Particle Size Range in Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) of Gombe Metropolitan Area Northeastern Nigeria: Characterization, Challenges, and Implications for Air Quality Monitoring

International Journal of Inventive Engineering and Sciences (IJIES) ISSN: 2319-9598 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-12, December 2025 34 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org Particle Size Range in Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) of Gombe Metropolitan Area Northeastern Nigeria: Characterization, Challenges, and Implications for Air Quality Monitoring Mohammed Ali Garba, Abubakar Yusuf, Mustapha Ali Garba, Ali Mohammed Ali Abstract: Detailed analysis of data on radiation and elevation measured in 3 lines of 161 points of the Gombe Metropolitan Area. Measurements of radiation in Lines 1, 2, and 3 were 18-42 Bq, 25-39 Bq, and 18-39 Bq, respectively, and most of the measurements corresponded to the natural background. Spatial heterogeneity existed, with potential hotspots associated with geological or anthropogenic sources. Topographic gradients were evident in the elevation data, with the highest and lowest elevations at approximately 476 and 712 meters, respectively, which influenced soil composition, microclimates, and pollutant distribution. These spatial distributions highlight the importance of local judgments in managing environmental risks. Statistical analysis of the process stability in general was done with the help of control charts, Sens Slope estimator, and box plots, but sometimes the outliers (that were more than control limits, mainly 42 Bq and 38 Bq) were present, and it was possible to consider the existence of other external factors or measurement errors. The mere positive shifts in Lines 1 and 3 also indicate that the radiological environment can remain in the same position over time. All these findings suggest that the climate has remained relatively stable radiologically, and local malformities should be monitored. Timely detection of abnormal conditions, environmental security, and risk mitigation measures through close observation and comprehensive spatial and temporal investigations is critical in cities and peri-urban regions. The results highlight the significance of continuous monitoring and local risk control to ensure environmental security, as well as the importance of stable radiological conditions in the long run. Still, they should be monitored with skilled attention to detect anomalies in urban and peri-urban areas in a timely manner. Keywords: Elevation, Radiation, Spatial Heterogeneity, Environmental Monitoring. Abbreviations: Bq: Unit of Radiation PM: Perticulate Matter TSP: Total Suspended Particulates Manuscript received on 06 December 2025 | Revised Manuscript received on 12 December 2025 | Manuscript Accepted on 15 December 2025 | Manuscript published on 30 December 2025. *Correspondence Author(s) Mohammed Ali Garba*, Department of Geology, Gombe State University, Borno, Nigeria. Email ID: mohammedaliga[email protected]u.ng, ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6247-8702 Abubakar Yusuf, Department of Geology, Gombe State University, Borno, Nigeria. Email ID: [email protected], ORCID ID: 0000-0002-8995-5449 Mustapha Ali Garba, Department of Physics, University of Maiduguri, Gombe, Nigeria. Email ID: [email protected], ORCID ID: 0009-0004-9655-0855 Ali Mohammed Ali, Department of Geology, Gombe State University, Borno, Nigeria. Email ID: [email protected] © The Authors. Published by Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP). This is an open-access article under the CC-BY-NC-ND license http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ CUSUM: Cumulative Summation CPAMs: Continuous Particulate Air Monitors EPA: Environmental Protection Agency I. INTRODUCTION A. Highlights ▪Radiation in three monitored lines in Gombe is dominated by natural background radiation levels with localized hotspots that represent possible geological or artificial sources. ▪Topographical gradients define the topographical profiles, which influence the environmental process, and the sites of the study are 476-712 meters. ▪The statistical analysis should verify the overall processes; however, there are situations when it is combined with the outliers, thus, further monitoring should be recommended to reveal the potential radiological deviations. ▪Findings indicate that there is a need to consider having localized and continuous environmental monitoring to ensure radiological safety and inform risk mitigation in urban and peri-urban environments. The solution to air pollution problems worldwide lies in the history of particulate matter (PM) and air quality. PM is natural, as well as it includes dust storms, volcanic eruptions, biological emissions, and human activities, such as fossil fuel burning, industrial activities, and vehicular emissions. The particles are of various sizes: coarse particles (PM10), large and falling faster; and fine particles (PM2.5) and ultrafine particles, which are much smaller and can remain in the air longer. These particles are chemically complex and can contain organic matter, sulfates, nitrates, metals, and other toxic elements. This diversity not only affects their environmental behaviour, e.g., transport and deposition, but also their potential health effects, with finer particles having the most significant capacity to penetrate deep into the respiratory system and even into the bloodstream, thereby posing risks of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Tracking particulate matter is essential for regulatory compliance and public safety. Low-cost PM sensors and conclude that they can be used to measure PM1.0. Still, their performance on PM2.5-10 is at best low, providing misleading information to public health interventions, highlighting significant sizerelated discrimination, and underscoring the need for careful sensor application and Particle Size Range in Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) of Gombe Metropolitan Area Northeastern Nigeria: Characterization, Challenges, and Implications for Air Quality Monitoring 35 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org reporting to ensure proper monitoring and air quality interventions [1]. Air quality standards set by governments and health agencies to reduce adverse health effects are determined by PM diameter and concentration. As an illustration, PM2.5 is established to curb exposure to the most toxic fine particles, whereas PM10 covers larger particles, though still potentially dangerous. Totals Suspended Particulates (TSP) is a broader measure of air quality, as it includes all airborne particles of any size. Various particle sizes and compositions are estimated with high accuracy in real time or over long periods using complex surveillance systems such as optical particle counters, beta attenuation monitors, and gravimetric mechanisms. These data will be analyzed, and it is expected that authorities will be able to identify hotspots of pollution, their sources, and time tendencies, and take specific actions. The seasonal variations suggest that PMs are high in winter, mainly due to traffic emissions and local sources, and peak during rush hours. The significant impacts of meteorological conditions on particle behaviour and the relevance of studying aerosol dynamics as the key to effective pollution management. Broadly speaking, the results highlight the multi-faceted origins and atmospheric mechanisms that determine air quality in Delhi, and the necessity of specific control measures to address air pollution and ensure the well-being of the population [2]. The use of 12 calibrated, strategically located sensors proved that pollution concentrations are higher in construction areas, underscoring the importance of localised monitoring in an urban densification environment. Spatial analysis has identified pollution hotspots around construction zones. In contrast, spectral analysis was able to differentiate local pollution sources from regional pollution sources, with the construction significantly affecting air quality. It demonstrated the usefulness of low-cost sensors for recording high-resolution measurements, supporting their further application in urban air quality management, and emphasising the importance of specific mitigation measures to safeguard societal health during urban area development [3]. In general, constant monitoring of particulate matter is a key element of environmental health practices that will help to minimize human exposure to pollution and shield both nature and people against the detrimental impact of air pollution. Particulate matter (PM) is a term for a mixture of small solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air, with origins ranging from natural to anthropogenic. The sizes, compositions, and origins of these particles vary and include dust, soot, smoke, pollen, and industrial and vehicle emissions, as well as construction and natural occurrences such as wildfires and volcanic eruptions. The influences of particle composition and size on the precision of low-cost PM sensors when measuring air quality in multiple Chilean cities, discovering that the sensor is correlated with regulatory instruments with reasonable variation, and that the performance of the sensor is affected by a size of particles, and that larger particles tend to give low accuracy due to the influence of the particles on the light scattering measurements. The variations observed across different sites reveal that site-specific calibration, as well as the significance of particulate composition, are necessary to improve sensor reliability. They demonstrate the need for an advanced calibration and sensor configuration method that accounts for the different properties of diverse particles to enhance the effectiveness of low-cost air-quality pollution sensors [4]. The willingness-to-pay (WtP) survey was employed to examine air quality in the South American cities of Barcelona (Venezuela) and Guayaquil (Ecuador), with the focus on industrial and vehicular emissions and serious health issues. This analysis shows that Barcelona is full of outdated regulations and has pressing needs to improve the city's transport and garbage collection. At the same time, Guayaquil requires additional investments in public transport and pollution reduction. The level of interest among inhabitants in both towns in improving air quality is high, and the significance of policy changes and infrastructure investments is paramount [5]. The critical aspects of these particles are their diameter relative to their atmospheric behaviour, their ability to penetrate respiratory structures, and their potential health impacts. Smaller particles, such as PM2.5 and ultrafine particles, may also penetrate deep into the lungs and even into the bloodstream, posing a serious health hazard and increasing the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Such health issues necessitate monitoring particulate levels to assess air quality and pollution trends and take precautions to protect people. Regulatory standards for PM are set for specific size fractions due to their varied health and environmental effects. The radiological threat posed by radioactive emissions from different petrologic units in northeastern Nigeria remains poorly understood due to limited research. The 2009 aero-radiometric survey examined 13 rock types: migmatites-gneiss, basalts, granites, sandstones, and alluvium, showing significant differences in the levels of natural radioactivity among these units. Results showed that some of the formations, specifically, OGe, OGp, BG, and MG, have higher concentrations of activity of uranium, thorium, and potassium, and higher hazard indices, including the absorbed dose rates, radium equivalent, and potential cancer risk parameters that, in most cases, surpass the international safety standards. Other units, such as alluvium and part of sandstone formations, were, however, observed to have relatively low radiological hazards. Such findings indicate that the people in regions with high concentrations of high-radiation units should minimize exposures, particularly during construction or land use processes, and emphasize the need to conduct frequent check-ups to avoid the risks of the health effects caused by long-term or excessive exposures to naturally occurring radiogenic elements in such geological formations [6]. The changing issues in air pollution and health studies, with the falling pollution levels, make it more challenging to establish explicit exposure-response associations and to monitor health hazards. It emphasises the necessity of new interdisciplinary methods to understand better the toxicity of individual pollutants, the impact of complex pollution mixtures, and the determinants of vulnerability in vulnerable populations. Although there have been International Journal of Inventive Engineering and Sciences (IJIES) ISSN: 2319-9598 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-12, December 2025 36 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org advancements in improving air quality, further research is needed to inform effective policies, particularly in regions that continue to exceed air quality norms, to address the persistent, multifaceted health impacts of pollution [7]. Usually, controlled categories include PM10 (particles smaller than 10 micrometres), PM2.5 (smaller than 2.5 micrometres), PM1 (smaller than 1 micrometre), and Total Suspended Particulates (TSP), all airborne particles of any diameter. Authorities such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set acceptable levels of these particles in the air to safeguard people and the environment. The composition of PM depends on the source, but it usually contains organic compounds, metals and salts, and carbonaceous material, which can affect toxicity and environmental impacts. Good surveillance of such particles assists in regulatory compliance, health hazard evaluation, and pollution control strategies, which, in the long run, protect the quality of the air and the health of the population at large. Five (5) workstations in a detergent manufacturing facility in Nigeria, and the contaminants found in the air that include particulate matter, VOCs, and formaldehyde, which are above the safe levels, and contribute to health-related complications in employees. Using various measurements, the research has identified the effects of these air pollutants and emphasised the need to improve ventilation and safety systems. It highlights the need to adhere to global standards and implement regulatory controls to improve the health and safety of workers in industrial settings [8]. The severe health hazards of air pollution and the high vulnerability of children and vulnerable groups, the issue of indoor pollution, the effects of climate change, and the urgency to act on policy require thorough research and measures to enhance the quality of air all over the world to safeguard the population and overcome upcoming challenges. It discusses how smart drones equipped with geospatial technology can be used to detect air quality in real time at the Kodungaiyur solid waste dump yard in Chennai, India. The experiment, involving the use of drones with sensors at different altitudes and times of year, shows that there are considerable differences in pollutants, such as CO and NH4, particularly closer to the ground and near waste deposition locations. The combination of drone and GIS data provides an overall picture essential for efficient management of health and environmental stakeholders. The results highlight the value of sophisticated, real-time monitoring instruments for more accurately learning about the dynamics of pollution and informing mitigation measures. The direction of future research is to enhance sensor precision and data security [9]. Research was conducted to determine ambient radiation levels, health hazard indices, and excess lifetime cancer risk around radiological sections at Federal Teaching Hospital Gombe, Nigeria, by measuring the sections using calibrated Rados-200 meters and GPS. The average annual outdoor equivalent dose was 0.078 mSv/y, and effective doses were 0.1358 mSv/y and 0.0950 mSv/y, which are lower than the 1 mSv/y upper limit of exposure to the general population. The average outdoor excess lifetime cancer risk was estimated at 0.3330 × 10^3, slightly higher than the world average but close to that of regions like these. The responses of medical diagnostic procedures affected the background radiation level and interfered with several radiation indices. In general, the doses were below the recommended limits set by UNSCEAR; still, the annual effective doses and cancer risk exceeded the global safety limits, underscoring the need for additional monitoring [10]. To determine the levels of indoor and outdoor background ionising radiation in response to recent advancements in radioactive activities, an extensive survey was carried out in Gombe State, Nigeria. A study using an RDS-31 measure showed that average exposure levels were within global limits, and that dose rates were 61.34 to 149.21 nGy/h indoors and 61.34 to 134.42 nGy/h outdoors. The estimated effective doses and the lifetime risk of cancer each year were mostly below international safety limits. Still, some regions, such as Billiri, had high values, which may be attributed to topographical factors and human activities. Although the overall radiation level is deemed to be normal, there are high risks locally, which may indicate that frequent monitoring is necessary to avoid long-term health risks despite the low risk of cancer among residents. However, it is worth noting that there is a low risk of cancer among residents that needs to be taken seriously over a long period of time [11]. Despite significant developments in air quality monitoring and the utilisation of continuous particulate air monitors (CPAMs) in urban zones, important issues persist with the proper definition of the spatial-temporal variability and sizeresolved structure of particulate matter (PM), especially in urban zones with rapid urbanisation and complex topography. The limitations of inexpensive sensor technologies, including the inability to size and calibrate them to measure the site-specific makeup of particles and environmental conditions, do not enable the production of reliable information required to quantify health risks and implement effective pollution control strategies. Moreover, the integration of constant monitoring of particulate air with other approaches, such as radiological examination, geospatial analysis, and real-time remote sensing, is not yet a fully developed system, which makes it hard to understand the origin of pollution and patterns of exposure fully. The given gap reflects the desperate need to create effective, context-dependent calibration rules and an interdisciplinary monitoring system that may help raise the trustworthiness of air quality information and, naturally, inform targeted interventions and population health policies in equally affected cities. II. ROLE OF CONTINUOUS PARTICULATE AIR MONITORS (CPAMS) Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) are significant devices used to monitor the environment because they provide real-time, high molecular information on the level of particulate matter in the air. This is advanced equipment that uses optical, beta attenuation, or other sensing technologies to continuously measure PM1, PM2.5, and PM10 concentrations over longer time intervals, enabling detection of short-term fluctuations and pollution events. CPAMs can generate real-time data that will allow regulators, environmental and research agencies to Particle Size Range in Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) of Gombe Metropolitan Area Northeastern Nigeria: Characterization, Challenges, and Implications for Air Quality Monitoring 37 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org designate pollution sources without difficulty, assess compliance with air quality standards, and implement mitigation measures in real time. Moreover, CPAMs are used to analyse long-term trends and evaluate the effectiveness of pollution-control tools, informing policy choices to improve air quality and protect the population. They are also critical tools to the general air quality control due to their ability to operate 24/7 and provide real-time feedback. Continuous observation of particulate matter has essential advantages over intermittent observation, as it allows for high-resolution, instantaneous information and captures air quality variability more accurately and promptly. It is the aspect that will enable real-time pollution detection and immediate responses to protect the community's health. In addition, long-term trends and seasonal variations can be tracked more accurately through continuous monitoring systems, which provide detailed information on pollution sources and the effectiveness of control measures. Constant monitoring versus random sampling. This is because continuous monitoring offers a rich data account on the quality of the air at any given time as compared to intermittent sampling, which could ignore temporary events or the highest concentration, and offers a platform to make evidence-based decisions, more effective risk evaluation, and more effective management of the air pollution issue. The ordinary detection thresholds for particle size have myriad grave advantages for assessing individuals' health conditions and air quality. Exact measuring of the different dimensions of the particles, such as PM1, PM2.5, and PM10, will be able to identify the sources of the pollution, the dispersion distribution, and the potential health risk, since smaller particles, such as the PM2.5, can easily access the respiratory system and the health risks are the worst of the health risks. Adequate identification will ensure that regulators can use regulatory requirements, discern pollution hotspots, and present special innovative actions. Furthermore, the time and size of particles may be monitored in real time, enabling warnings of unsafe air conditions and exposing the setup to vulnerable groups of individuals, such as children, the elderly, and individuals with underlying health problems, to fewer dangers. Totally, enhanced detection capabilities enable more precise assessment, management, and communication of air quality issues, ultimately leading to healthier environments and improved health outcomes for the population. III. IMPORTANCE OF PARTICLE SIZE RANGE CHARACTERIZATION The scale size distribution of the particle is a highly significant parameter of the atmosphere, as well as in the respiratory system of a human being. Aerodynamics of various particles differ with their size and influence the way in which they are dispersed in the atmosphere, fall on the surfaces, or penetrate the biological barriers. Using the example of coarse particles (PM10), these particles are likely to settle in the upper respiratory tract and are often associated with dust and pollen; the fine particles (PM2.5) may bypass the organism's innate defences and land in the alveolar portions of the lungs. Even the tiniest, ultrafine particles less than 0.1 micrometres in diameter can penetrate the bloodstream, leading to systemic health risks. Therefore, accurate identification and characterisation of particle size may assist scientists and regulators in assessing exposure risks more precisely and developing more effective ways to reduce them, tailored to the health effects of the specific size range. The evaluation of environmental impact and the control of pollution also depend on knowledge of the particle size distribution. It is also probable that the sources will generate particles within specific size ranges. Therefore, size characterisation plays a significant role in source apportionment, which aims to identify pollutant sources. Using construction as an example, larger dust particles are produced during mechanical activities, whereas smaller particles are produced during combustion processes. These small particles include toxic substances and organic compounds, which are converted into fine and ultrafine particles. A proper characterization of the size range allows policymakers to consider particular control mechanisms, such as a filtration system or reduction in emissions, which are only able to mitigate those particle sizes that lead to the most serious health and environmental impact. In addition, this kind of knowledge can affect the development of air quality requirements and monitoring principles, which must ensure that the regulations contribute to reducing the most harmful fraction of particles and to protecting the health and ecosystems of the population to the greatest possible degree. The size of dust particles is one of the determining factors of the health impacts of air pollution and the atmospheric dynamics of CPM. Smaller particles, such as PM2.5 and ultrafine particles, can penetrate deeper into the respiratory system, reaching the alveoli of the lungs and even the bloodstream, which may cause systemic health effects, including cardiovascular and respiratory problems and inflammation. Their small sizes also enable long-distance atmospheric transport, and pollutants travel long distances before settling or dispersing, thereby impacting air quality across large regions. By contrast, larger particles, such as PM10, are likely to settle in the upper respiratory tract and have more localised health effects. Besides, the atmospheric lifetime and dispersal of particles depend on particle size: the smaller the particle, the longer it remains suspended and spreads over a wider area, which affects the climate by altering cloud formation and radiative forcing. Therefore, particle size is critical in determining how the environment and human health are affected by airborne particulate matter. The main issue with the determination of the actual particle size of the sample by the Continuous Particulate Analyzers and Monitors (CPAM) devices is that they are sensitive to the properties of the particles in this aspect: shape, refractive index, and composition, which may seriously compromise the accuracy of measurement. Most CPAM detectors are based on optical sensing, e.g., laser scattering, which is sensitive to irregular or non-spherical particle shapes, leading to differences between the real and measured particle sizes. Furthermore, differences in the refractive indices of the particles and the overlap of the size distributions may also cause problems in data interpretation, leading to possible misclassification or International Journal of Inventive Engineering and Sciences (IJIES) ISSN: 2319-9598 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-12, December 2025 38 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org underestimation of the particular size distributions. Environmental conditions that affect detection accuracy include humidity, temperature changes, and particle agglomeration, which can alter particle behaviour or introduce artefacts. The latter technical limitations remain an issue in delivering high-quality, real-time particle size measurements, especially under adverse atmospheric conditions, which are critical for assessing health risks and compliance with regulations. The need for localised particulate matter measurements stems from the pronounced spatial and temporal variability in air pollution across regions and over time. Local characteristics, such as emission sources, topography, meteorological conditions, and land use patterns, influence the concentration and composition of PM in any location. An example of this is a city full of traffic and industry, which tends to have more PM than a rural area or a barrier area, and seasonal changes, such as heating in winter or agricultural processes, may also fluctuate over time. This heterogeneity highlights the significance of the localised assessment, as it is only through it that air quality can be defined appropriately and pollution hotspots can be identified, to create efficient and specific mitigation strategies. The lack of area-specific data can result in ineffective policies or an inability to match actual exposure risks, ultimately impeding efforts to protect the health and environment of the population. IV. MATERIAL AND METHODS In this research, Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) were used at strategic locations along three sampling lines in the Gombe Metropolitan Area, Northeastern Nigeria, to measure particle size distribution and air quality. The CPAMs applied optical and betaattenuation measurement technologies to quantify particulate matter in different size ranges (PM1, PM2.5, PM10) over long periods of monitoring. The sensors were calibrated with reference-grade instruments to ensure accurate measurements, considering other parameters, such as the refractive index and shape of the particles, that affected optical detection. The data were collected continuously over time; therefore, they capture changes over time and potential pollution peaks. Sampling stations were also located to represent the various environmental and anthropogenic sources, including urban roads, industrial locations, and natural backgrounds, providing a good representation of the total spatial coverage. Environmental sensors were used to measure particulate matter simultaneously with meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and direction, providing context for the particulate measurements and consideration of atmospheric effects on particle distribution and sensor performance. The obtained data were statistically analysed using the Sen Slope Estimator to determine underlying trends and the CUSUM Control Chart to assess process stability and radiation levels, in conjunction with the particulate analysis and the radiological background. The distribution of particle sizes and radiation levels across the sampling zones was visualised using spatial analysis and geostatistical interpolation methods, including kriging, which enabled the identification of pollution hotspots and the source of pollution in the study area. Figure 1 shows the topographic map of the study area. [Fig.1: Topographic Map of the Study Area] V. RESULTS A total of one hundred and sixty-nine (169) measurements of radiation levels throughout the study area were done at several points along the main three (3) lines, namely Line 1 (Bypass - Undulum), Line 2 (Riyal Junction - Police Junction), and Line 3 (NTA to Bank Roundabout). These measured radiation levels, between 26 Bq and 42 Bq, indicate a change in the local gamma radiation environment that can be caused by geological characteristics of the underlying ground, such as mineral formations, crustal composition, or thermal variations. The measurements are essential for providing important information on the spatial distribution of natural radioactivity, which is usually associated with crustal heat flow and geothermal potential. It is important to note that increasing radiation levels, especially at 42 Bq, may indicate areas with higher crustal radioactivity, which can be compared with areas of high geothermal activity. The geographical location of a data point spans latitudes of about 10.1672 N to 10.3718 N and longitudes of 11.1199 E to 11.1799 E. The comprehensive information points of the coordinates are distributed in a structured manner along the three lines and record the spatial variations in radiation within the study area. As an example, at Line 1 (Bypass - Kundulum), the latitude of the measurements is 10.288 ° to 10.3164 °, and the longitude is 11.1671 ° to 11.1717 °, whereas in Line 2 (Riyal Junction - Police Junction), the latitude is 10.288 ° to 10.3164 ° and the longitude is 11.1671 ° to 11.1717 °. In Line 3 (NTA to Bank Roundabout), the area is larger, and points are between around 10.2911 -1 to 10.2802 -1 latitudes and 11.0832 -1 to 11.1799 -1 longitudes, indicating the spatial heterogeneity of radiation levels. These coordinates provide a basis for spatial analysis and enable identification of correlations between radiation anomalies and geological structures, heat flow, and geothermal prospects in the study area (Table 1). Particle Size Range in Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) of Gombe Metropolitan Area Northeastern Nigeria: Characterization, Challenges, and Implications for Air Quality Monitoring 39 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org Table I: Radiation and Coordinates of all the Data Points in the Study Area Line 1 Bypass - Undulum Line 2 Riyal Junction - Police Junction Line 3 NTA to Bank Roundabout Radiation in (Bq) Latitudes (Degrees) Longitudes (Degrees) Radiation in (Bq) Latitudes (Degrees) Longitudes (Degrees) Radiation (Bq) Latitudes (Degrees) Longitudes (Degrees) 33 10.288 11.1671 31 10.3121 11.1726 33 10.2911 11.0832 35 10.2579 11.1729 28 10.3128 11.1704 36 10.2911 11.0847 30 10.2596 11.1686 34 10.3134 11.1686 31 10.2911 11.0861 34 10.2636 11.1681 35 10.3142 11.1668 33 10.2909 11.0871 31 10.2644 11.1658 34 10.3149 11.1649 32 10.2910 11.0883 30 10.2688 11.1668 34 10.3158 11.1631 32 10.2909 11.0896 30 10.2713 11.1678 32 10.3164 11.1612 33 10.2910 11.0907 33 10.2700 11.1725 35 10.3159 11.1597 33 10.2909 11.0918 33 10.2760 11.1671 29 10.3141 11.1588 35 10.2910 11.0929 34 10.2780 11.1662 36 10.3124 11.1581 32 10.2909 11.0941 36 10.2804 11.1660 30 10.3121 11.1563 38 10.2910 11.0952 32 10.2823 11.1656 34 10.3101 11.1557 36 10.2910 11.0964 33 10.2851 11.1659 38 10.3083 11.1551 38 10.2911 11.0991 32 10.2882 11.1664 27 10.3065 11.1546 33 10.2911 11.0987 30 10.1672 11.1672 34 10.3048 11.1541 31 10.2911 11.0998 31 10.2928 11.1677 30 10.3055 11.1521 34 10.2912 11.1012 35 10.2845 11.1680 33 10.3069 11.1560 34 10.2912 11.1021 33 10.2959 11.1689 37 10.3084 11.1486 34 10.2913 11.1035 34 10.2981 11.1693 38 10.3001 11.1465 33 10.2913 11.1048 30 10.3005 11.1698 37 10.3114 11.1448 30 10.2913 11.1061 38 10.3029 11.1702 33 10.3138 11.1418 32 10.2913 11.1072 42 10.3054 11.1706 30 10.3135 11.1401 34 10.2913 11.1083 34 10.3076 11.1717 32 10.3170 11.1382 30 10.2912 11.1093 36 10.3095 11.1731 32 10.3184 11.1370 32 10.2910 11.1102 26 10.3117 11.1746 33 10.3201 11.1358 32 10.2903 11.1137 32 10.3138 11.1752 33 10.3214 11.1346 34 10.2907 11.1137 34 10.3161 11.1156 34 10.3232 11.1333 30 10.2905 11.1129 35 10.3183 11.1759 34 10.3249 11.1319 29 10.2904 11.1146 36 10.3208 11.1762 37 10.3267 11.1305 30 10.2903 11.1158 34 10.3285 11.1292 30 10.2901 11.1174 35 10.3304 11.1282 32 10.2999 11.1185 34 10.3315 11.1267 33 10.2997 11.1197 32 10.3301 11.1247 33 10.2896 11.1209 32 10.3285 11.1231 26 10.2894 11.1221 33 10.3267 11.1217 33 10.2893 11.1229 33 10.3241 11.1211 26 10.2891 11.1410 34 10.3239 11.1209 33 10.2891 11.1251 33 10.3216 11.1209 31 10.2888 11.1263 28 10.3193 11.1211 29 10.2885 11.1274 27 10.3172 11.1211 29 10.2885 11.1285 34 10.3145 11.1211 30 10.2882 11.1296 31 10.3123 11.1212 29 10.2877 11.1307 32 10.3117 11.1211 28 10.2874 11.1319 33 10.3051 11.1215 32 10.2871 11.1330 33 10.3031 11.1216 28 10.2868 11.1339 34 10.3014 11.1214 29 10.2865 11.1350 33 10.2991 11.1211 32 10.2863 11.1358 34 10.2972 11.1209 31 10.2862 11.1369 33 10.2952 11.1205 30 10.2861 11.1381 34 10.2921 11.1202 32 10.2860 11.1392 34 10.2909 11.1199 33 10.2860 11.1401 35 10.3121 11.1726 30 10.2858 11.1416 10.3128 11.1704 32 10.2855 11.1426 10.3134 11.1686 31 10.2855 11.1436 International Journal of Inventive Engineering and Sciences (IJIES) ISSN: 2319-9598 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-12, December 2025 40 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org 10.3142 11.1668 31 10.2852 11.1447 10.3149 11.1649 29 10.2849 11.1460 10.3158 11.1631 30 10.2847 11.1469 10.3164 11.1612 27 10.2843 11.1482 10.3159 11.1597 27 10.2841 11.1493 10.3141 11.1588 26 10.2838 11.1504 10.3124 11.1581 29 10.2836 11.1515 10.3121 11.1563 32 10.2834 11.1532 10.3101 11.1557 34 10.2840 11.1542 10.3083 11.1551 35 10.2846 11.1550 10.3065 11.1546 36 10.2853 11.1158 10.3048 11.1541 36 10.2862 11.1566 10.3055 11.1521 35 10.2870 11.1571 10.3069 11.1560 24 10.2877 11.1577 10.3084 11.1486 34 10.2881 11.1592 10.3001 11.1465 16 10.2882 11.1601 10.3114 11.1448 28 10.2882 11.1610 10.3138 11.1418 28 10.2871 11.1621 10.3135 11.1401 25 10.2877 11.1633 10.3170 11.1382 28 10.2874 11.1645 10.3184 11.1370 25 10.2872 11.1656 10.3201 11.1358 24 10.2870 11.1660 10.3214 11.1346 26 10.2865 11.1667 10.3232 11.1333 25 10.2863 11.1682 10.3249 11.1319 26 10.2861 11.1690 10.3267 11.1305 20 10.2850 11.1709 36 10.2842 11.1718 34 10.2820 11.1739 34 10.2832 11.1728 34 10.2829 11.1740 33 10.2822 11.1752 34 10.2813 11.1767 33 10.2810 11.1772 36 10.2805 11.1783 33 10.2802 11.1799 A. LINE 1 The radiation measurements recorded along Line 1 consist of 29 data points, with values ranging between 26 and 42 units (assumed to be counts per minute or another standard radiation unit). The data exhibits moderate variability in radiation levels across the surveyed stations. The radiation count ranges from 30 to 36 units on most stations, indicating a relatively constant radiation background along most of the line. It is worth noting that three stations have radiation levels above the general range: stations 21 (38 units), 22 (42 units), and 29 (36 units). The occurrence of these high levels may be a sign of localized sources of radiation or differences in soil composition. On the other hand, stations 25 and 26 have the lowest radiation levels at 26 units each, indicating relatively low radioactivity. The spatial distribution indicates a nonuniform radiation field rather than a uniform gradient. The radiation profile will be of vital use in environmental monitoring, risk evaluation, and the possible detection of non-standard areas along the line. The need for further research might be justified to identify the origin of high radiation at particular stations and its impact on molecular or health-wise, as shown in Fig. 2. (a) (b) [Fig.2: Radiation Plot of Line 2 (Bye-Pass-Kundulum Road)] The height data obtained on Line 1 are measurements recorded at 29 stations, with values ranging from 476 to 516 meters above sea level. The results indicate a Particle Size Range in Continuous Particulate Air Monitors (CPAMs) of Gombe Metropolitan Area Northeastern Nigeria: Characterization, Challenges, and Implications for Air Quality Monitoring 41 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org relatively narrow range of elevation variation along the line surveyed. The highest points are concentrated at 500 meters, with minor variations across other stations. To illustrate, stations 1 through 5 depict heights ranging from 495 m to 506 m, indicating that the terrain is not very active in this first section. Elevations between station 6 and station 23 generally range from around 499 m to 516 m, with a few upward peaks between stations 10 and 13, which have the highest recorded elevations (511 m to 516 m). There is a progressive decrease in elevation beginning at station 24, with values steadily lower at the last station, 29 (at 476 m elevation). This implies the existence of a steep fall or incline at the end of the line. In general, this elevation profile is that of a topography that is predominantly level or lightly rolling over the initial two-thirds of the line, then decreasing in the last third. This information is imperative for hydrological modelling, infrastructure development, and environmental analysis along the surveyed route (Fig. 3). [Fig.3: Elevation Plot of Line 1 (Byepass to Kundulum)] B. LINE 2 The given radiation data show that measured values range from 25Bq to 39Bq across 52 sampling points, indicating moderate variability in environmental radiation exposure. The average radiation level is maintained at a low level, between the mid-30s, which is consistent with the background radiation level in a similar environment. Interesting spikes to levels as high as 39 Bq are present at several different sampling points, indicating localized improvements which may be explained by geological or anthropogenic effects of radiation distribution. These peaks within a relatively stable trend suggest the presence of spatial heterogeneity typical of environmental radiation arising from both natural sources and human activity. Statistically, this dataset provides an opportunity to apply spatial statistical methods, including variogram modelling and geostatistical interpolation, to identify areas with varying radiation intensities. The recorded radiation variation indicates the need for further monitoring for both environmental and public health. The spatial patterns and temporal stability of radiation levels are fundamental to understanding, evaluating risk, and providing mitigation strategies when needed. The existing data can serve as a solid foundation for future longitudinal research to measure radiation patterns and detect any new hotspots that might require additional research or mitigation actions (Fig. 4a). The radiation readings at 52 spatial positions range from 25 to 38 Bq, with most scores between 25 and 38 Bq. These values indicate moderate background radioactivity, possibly due to natural geology or a localised source of radioactive elements. The spatial coordinates are confined within a small geographical area, based on which the latitude values range from 10.29 to 10.33 degrees and the longitude from 11.12 to 11.17 degrees, indicating a small sampling area. Radiation distribution indicates some spatial heterogeneity, with pronounced high values observed at latitudes 10.30810.310 and longitudes 11.14-11.15, suggesting the possible presence of local radiation hotspots in the sampled area. This dataset is statistically valuable, as it provides a representative record of radiation activity for environmental monitoring. The presence of numerous peaks around 37-38 Bq indicates areas that warrant more detailed examination for potential natural uranium-bearing minerals or artificial pollution. Interpolative techniques such as kriging or inverse distance weighting can be used in geospatial analysis to visualise radiation patterns and improve the study of spatial patterns. This information is essential to environmental risk assessments or to direct future sampling or remediation activities in the region. In general, the findings indicate a standard radiation profile with relative natural variation in its context and areas of interest that require closer monitoring (Fig. 4b). The radiation readings at 52 spatial positions range from 25 to 38 Bq, with most scores between 25 and 38 Bq. These values indicate moderate background radioactivity, possibly due to natural geology or a localised source of radioactive elements. The spatial coordinates are confined within a small geographical area, based on which the latitude values range from 10.29 to 10.33 degrees and the longitude from 11.12 to 11.17 degrees, indicating a small sampling area. Radiation distribution indicates spatial heterogeneity, with high values observed at latitudes 10.308-10.310 and longitudes 11.14-11.15, suggesting local radiation hotspots in the sampled area. This dataset is statistically valuable, as it provides a representative record of radiation activity for environmental monitoring. The presence of numerous peaks around 37-38 Bq indicates areas that warrant more detailed examination for potential natural uranium-bearing minerals or artificial pollution. Interpolative techniques such as kriging or inverse distance weighting can be used in geospatial analysis to visualise radiation patterns and improve the study of spatial patterns. This information is essential to environmental risk assessments or to direct future sampling or remediation activities in the region. In general, the findings indicate a standard radiation profile with relative natural variation in its context and areas of interest that require closer monitoring (Fig. 4b). International Journal of Inventive Engineering and Sciences (IJIES) ISSN: 2319-9598 (Online), Volume-12 Issue-12, December 2025 42 Published By: Blue Eyes Intelligence Engineering and Sciences Publication (BEIESP) © Copyright: All rights reserved. Retrieval Number: 100.1/ijies.E832414050126 DOI: 10.35940/ijies.E8324.12121225 Journal Website: www.ijies.org (a) (b) [Fig.4: Radiation Plot of Line 2 (Riyal Junction - Police Roundabout)] The given elevation dataset comprises 52 sampling points, with elevations ranging from 490 to 692 meters above sea level. The data indicate an overall tendency for elevation to rise across the sampled locations, suggesting a topographic gradient that may represent steep or mountainous terrain. These first tracts have an average elevation of approximately 500 meters, which increases slowly to the high 600s toward the end of the sampling sequence. Such a pattern refers to potential upland zones or ridges of the scenery. Differences in altitude between adjacent locations are moderate, although some steeper rises indicate local topography, e.g., hills or escarpments. Scientifically, the data provide a good point of reference for geomorphological and environmental studies. The height gradient may significantly impact local microclimates, vegetation cover, watershed hydrology, and soil processes. The elevation data would be used to establish spatial patterns and environmental gradients, along with other environmental factors such as radiation or chemical concentrations. More complex spatial modelling would be used to describe the implications of terrain for ecological or geochemical processes. The evidence shows that both sitespecific assessments are necessary in areas such as environmental impact analysis, land use planning, and conservation biology, where topographical subtleties are critical to informed decision-making (Fig. 5). [Fig.5: Elevation Plot of Line 2 (Riyal Junction to Police Roundabout)] C. LINE 3 The dataset includes radiation measurements in Becquerels (Bq) taken at 89 sampling points, with a range of 18-39 Bq. The average radiation level is 31.9 Bq, and the variation is moderate, with a standard deviation of 4.1 Bq. The data distribution is also slightly skewed towards lower values, with some measurements as low as 18 Bq. This dissemination is characteristic of the usual background radiation in the environment, i.e., uncontrolled environmental conditions and artificial factors. The radiation distribution is mainly in the 30-35 Bq range, indicating a stable situation with small peaks up to 39 Bq, possibly indicating a particular source or geologic condition. Spatial patterns indicate slight variations, with hot spots at specific sampling points, and other hot spots with lower radiation of 24-28 Bq. These trends highlight the need to use a localized approach to environmental measurements of radiological safety. The measured levels are within those likely to be present at the natural background radiation, and there are no immediate health risks. The addition of spatial statistical techniques, along with environmental covariates, to future work might help to improve the understanding of the reasons for variation. The results, in general, provide a strong foundation for continued environmental radiation surveillance and risk assessment (Fig. 6). (a)