) but also the emergence and creation of opportunities (arrow A1). Furthermore, the post-conflict context has a direct effect on the characteristics and attributes of the individuals engaging in entrepreneurship (arrow A2). As expected, our review highlights that the who and why dimensions cannot be considered separately but should be combined into one dimension and that the reasons of why people engage Entrepreneurial opportunies -Emergence -Creaon Discovery & evaluaon of opportunies Individual characteriscs and aributes -Socio-economic characteriscs -Human capital -Social capital -Psychological factors P Post-conflict environment Business, societal, and instuonal dimension Post-conflict environment -Peacebuilding -Economic recovery -Instuonal change - Society Exploitaon & execuon -Resource assembly (financing, skills, etc.) -Organizaonal design -Strategy & growth -Performance Who? Whenand where? How? Entrepreneurial processin post-conflict environment Why? Impact A1 C1 C2 D1 D2 D3 D4 B1 B2 Explanaons: A = Effect of post-conflict environment (where and when) on who and why and how B = Effect of individuals (who and why; in what way) on the process (how) C = Effect within the process (how) D = Effect on the post-conflict environment and retroacve effect of the impact on who and why, how and when and where In whatway? A2 A3 Cognive processes for discovery and evaluaon Fig. 2 Conceptual model 3041 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… in entrepreneurship directly affects the entrepreneurial process (how) (arrow B1). In addition, we find that the literature investigating the who and why dimension discuss in what way people act which also affects how opportunities are discovered, evaluated and exploited (arrow B2). Looking more closely at the entrepreneurial process (how), entrepreneurial opportunities must be discovered and evaluated (arrow C1) as well as exploited and executed (arrow C2). Finally, the entrepreneurial process affects the post-conflict environment (arrow D1). In line with Welter and Baker (2020), we find evidence that the interplay of entrepreneurship and context is not unilateral but bidirectional. Hence, there is a feedback loop, and the impact dimension affects the when and where of entrepreneurship (arrow D4) as well as the individuals involved (arrow D2) and the entrepreneurial process (arrow D3). In Appendix1, we assign the 71 studies of our literature review to the different conceptual categories (A1–D3) and describe briefly their main focus, approach used and key findings. 6.2 Implications fortheory andpractice We contribute to prior research on entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries and highlight that the literature investigating this topic is fragmented, multiand interdisciplinary and lacks a coherent theoretical framework. Aldairany et al. (2018), who provided a systematic review of 57 articles of entrepreneurship in a conflict context, did not distinguish between conflict and post-conflict contexts. However, this differentiation is necessary as post-conflict countries are already on their way to re-establishing their economies and regaining stability; therefore, the conditions for entrepreneurship in such countries differ substantially from those of conflict countries. To this end, we developed a contextualized conceptual model combining Shane’s (2003) entrepreneurial process model with Welter’s (2011) context lens and categorized the identified literature into four categories. Our study contributes to prior research by highlighting how these different categories are interrelated and affect each other. Furthermore, we confirm that the influence of context in entrepreneurship is not unibut bidirectional, meaning that the context influences the process of entrepreneurship and vice versa (Welter and Baker 2020). In addition, our review contributes to the call for management research to help tackle the grand challenges of our society (George etal. 2016). We show how and when entrepreneurship can be an actionable approach that can support post-conflict countries in achieving economic recovery and peace. This allows us to derive some practical implications of our study for (national and international) policy-makers. Our study can help them in the design and implementation of tailor-made programs and initiatives supporting entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries. For example, introducing appropriate entrepreneurial education programs can help motivate young people to actively search for and exploit entrepreneurial opportunities. As a result, the migration tendencies of young, well-educated people might be reduced, and their motivation to support the rebuilding of their countries might increase. Another option would be to implement programs by national and international 3042 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 organizations (Garriga and Phillips 2014; World Bank 2013) providing appropriate financial and other types of support for young companies. However, certain conditions should be attached to such programs so that the funds are used in the intended manner rather than for other purposes. Finally, policy makers could try to actively engage diaspora entrepreneurs in the process of economic recovery. Our review shows that diaspora entrepreneurs of the first generation still have a strong emotional connection to their home country. They can provide both financial and managerial resources to stimulate entrepreneurship in a post-conflict country (Santamaria-Alvarez etal. 2018; Williams and Efendic 2019). 6.3 Limitations As with any study, our findings should be interpreted in the light of several limitations. First, even though a systematic literature review provides an in-depth perspective on the current state of knowledge on a specific topic, its comprehensiveness is restricted by the keywords and search strings used. Second, we excluded book chapters and working papers and focused on peer-reviewed articles. To ensure a high quality of the articles in our review, we excluded all studies published in journals without an impact factor. Third, we only included articles published in English. Furthermore, as with any literature review, our results are limited to the evidence provided by the prior studies. In the context of entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries, this constraint is particularly important as many works in this area are based on interviews and case studies or focus on single countries. Thus, causal evidence of the (reciprocal) effects of entrepreneurship in the context of post-conflict countries is rather scarce, which limits the generalizability of our results. Additionally, it is important to recognize that the development of post-conflict situations is influenced by multiple factors such as the causes, duration, and scale of the conflict (Junne and Verkoren 2005). Entrepreneurship is only a small piece of the puzzle of explaining the development of post-conflict countries. 6.4 Future research Several avenues for future research exist in the four categories structuring our literature review. 6.4.1 Effect ofthepost‑conflict context ontheinstitutional environment (when andwhere) Our review highlights that a lack of entrepreneurial tradition and an often weak institutional context present an unfriendly environment for the exploration and exploitation of entrepreneurial opportunities in post-conflict countries. To overcome these hurdles, the establishment of strong institutions combined with governmental programs in the form of financial and nonfinancial support has proven to be important (e.g., entrepreneurial education programs, effective measures against corruption, financial support). Future research should investigate under which circumstances 3043 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… national governments are able to overcome these hurdles on their own and when international support by other countries or multinational institutions is needed. Whereas national governments can be affected by corruption and a lack of trust and can therefore become ineffective in enforcing change (Abramov 2009), international support can provide a positive signal (Garriga and Phillips 2014); however, it can also be costly and time-consuming (Boudreaux 2007). Hence, more research is required to better understand how national and international programs can be mutually supportive to establish an entrepreneurship-friendly environment in post-conflict countries. Furthermore, thus far, we lack information about which exact types of formal institutions create impactful conditions to support entrepreneurship in post-conflict contexts. More specifically, questions about the role of democracy, taxes, trade barriers and rules stimulating investments by new and established entrepreneurs need to be answered. The same is true for the role of informal institutions and their effect on entrepreneurship. Hence, future research should investigate how informal norms and conventions such as religion or culture in these countries affect entrepreneurial activity and how these conventions must change to foster entrepreneurship in postconflict countries. More specifically, our review highlights that entrepreneurship can lead to social change, particularly by means of female empowerment through entrepreneurship (Bardasi etal. 2011; Guma 2015; Ramadani etal. 2015). However, due to particular cultural constructs and the associated gender stereotypes (Guma 2015), the overall number of female entrepreneurs still remains low. Hence, future research could investigate how to overcome these challenges and motivate more women to become entrepreneurs, not only out of necessity (Bardasi et al. 2011) but also because they actively search for and exploit commercial opportunities. 6.4.2 Effect ofthepost‑conflict context onindividuals engaging inentrepreneurship (who andwhy) Our review shows that entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries is often chosen out of necessity instead of the desire to exploit opportunities (Krasniqi 2014; Tarway-Twalla 2011). Whereas prior research argues that entrepreneurship has a positive effect on economic recovery (e.g., Berdal and Mousavizadeh 2010; Bozzoli etal. 2013), so far, no distinction has been made regarding whether this is true for both opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs (Block and Koellinger 2009). Future research should make this distinction and investigate if and under which conditions entrepreneurship has a positive impact in the context of post-conflict countries. For the forms and types of entrepreneurship for which this is not the case, it might be a more reasonable policy to support individuals in finding wage-earning jobs (Krasniqi 2014). Our literature review also highlights that the share of necessity entrepreneurs is lower in the case of diaspora entrepreneurs. These entrepreneurs actively search for opportunities and are motivated by emotional and financial incentives to contribute to the development of their home country (Santamaria-Alvarez etal. 2018; Williams and Efendic 2019). Some post-conflict countries actively seek to attract diaspora entrepreneurs to return to their home countries (Krasniqi and Williams 2019). This 3044 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 can be explained by the acquired entrepreneurial knowledge and skill sets of these individuals (Dahles 2013; Krasniqi and Williams 2019; Mohamed etal. 2021) as well as their existing international network, which enables them to attract foreign investors (Williams and Efendic 2019). However, the question remains: when and under which conditions do diaspora entrepreneurs return to their home countries and engage in entrepreneurship (Kenney et al. 2013)? More specifically, are diaspora entrepreneurs the drivers of economic development very early in the process, or do they return to their home countries after the ecosystem and trust in the institutions has already been established (Kenney et al. 2013; Krasniqi and Williams 2019)? Answering these questions is crucial as policy measures might differ significantly depending on whether they are aimed at supporting the return of diaspora entrepreneurs or at first supporting local actors to establish a functioning business ecosystem (e.g., tax exemptions for a certain period, lease of buildings and lands for symbolic amounts), which will then attract diaspora citizens to return home. Hence, simply trying to find measures on how to attract people to return to their home countries and engage in entrepreneurship might not be sufficient (Williams 2018). Hence, future research should first investigate at which stage diaspora entrepreneurs are likely to return to their post-conflict home country and, second, which support mechanisms are required to establish a functioning ecosystem to enable economic development. In addition, post-conflict countries deal with high unemployment rates and a loss of educated young people due to migration. However, well-educated people are an important resource for establishing economic stability and growth (Palalić et al. 2017). As a result, post-conflict countries aim to counteract this development by establishing entrepreneurial education programs to motivate these people to actively search for and exploit entrepreneurial opportunities in their countries of origin. However, to date, relatively little is known about the factors that motivate individuals in post-conflict countries to pursue entrepreneurship (Rapp and Olbrich 2021). Thus, we propose that future research should use more experimental studies to examine the entrepreneurial motivation of different types of entrepreneurs in postconflict countries. Answering this question would provide more insights into how governmental interventions can help foster entrepreneurship in such countries. 6.4.3 Entrepreneurial process inpost‑conflict countries (how) Our review highlights that most studies investigating the entrepreneurial process focus on the execution phase, and only a few studies consider the opportunity, discovery, and exploitation phases (Cheung 2016). Thus, little is known about the types of entrepreneurial opportunities in a post-conflict environment (de Jong and Marsili 2015) and by whom and how they are discovered and exploited. More specifically, it is unclear whether these opportunities emerge out of the specific post-conflict context or if they are created by the people engaging in entrepreneurship (Alvarez and Barney 2007). Furthermore, our research highlights that little is known about the cognitive processes needed for the discovery and evaluation of opportunities in postconflict environments. Answering these questions is important to be able to understand how the entrepreneurial process in post-conflict countries unfolds and how it 3045 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… can be supported by governmental activities such as introducing business incubation initiatives (Jibrin etal. 2013). When investigating the execution phase, the prior research mainly focuses on the acquisition of resources and the drivers of venture growth (Bongomin et al. 2020; Demirgüc-Kunt etal. 2011; Efendic etal. 2015; Krasniqi and Mustafa 2016). According to our review, entrepreneurs in post-conflict countries face particular challenges in accessing capital that influence the success of their ventures. Post-conflict countries typically have disrupted banking systems and lack financing alternatives. Furthermore, financial institutions are often reluctant to offer loans to new and small ventures due to their high risks, which cannot be reduced by providing collateral or other types of security to the bank (Krasniqi 2010). Although it has been argued that venture capital funds could help counteract these deficiencies (Biekpe 2004; Hisrich etal. 2016), a weak institutional environment acts as a deterrent for venture capital firms to engage in these countries. Thus, other forms of entrepreneurial finance—at least in the short term—might be more appropriate to reduce financing constraints in post-conflict environments. Such financing instruments or alternatives include crowdfunding and business angels. However, thus far, little is known about which financing types and instruments are appropriate for entrepreneurs in the specific context of post-conflict countries. Furthermore, our review highlights that entrepreneurs in post-conflict countries often lack managerial skills to establish and grow their business. Prior studies have argued that specific entrepreneurship and management training programs are required to counter these deficiencies and to promote entrepreneurs with high growth ambitions (Lajqi and Krasniqi 2017; Mamman et al. 2006). However, the effects of these programs on entrepreneurship and venture growth are not yet well understood (Bruhn and Zia 2013; Capelleras and Hoxha 2010; Krasniqi and Mustafa 2016). Therefore, more research is needed to comprehend the impact of educational programs on establishing and growing ventures in a post-conflict context and how these programs should be adapted to different forms of entrepreneurship. In particular, we lack quantitative (experimental) studies with research designs that allow us to identify the causal effects through which educational programs truly create value. 6.4.4 Impact ofentrepreneurship onthepost‑conflict context andviceversa (impact) Our review emphasizes the positive effect of entrepreneurship on economic recovery and peacebuilding after a conflict (Boudreaux 2007; Williams and Efendic 2019). This effect is mainly attributed to the creation of job opportunities but also to the positive effect of entrepreneurs’ solutions to societal challenges that governments are unable to address. However, prior research also shows that entrepreneurial activity with the aim of taking advantage of the difficult situation of a country for personal gain can also destabilize the system and may have destructive effects on the rebuilding efforts (Baumol 1990; Subedi 2013). Currently, there is little research about this type of destructive entrepreneurship and its negative effects on economic recovery (Desai 2011; Desai et al. 2013). In this context, it is necessary for people, including 3046 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 entrepreneurs, to understand the conflict and its positive and negative effects but also to acknowledge the importance of peace and its benefits (Hilali 2002; Yadav 2021). Hence, broader education programs could help potential entrepreneurs better understand the opportunities and benefits that might result from a conflict and those that might result from a stable environment after the conflict. Further research could use experiments to investigate such programs more closely and provide ideas of how they should be designed, whom they should address and how they can help people to understand the benefits to the country as well as to themselves. Furthermore, prior research has predominantly focused on the role of commercial and trade activities of entrepreneurs and illustrated a positive relationship between economic recovery and peacebuilding efforts (Boudreaux 2007). As a result, these types of activities have received governmental support. However, the influence of other sectors, such as construction and agriculture, on reconciliation efforts has been neglected so far. Consequently, we suggest that further studies investigate the role of entrepreneurs in different sectors to understand their influence on the economic development and growth of a country. This could provide insights into whether it is recommendable to support those sectors to achieve long-lasting positive developments in post-conflict countries. Finally, only little research explicitly examines the reciprocal effect between the entrepreneurial process and the post-conflict context. Welter (2011) suggests that context should be investigated using not only a top-down but also a bottomup approach. Hence, future research could conduct surveys or archival data studies to provide more insights into how entrepreneurship shapes the post-conflict context (Welter and Baker 2020) and how these changes then affect the development of entrepreneurial opportunities, their exploitation and execution. 7 Conclusion Exploring how entrepreneurship can help to improve the situation of post-conflict countries in the world is important. Our literature review summarizes what we know about entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries and puts the knowledge into a conceptual model. By unraveling the factors and mechanisms through which entrepreneurship can drive economic recovery and peacebuilding in such countries, our study not only has an academic value but is also of high practical relevance. Appendix See Figs. 3, 4 and Tables 1, 2 and 3. 3047 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 Fig. 3 Annual distribution of studies 20 10 10 6 5 4 2 3 41 12 15 8 5 4 2 3 Entrepreneurship and Small Business Economics Development Studies Management and Organizaon Public policy Conflict studies Sociology Other Number of journals Numer of papers Fig. 4 Distribution by discipline. Note: Some journals address more than one discipline. In these cases journals and studies are counted for each discipline 3048 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 1 Distribution of studies by continent and country investigated *The total number of studies across the different countries does not match the number of studies investigated in this review. This discrepancy arises from the fact that certain studies encompass multiple countries in their research scope Continent Country N studies* Europe (28) Bosnia and Herzegovina 15 Georgia 1 Kosovo 15 Macedonia 2 Montenegro 2 Africa (26) DR Congo 1 Egypt 1 Ghana 1 Kenya 1 Liberia 1 Malawi 1 Nigeria 1 Rwanda 6 Somalia 2 Uganda 15 Asia (17) Afghanistan 2 Bangladesh 1 Cambodia 1 Hong Kong 1 Iraq 1 Nepal 4 Sri Lanka 6 Timor-Leste 1 Americas (1) Colombia 1 Other countries (1) Eastern Europe, Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa 1 Non-specific (2) 2 3055 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Bongomin etal. (2018) A3 Impact of government support on SMMEs survival Access to resources and firm survival Survey Uganda Positive impact of business skills, capital adequacy, access to finance, access to markets and entrepreneurial education on SMME survival is moderated by government support How Bongomin etal. (2020) B2 Investigates the mediating role of social cohesion in the relationship bw. microfinance accessibility and survival of women MSMEs Microfinance and female entrepreneurship Survey Uganda Social cohesion (as social collateral) significantly and positively mediates the relationship bw. Microfinance accessibility and survival of women MSMEs How Who and why Boudreaux (2007) D1, D4 Entrepreneurship and its impact on reconciliation and peace Peace through trade Interviews Rwanda Commercial activities serve as a valuable bridge to reconciliation Impact 3056 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Bray (2009) D1, D3, D4 Entrepreneurs’ contributions to post-conflict recovery Private sector strategies Case studies Bosnia and Herzegovina, Uganda, Afghanistan Local entrepreneurs play an essential role for economic recovery and peacebuilding Impact Bruhn and Zia (2013) B2 Impact of business and financial literacy programs on firm outcomes of young entrepreneurs Business training and performance Survey Bosnia and Herzegovina Training programs did not influence business survival but improved business practices, treatments and loan terms How Who and why Capelleras and Hoxha (2010) A3, B2 Entrepreneurial and institutional factors influencing the initial size and subsequent growth of businesses Human capital theory; institutional theory Survey Kosovo Negative impact of formal education on startup size and growth; specific training strong positive impact on growth; informal barriers are found to be the major obstacle for growth When and where Who and why How 3057 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Cheung (2016) C1, C2 Role of exploitative learning in entrepreneurial opportunity recognition during war and peace Exploration and exploitation learning Qualitative—longitudinal historical approach Hong Kong Exploitative learning helps entrepreneurial firms to survive in war and conflict; needs to be adapted after the conflict to prevent rigidity and competencies trap How Chowdhury (2011) B1 Impact of conflict on entrepreneurial decision Determinants of entrepreneurship Survey Bangladesh Determinants of business ownership: capital, religion, education and networks; negative impact of conflict on business ownership Who and why Dahles (2013) B1, B2 Entrepreneurial dispositions of different types of diaspora Concept of embeddedness Interviews Cambodia Different entrepreneurial dispositions of returnees depending on their host country (France, US, China) Who and why 3058 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Daka and Siad (2021) A3 Effect of the environment for innovation, policy, and regulations on entrepreneurship practices Science, technology and innovation (STI) framework Interviews Somalia Absence of a regulatory framework and policy instruments hinder entrepreneurs from conducting business When and where Dawa and Namatovu (2015) B2 Role of social networks on female entrepreneurs’ aspirations for firm growth Social network theory Survey Uganda Membership in a social network is strongly related to aspirations for firm growth How Who and why de Mel etal. (2014) B1, B2 Impact of business training (and financing) on female entrepreneurs Business training and performance Experiment Sri Lanka Business training and financing accelerate startup entry among potential entrepreneurs; no effect on current business owners (combined with financing only short-term effect) Who and why 3059 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Demirgüc-Kunt etal. (2011) A3, B1 Effect of household income/remittances and business sector employment on entry and viability of selfemployment Access to finance Survey Bosnia and Herzegovina Wealthier households, receivers of domestic remittances and people working in the informal sector are more likely to engage in viable selfemployment When and where Who and why Desai (2011) A1 Impact of institutional and historic context on entrepreneurship Relationship bw. entrepreneurship and conflict Case studies Iraq Different institutional and historic contexts provide a different degree of entrepreneurial opportunities When and where Desai etal. (2013) A1 Institutions as the drivers for allocation of entrepreneurial talent; models of destructive entrepreneurship Destructive entrepreneurship theory Conceptual Not specified Institutions are central drivers of entrepreneurial talent; reward structures motivate the type of entrepreneurship (productive, unproductive, destructive) When and where 3060 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Djip (2014) A3, D1, D3, D4 Role of entrepreneurship in socio-economic recovery of postconflict countries Entrepreneurial environment Case study Bosnia and Herzegovina Entrepreneurship is affected by sociopolitical, legal, and economic factors; helps to reduce poverty and unemployment; administrative and financial hurdles for enterprises to develop When and where How Impact Efendic etal. (2015) A3, B2 Influence of social capital on growth aspirations of young firms Determinants of entrepreneurial growth aspirations and social capital Survey Bosnia and Herzegovina Growth aspirations are positively influenced by local ethnic diversity and institutional trust When and where How Who and why Eijdenberg etal. (2015) B2 Entrepreneurial motivation and growth of small businesses Entrepreneurial motivation and small business growth Interviews and survey Rwanda Firm growth is determined by a mix of motivations (family background, necessity and opportunity motivations) How Who and why 3061 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Fernando and Nishantha (2019) C2, B2 Impact of social learning in entrepreneurial education on entrepreneurial behavior Social learning theory Survey Sri Lanka Entrepreneurial behavior (planning, establishing legitimacy, market behavior) is positively affected by social learning in entrepreneurial education How Who and why Fiala (2018) B2 Influence of gender on the impact of training and loans Access to resources and gender differences Experiment, Survey Uganda Gender of individuals matters for impact of training and capital on firm performance; for male entrepreneurs, profits and sales increase after training + loan, for females no short-run effects How Who and why 3062 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Fierro etal. (2018) D1 Impact of largescale portfolio entrepreneurship on creating stable wage jobs in African economies Portfolio entrepreneurship Interviews Egypt, Uganda, and Malawi Portfolio entrepreneurship is important for creating stable wage jobs and ensuring employment; strong connection bw. Development of new industries and portfolio entrepreneurship Impact Gavigan etal. (2020) B1 Effect of entrepreneurship training on self-employment of females Business training and self-employment Survey Uganda Business knowledge and business competence both significantly increase probability of females to be self-employed Who and why 3063 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Graham (2014) B2, D1 Promotion of economic development by diaspora-owned businesses Diaspora entrepreneurship; Social responsibility Survey Georgia Diaspora-owned enterprises have a competitive advantage but do not differ from other firms in their contribution to economic growth and social responsibility Impact Who and why Guma (2015) A2, B2 Barriers for women entrepreneurs in informal economy Female entrepreneurship; informal sector and barriers Case studies Uganda Women entrepreneurs are often limited by social conventions and gender stereotypes resulting in a lack of resource availability When and where How Hisrich etal. (2016) A3 Investigates possibilities and limitations of venture capital in post-conflict countries Venture capital formation Interviews & Survey Bosnia and Herzegovina; North Macedonia Establishment of VCs in postconflict countries important for venture growth; requires institutional support by providing a fitting legal and tax system When and where 3064 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Ishengoma and Kappel (2011) A3 Investigates the factors hindering MSE performance; effects on growth potential Business environment and growth potential Survey & Interviews Uganda Growth potential depends on access to productive resources and financing, taxes and market access When and where Karki and Xheneti (2018) B2, D1, D2 Investigates whether formalization of women’s entrepreneurial activities in the informal economy supports SDGs Female entrepreneurship; female empowerment Interviews Nepal Informal entrepreneurial activity improves women’s confidence and their life aspirations, but has limited potential to lift women out of poverty or change gender relations in society Impact Kolk and Lenfant (2016) D1 Role of firms with different degrees of hybrid business models Hybrid organizations Case studies Rwanda, DR Congo Firms with hybrid business models help to promote peace and reconciliation Impact 3071 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Palalić etal. (2017) A2, B1 Differences in entrepreneurial intentions of students; influence of business environment on intentions Entrepreneurial intentions Survey Bosnia and Herzegovina Entrepreneurial intent and desire differs by prior entrepreneurial experience, gender, faculty and attitude towards entrepreneurship courses, business environment influences entrepreneurial intentions When and where Who and why Premaratne (2001) B2 Importance of networks and resource availability on SME performance Entrepreneurial network and resources Survey Sri Lanka Networks increase resource availability which increases firm performance How Ramadani etal. (2015) B2 Conditions and perspectives of female entrepreneurship development Determinants of female entrepreneurship Surveys Kosovo Majority of female entrepreneurs operate microbusinesses, are well educated, and are mainly in the trade sector; main obstacle is to obtain financial resources Who and why 3072 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Rettberg (2016) D1, D3 Business involvement in peacebuilding process Private sector and peacebuilding Literature review and case studies Not specified Need, creed and greed incentivize businesses to engage in peacebuilding efforts Impact Riddle and Brinkerhoff (2011) B2, D1, D4 Impact of diaspora entrepreneurs to transform institutional arrangements in their country of origin and generate change Institutional theory; diaspora entrepreneurship Case studies and interviews Nepal Diaspora entrepreneurs can have a positive impact on institutional acculturation and change in their country of origin Impact Rooks etal. (2012) B2 Impact of social capital on entrepreneurial innovation Social capital theory; network structure Survey Uganda Inversed U-shaped relationship between networks and innovation performance of urban entrepreneurs When and where How 3073 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Sachitra and Chong (2018) B2 Effect of resources and capabilities on farm-level competitive advantage Resource-based view Survey Sri Lanka Human capital, physical assets, entrepreneurial identity, and capabilities (relationship building, marketing, etc.) significantly impact competitive advantage How Santamaria-Alvarez etal. (2018) A3, B1, B2, D1 Attributes of transnational entrepreneurs and their participation in the socioeconomic development of their home country Theory of Bourdieu / Transnational entrepreneurship Case studies, interviews Colombia Transnational entrepreneurs form purposeful-strategic networks to compensate for the lack of social systems; focus on international markets When and where Who and why Impact Sserwanga etal. (2014) A1, B1, B2, D1, D2 Impact of social entrepreneurship on post-conflict recovery Social entrepreneurship Case studies and interviews Uganda Social entrepreneurship contributes to postconflict recovery on a social and individual level; triggered by the recognition of societal needs How Impact 3074 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Stavrevska (2018) A1, C1, C2, D1 Impact of microloans on female entrepreneurs Female entrepreneurship; microfinance for women Case studies, Interviews Bosnia and Herzegovina Microfinance provides a tool for women to exploit entrepreneurial opportunities but also family obligations How Impact Surangi (2018) A2, A3, B2 Investigates female entrepreneurship and their networking relationships Social constructionist approach Interviews Sri Lanka Entrepreneurial behavior and networking activities of female entrepreneurs are affected by different responsibilities, culture and societal expectations When and where Who and why Tarway-Twalla (2011) D1 Informal entrepreneurs’ role in socio-economic development Contribution of grassroots (informal) businesses on social and economic development Survey Liberia Important role of grassroots businesses to provide access to goods and services and support families, health, education and job creation Impact 3075 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Thapa (2015) B2 Factors determining microenterprise performance Determinants of firm performance Survey Nepal Microenterprises’ performance is influenced by factors related to the entrepreneur (e.g., gender, managerial skills), the enterprise (e.g., age, size), and social networks How Tobias and Boudreaux (2011) D1, D4 Impact of entrepreneurship on conflict reduction and economic development Allport’s intergroup contact theory; peace through trade Survey Rwanda Conflict reduction and positive economic development as a result of increased entrepreneurship (in the coffee industry) Impact Tobias etal. (2013) D1, D2, D4 Impact of entrepreneurship on prosperity and peace Theory of transformative entrepreneurship Survey Rwanda Transformational entrepreneurship can facilitate social change and positively affects poverty reduction and conflict resolution Impact 3076 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Williams (2018) A3, D4 Public strategies for targeting diaspora communities for inward investments and entrepreneurship Institutional theory Case studies; literature analysis Bosnia & Herzegovina; Kosovo; Montenegro More effective, coordinated policy initiatives are required to harvest the potential of diaspora investments and entrepreneurship in post-conflict countries Impact Williams (2019) A2, B1, D2, D3 Investigation of how institutions need to change to motivate diaspora entrepreneurship Institutional theory Interviews Bosnia & Herzegovina, Kosovo and Montenegro Institutional priorities need to change from formal institutional change to informal institutional change; social remittances instead of solely financial remittances When and where Williams and Efendic (2019) A2, A3 Role of trust in institutions for internal and external migrant entrepreneurs Institutional theory Survey & Interviews Bosnia & Herzegovina External migrant entrepreneurs with international experience have lower trust in institutions than internal migrants When and where 3077 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Williams etal. (2022) A1, A3, B2, D2, D3 Entrepreneurial activity of returnees in their home countries Process-oriented view; institutional voids Interviews Bosnia & Herzegovina, Kosovo Institutional voids as enablers (instead of constraints) of entrepreneurial activity of returnee entrepreneurs; informal ties substitute for formal institutionals voids When and where Who and why Williams and Vorley (2017) A1, A3, D3 Impact of institutional development on entrepreneurship Institutional theory Interviews Kosovo Formal and informal institutions needs to be reshaped to support entrepreneurship (‘path break’) When and where 3078 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Table 3 (continued) Author(s)/ year Category Main Focus Main theory/ approach Method Country / Duration of conflict Key findings Dimensions Xheneti etal. (2019) C2, B2, D1 Women entrepreneurs’ negotiation of business and family demands Female entrepreneurship; informal entrepreneurship Interviews Nepal Negotiation consent, family resource access and gaining status as drivers of how women legitimize their business activities, mobilize support and finding satisfaction in their business How Yoosuf and Premaratne (2017) D1, D2, D3, B2 The impact of micro-entrepreneurs’ business relationships on sustainable peacebuilding Social capital theory; entrepreneurial networks Case studies Sri Lanka Promotion of micro-enterprises reduces economic causes of conflict Impact Afghanistan: 2001—present; Bangladesh: 1977–1997 (Chittagong Hill Tracts); Bosnia and Herzegovina: April 1992–December 1995; Cambodia: March 1967–April 1975; DR Congo: August 1998–July 2003; Georgia: August 2008; Iraq: March 2003–December 2011; Kosovo: February 1998–June 1999; Liberia: December 1989– August 1997; April 1999–August 2003; Nepal: February 1996–November 2006; Rwanda: October 1990 − July 1994; Somalia: 1991–present; Sri Lanka: July 1983–May 2009; Timor-Leste: April 1999–September 2002; Uganda: October 1980–March 1986 3079 1 3 Entrepreneurship inpost‑conflict countries: aliterature… Funding Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/. References Abramov I (2009) Building peace in fragile states—building trust is essential for effective publicprivate partnerships. J Bus Ethics 89(SUPPL. 4):481–494 Acs Z (2006) How is entrepreneurship good for economic growth? Innov: Technol Govern Glob 1(1):97–107 Agyire-Tettey F, Ackah CG, Asuman D (2018) Gender and returns to entrepreneurship in Africa. Int J Soc Econ 45(12):1609–1630 Aldairany S, Omar R, Quoquab F, Li J (2018) Systematic review: Entrepreneurship in conflict and post conflict. J Entrep Emerg Econ 10:361–383 Alvarez SA, Barney JB (2007) Discovery and creation: alternative theories of entrepreneurial action. Strateg Entrep J 1(1–2):11–26 Ateljevic J, O’Rourke T, Todorovic Z (2004) Entrepreneurship and SMEs in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Int J Entrep Innov 5(4):241–253 Bardasi E, Sabarwal S, Terrell K (2011) How do female entrepreneurs perform? Evidence from three developing regions. Small Bus Econ 37(4):417–441 Baron RA (2007) Behavioral and cognitive factors in entrepreneurship: entrepreneurs as the active element in new venture creation. Strateg Entrep J 1(1–2):167–182 Baumol WJ (1990) Entrepreneurship: productive, unproductive, and destructive. J Polit Econ 98(5):893–921 Berdal M, Mousavizadeh N (2010) Investing for peace: the private sector and the challenges of peacebuilding. Surv Glob Politics Strategy 52(2):37–58 Biekpe N (2004) Financing small businesses in Sub-Saharan Africa. J Afr Bus 5(1):29–44 Block J, Koellinger P (2009) I can’t get no satisfaction-necessity entrepreneurship and procedural utility. Kyklos 62(2):191–209 Bongomin GOC, Munene JC, Ntayi JM, Malinga CA (2018) Determinants of SMMEs growth in postwar communities in developing countries. World J Entrep Manag Sustain Dev 14(1):50–73 Bongomin GOC, Woldie A, Wakibi A (2020) Microfinance accessibility, social cohesion and survival of women MSMEs in post-war communities in sub-Saharan Africa: lessons from Northern Uganda. J Small Bus Enterp Dev 27(5):749–774 Boudreaux K (2007) The business of reconciliation: Entrepreneurship and commercial activity in postconflict Rwanda. Econ Aff 27(2):6–13 Bozzoli C, Brück T, Wald N (2013) Self-employment and conflict in Colombia. J Conflict Resolut 57(1):117–142 Bray J (2009) The role of private sector actors in post-conflict recovery. Confl Secur Dev 9(1):1–26 Brown S, Goldwyn R, Groenewald H, McGregor J (2009) Conflict Sensitivity Consortium Benchmarking Paper Bruhn M, Zia B (2013) Stimulating managerial capital in emerging markets: the impact of business training for young entrepreneurs. J Dev Eff 5(2):232–266 Capelleras J-L, Hoxha D (2010) Start-up size and subsequent firm growth in Kosova: the role of entrepreneurial and institutional factors. Post-Communist Econ 22(3):411–426 Castillo GD (2003) Economic reconstruction in post-conflict transitions: lessons for the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). OECD, Working Paper No. 228(228), 35 Cheung CWM (2016) Exploitative learning and entrepreneurial opportunity recognition of a family business in Hong Kong during and after the Second World War. J Entrep Emerg Econ 8(3):321–334 Chowdhury MJA (2011) The determinants of entrepreneurship in a conflict region: evidence from the Chittagong hill tracts in Bangladesh. J Small Bus Entrep 24(2):265–281 3080 A.Moritz et al. 1 3 Clark WR, Clark LA, Raffo DM, Williams RI (2020) Extending Fisch and Block’s (2018) tips for a systematic review in management and business literature. Manag Rev Q. (Advance online publication) Dahles H (2013) Cambodian returnees’ entrepreneurial ventures: the opportunities and constraints of mixed embeddedness. J Enterp Commun People Places Glob Econ 7(4):383–396 Daka E, Siad SA (2021) Entrepreneurship and the innovation ecosystem policy: a case study in postconflict Somalia. Afr J Sci Technol Innov Dev 1–8 Dale A (2015) Self-employment and entrepreneurship: notes on two problematic concepts. In: Burrows R (ed) Deciphering the enterprise culture (Routledge revivals), Firstedition 1991, Routledge, London, pp 55–72 Dawa S, Namatovu R (2015) Social networks and growth of female-owned ventures: a sub-Saharan Africa perspective. J Dev Entrep 20(02):1550009 de Jong JP, Marsili O (2015) The distribution of Schumpeterian and Kirznerian opportunities. Small Bus Econ 44:19–35 de Mel S, de McKenzie D, Woodruff C (2014) Business training and female enterprise start-up, growth, and dynamics: experimental evidence from Sri Lanka. J Dev Econ 106:199–210 Demirgüc-Kunt A, Klapper LF, Panos GA (2011) Entrepreneurship in post-conflict transition. Econ Transit 19(1):27–78 Desai S (2011) A tale of entrepreneurship in two Iraqi cities. J Small Bus Entrep 24(2):283–292 Desai S, Acs ZJ, Weitzel U (2013) A model of destructive entrepreneurship: insight for conflict and postconflict recovery. J Confl Resolut 57:20–40 Djip V (2014) Entrepreneurship and SME development in post-conflict societies. J Entrep Public Policy 3(2):254–274 Efendic A, Mickiewicz T, Rebmann A (2015) Growth aspirations and social capital: young firms in a post-conflict environment. Int Small Bus J 33(5):537–561 Eijdenberg EL, Paas LJ, Masurel E (2015) Entrepreneurial motivation and small business growth in Rwanda. J Entrep Emerg Econ 7(3):212–240 Fernandes AJ, Ferreira JJ (2022) Entrepreneurial ecosystems and networks: a literature review and research agenda. RMS 16(1):189–247 Fernando MSJ, Nishantha B (2019) Impact of social learning on entrepreneurial behavior: case of entrepreneurship education at state sector universities in Sri Lanka. Entrep Educ 2(3–4):171–188 Fiala N (2018) Returns to microcredit, cash grants and training for male and female microentrepreneurs in Uganda. World Dev 105:189–200 Fierro ACM, Noble D, Hatem O, Balunywa W (2018) African portfolio entrepreneurship and the creation of jobs. J Small Bus Enterp Dev 25(5):730–751 Fisch C, Block J (2018) Six tips for your (systematic) literature review in business and management research. Manag Rev Q 68(2):103–106 Gamlen A (2014) Diaspora institutions and diaspora governance. Int Migr Rev 48(1):180–217 Garriga AC, Phillips BJ (2014) Foreign aid as a signal to investors: predicting FDI in post-conflict countries. J Confl Resolut 58(2):280–306 Gavigan S, Ciprikis K, Cooney T (2020) The impact of entrepreneurship training on self-employment of rural female entrepreneurs in Uganda. Small Enterp Res 27(2):180–194 George G, Howard-Grenville J, Joshi A, Tihanyi L (2016) Understanding and tackling societal grand challenges through management research. Acad Manag J 59(6):1880–1895 Graham BA (2014) Diaspora-owned firms and social responsibility. Rev Int Political Econ 21(2):432–466 Guma PK (2015) Business in the urban informal economy: barriers to women’s entrepreneurship in Uganda. J Afr Bus 16(3):305–321 Hilali AZ (2002) The costs and benefits of the Afghan War for Pakistan. Contemp South Asia 11(3):291–310 Hisrich RD, Petković S, Ramadani V, Dana LP (2016) Venture capital funds in transition countries. J Small Bus Enterp Dev 23(2):296–315 Ishengoma EK, Kappel R (2011) Business Environment and growth potential of micro and small manufacturing enterprises in Uganda. Afr Dev Rev 23(3):352–365 Jibrin M, Makoyo M, Amonye M (2013) Technology incubation programme for development of sustainable entrepreneurial skills in Nigeria. Technology 1(5):6 Junne G, Verkoren W (2005) Postconflict development: meeting new challenges. Lynne Rienner Publishers