Fintech and financial literacy in Viet Nam

Morgan, Peter J.; Long Quang Trinh Working Paper Fintech and financial literacy in Viet Nam ADBI Working Paper Series, No. 1154 Provided in Cooperation with: Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), Tokyo Suggested Citation: Morgan, Peter J.; Long Quang Trinh (2020) : Fintech and financial literacy in Viet Nam, ADBI Working Paper Series, No. 1154, Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), Tokyo This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/238511 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/igo/ ADBI Working Paper Series FINTECH AND FINANCIAL LITERACY IN VIET NAM Peter J. Morgan and Long Q. Trinh No. 1154 June 2020 Asian Development Bank Institute The Working Paper series is a continuation of the formerly named Discussion Paper series; the numbering of the papers continued without interruption or change. ADBI’s working papers reflect initial ideas on a topic and are posted online for discussion. Some working papers may develop into other forms of publication. Suggested citation: Morgan, P. J. and L. Q. Trinh. 2020. Fintech and Financial Literacy in Viet Nam. ADBI Working Paper 1154. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute. Available: https://www.adb.org/publications/fintech-and-financial-literacy-viet-nam Please contact the authors for information about this paper. Email: [email protected], [email protected] Peter J. Morgan is senior consulting economist and vice chair of the Research Department of the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) in Tokyo. Long Q. Trinh is a project consultant at ADBI. The views expressed in this paper are the views of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of ADBI, ADB, its Board of Directors, or the governments they represent. ADBI does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use. Terminology used may not necessarily be consistent with ADB official terms. Working papers are subject to formal revision and correction before they are finalized and considered published. Asian Development Bank Institute Kasumigaseki Building, 8th Floor 3-2-5 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-6008, Japan Tel: +81-3-3593-5500 Fax: +81-3-3593-5571 URL: www.adbi.org E-mail: [email protected] © 2020 Asian Development Bank Institute ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh Abstract Financial literacy is gaining increasing importance as a policy objective in many countries. A growing literature has examined the role of financial literacy in an individual’s income, saving behavior, and the use of various financial products. However, so far, we are not aware of any studies of the relationship between financial literacy and the awareness and adoption of financial technology (fintech) products, i.e., financial products provided via internet-based and mobile-based platforms especially in developing countries. This paper examines this relationship in a developing country, Viet Nam. To do so, we conducted a survey on financial literacy and fintech awareness and adoption, using financial literacy questions to calculate a financial literacy score. We find that a higher level of financial literacy has strong and positive effects on an individual’s awareness and use of fintech products. Keywords: financial literacy, financial behavior, fintech, awareness of fintech, household saving, Viet Nam JEL Classification: D14, G11, J26 ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh Contents 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 2. FINTECH AND FINTECH DEVELOPMENT IN THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS .............................................................................. 2 2.1 An Overview of Fintech ...................................................................................... 2 2.2 Fintech Development in Viet Nam ..................................................................... 3 3. LITERATURE SURVEY ................................................................................................. 3 4. FINANCIAL LITERACY AND FINTECH IN VIET NAM ................................................. 4 4.1 Measurement of Financial Knowledge .............................................................. 4 4.2 Data Collection ................................................................................................... 4 4.3 Stylized Facts of Financial Knowledge .............................................................. 5 4.4 ICT Adoption and Financial Literacy ................................................................. 5 5. EFFECTS OF FINANCIAL LITERACY ON FINTECH AWARENESS AND ADOPTION .......................................................................................................... 10 5.1 Empirical Approach .......................................................................................... 10 5.2 Empirical Results ............................................................................................. 12 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................... 15 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 17 APPENDIX 1: FINANCIAL KNOWLEDGE AND FINTECH ADOPTION: OLS ESTIMATION ....................................................................................................... 19 ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 1 1. INTRODUCTION Financial literacy has gained an important position in the policy agenda of many countries, and the importance of collecting informative, reliable data on the levels of financial literacy across the adult population has been widely recognized (OECD/INFE 2015b). This parallels the emphasis placed on increasing financial inclusion, i.e., the access of individuals and firms to financial products and services. If individuals do not understand financial principles, they will not be able to profit from such increased access. Also, the trend of switching to defined-contribution plans from defined-benefit pension plans implies that individuals will increasingly need to manage their own retirement savings and pensions. At their summit in Los Cabos, Mexico in 2012, Group of Twenty (G20) leaders endorsed the High-Level Principles on National Strategies for Financial Education developed by the OECD/INFE, thereby acknowledging the importance of coordinated policy approaches to financial education (G20 2012). At the same time, surveys consistently show that the level of financial literacy is relatively low, even in advanced economies (OECD/INFE 2016, 2017, 2018). This indicates that the need for higher levels of financial literacy is increasing. Rapid developments in financial technology (fintech) also highlight the need to improve financial literacy in order to use innovative financial products and services. With the development of information–communication technology (ICT), there is a growing breed of fintech companies that provide services through internetand mobile-based platforms such as Ant Financial (People’s Republic of China), Grab (Singapore), Paytm (India), Compass (US), and Opendoor (UK). Recent literature has shown that fintech (especially mobile money) has helped to increase financial inclusion in developing economies where the traditional bank-based financial system is underdeveloped (Demirguc-Kunt et al. 2018). Other studies have identified factors that affect the adoption of mobileand internet-based financial services (Jack, Ray, and Suri 2013; Suri 2017). However, we are not aware of any papers that investigate the role of financial literacy on the awareness and/or use of fintech products. This paper attempts to fill this gap by using newly collected data in a developing country, Viet Nam. Our research question is whether those with a higher level of financial literacy are more likely to be aware of and use fintech products. To answer this question, we construct a financial literacy1 score based on the approach of the OECD/INFE (2015a, 2015c) and use both ordinary least squares (OLS) and Heckman two-step procedure estimation. We find that higher financial literacy is significantly related to both awareness and adoption of fintech products. Therefore, improvements in financial literacy could speed the adoption of fintech products and services, and thereby promote financial inclusion. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides some background on fintech development in general, and in Viet Nam in particular. Section 3 reviews the literature on the effects of financial literacy. Data collection, the definition of the financial literacy score used in this study, and some descriptive analyses are presented in Section 4. Econometric methodologies and results are reported in Section 5, followed by some concluding remarks in Section 6. 1 While financial literacy, as explained above, is multi-dimensional, including financial knowledge, financial behavior, and financial attitude, most of the literature has defined financial knowledge to be equivalent to financial literacy, ignoring the other dimensions. In this version of this paper, we adopt this more limited definition and use financial knowledge and financial literacy interchangeably. ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 2 2. FINTECH AND FINTECH DEVELOPMENT IN THE ASSOCIATION OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN NATIONS 2.1 An Overview of Fintech “Fintech” refers to “any technological innovation in—and automation of—the financial sector, including advances in financial literacy, advice and education, as well as streamlining of wealth management, lending and borrowing, retail banking, fundraising, money transfers/payments, investment management and more” (Investopedia 2018). Earlier generations of finance-related technology typically focused on providing services to already-established financial firms, but today’s fintech companies are increasingly providing services directly to consumers. Fintech is changing finance in fundamental ways, from investment management to capital–raising, to the very form of currency itself. In each of these areas, fintech innovation has lowered the barriers to entry, expanded access to financial services, and challenged the traditional understanding of how finance works. Major categories of financial services offered by fintech firms include: • Payments and transfers (e-commerce payments; mobile banking; mobile wallets; person-to-person (P2P) payments and transfers; digital currency; and cross-border transactions including remittances and business-to-business (B2B) payments) • Personal finance (robo-advisors; mobile trading; and personal financial management) • Alternative financing (crowdfunding; alternative lending; and invoice and supplychain finance); and • Others (insurance products, etc.) Table 1 provides an overview of the size, composition, and regulatory status of fintech markets in some Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) economies. Table 1: Fintech in ASEAN: A Snapshot No. of Fintech Companies Investment in 2017 (USD million) Key Sectors Regulatory Sandbox Indonesia 262 26 (370% yoy growth) Mobile payments, alternative lending Yes Malaysia 196 75 (1,500% yoy growth) Payments, consumer finance Yes Philippines 115 78 (1,300% yoy growth) Payments (incl. remittances) Yes Singapore 490 141 (68% yoy growth) Wealth management, alternative lending, payments Yes Thailand 128 12 (–40% yoy growth) Payments Yes Viet Nam 153 3 Payments No Note: yoy = year-on-year. Source: EY (2018). ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 3 2.2 Fintech Development in Viet Nam Digital financial services are at a very nascent stage in Viet Nam. Mobile “top ups” and bill payments for some services such as electricity and water through a formal bank account, the internet, or cell phones are the most widely used services. Internet Infrastructure in Viet Nam Mobile connectivity has grown rapidly in Viet Nam since 2005. About 60–70% of the population have access to the internet either though computer or mobile phone. The mobile network has upgraded to 4G and 5G will be implemented from 2020 onward. In recent years, the environment in Viet Nam for internet startups, including fintech startups, has eased. Together with internet startups, the number of fintech firms increased significantly from about 70 in 2016 to about 150 firms in 20192. However, the services they provide are rather limited, mostly e-wallets and payment facilitators. Some fintech firms provide robo-advisor services for stock and forex trading. 3. LITERATURE SURVEY In the literature, there are several widely used definitions of financial literacy. In their review article, Lusardi and Mitchell (2014) define financial literacy as “peoples’ ability to process economic information and make informed decisions about financial planning, wealth accumulation, debt, and pensions.” The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and the International Network on Financial Education (OECD/INFE 2016) define financial literacy as “[a] combination of awareness, knowledge, skill, attitude and behavior necessary to make sound financial decisions and ultimately achieve individual financial wellbeing.” Thus, this concept of financial literacy is multi-dimensional, reflecting not only knowledge but also skills, attitudes, and actual behavior. The literature on financial literacy focuses on two main areas: (i) the determinants of financial literacy, including age, gender, level of education, and occupation; and (ii) the effects of financial knowledge on various aspects of financial behavior, including saving, use of credit, preparation for retirement, and awareness and adoption of various financial services. Here we focus on the latter area. There is a well-developed literature trying to link measures of financial literacy with other economic and financial behaviors, going back to Bernheim (1995, 1998) in the United States, in response to the increasing shift toward defined-contribution pension plans. This area of research received a further boost after the global financial crisis of 2008– 2009, which drew attention to numerous scams inflicted on individual borrowers and investors in the United States and other countries. Hilgert, Hogarth, and Beverly (2003) found a strong correlation between financial literacy and daily financial management skills, while other studies found that people who were more numerate and financially literate are more likely to participate in financial markets and invest in stocks and make precautionary savings (Christelis, Jappelli, and Padula 2010; van Rooij, Lusardi, and Alessie 2011; de Bassa Scheresberg 2013). People who are more financially savvy are also more likely to undertake retirement planning, and those who plan also accumulate more wealth (Lusardi and Mitchell 2011). These results have been 2 Vietnam News “Fintech firms need clear policy to develop,” available at https://vietnamnews.vn/ economy/524301/fintech-firms-need-clear-policy-to-develop.html ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 4 corroborated in a number of countries. The work of Mahdzan and Tabiani (2013) is an example of this kind of research in Malaysia. On the liability side of the household balance sheet, Moore (2003) found that the least financially literate are more likely to have more expensive mortgages. Campbell (2006) showed that those with lower income and less education were less likely to refinance their mortgages during periods of falling interest rates. Stango and Zinman (2009) found that those unable to correctly calculate interest rates generally borrowed more and accumulated less wealth. The likelihood of participation in a risky financial behavior is crucially affected by the costs and benefits of acquiring information (Hsiao and Tsai 2018). Vissing-Jorgensen (2003) and Guiso and Jappelli (2005) suggest that awareness and understanding of financial products will influence one’s decision on whether or not to use those products. Van Rooij et al. (2011) show that financial literacy has a positive correlation with stock market participation. Individuals with higher financial literacy may have lower fixed costs associated with acquiring and processing financial information than those with lower financial literacy, which would make it easier for the former to participate in risky financial activities. Similar to stock market participation, adoption of fintech products also bears risks. According to Morgan, Huang, and Trinh (2019), in addition to traditional financial risks, use of digital financial services entails a variety of new risks. Such risks are more diverse and harder to spot than those associated with traditional financial products and services. These risks include phishing, pharming, spyware, and swaps. Furthermore, digital footprints may also be a source of risks. This suggests that higher financial literacy could also facilitate the use of fintech products and services. As far as we are aware, no one has examined the relation between financial literacy and the awareness and adoption of financial technology. We conjecture that there is a positive correlation between financial literacy and the awareness and adoption of financial technology. 4. FINANCIAL LITERACY AND FINTECH IN VIET NAM 4.1 Measurement of Financial Knowledge We adopt the questionnaire developed by OECD/INFE (2015a) to calculate scores for financial knowledge. The score for financial knowledge is calculated from seven survey questions reflecting the subject’s understanding of basic financial knowledge, such as calculating interest rates, compound interest rates, risk and return evaluation, and understanding of inflation and risk diversification. The score ranges between 0 and 7. For ease of interpretation, we calculate a z-score for financial knowledge. We also collect information on a large number of control variables that could also influence financial knowledge, including age, gender, education level, urban or rural, occupation, income, and debt. 4.2 Data Collection The survey was conducted by Mekong Development Research Institute under the direction of the Asian Development Bank Institute. Data collection was conducted from June to August 2019. We use the sample from Viet Nam Housing Living Standard Surveys (VHLSS) 2018 as our base sample. Two big cities, Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh, were selected purposely, while three other provinces located in the North (Bac Ninh), ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 11 • The control variables (𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖) include income level, individual’s age, education level, gender, and provincial dummies. With regard to age, we divided the sample into three age groups: those under 30 years old (young people); those over 30 years old but under 40 years old; those over 40 and under 50 years old; those over 50 but under 60 years old; and those over 60 years old (old people). We used the group of young people as the base group. For educational level, we combined the categories into five groups: (i) those with some, completed, primary education (called the “Primary education” group); (ii) those with some, or completed, secondary education (called the “Up to secondary education” group); (iii) those with some or complete high school (called the “Up to high school education” group); (iv) those with some technical school or 3-year college graduation (called “Higher education” group); and (v) those with at least university degree (4-year college graduation) (called “University graduate and higher” group). We use the first group (“Primary education” group) as the reference group. We separate household income into four groups: those living in households with income less than VND85 million per year (i.e., equal to about 75% of total median income); those living in households with income from VND85 million to VND190 million; those with income of more than VND190 million (i.e., about 150% of total median income); and those who did not report their income. We use the group of people living in households with annual income less than VND85 million as the reference group.3 To estimate the correlation between financial literacy and fintech adoption, we use the following equations: 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖=𝛽𝛽0+𝛽𝛽1𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖+𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝛽𝛽2+𝜂𝜂𝑖𝑖 (2) The independent variables are similar to those in equation (1). Dependent variables are three dummy variables, which take the value of one if individual 𝑖𝑖 uses one service (of three fintech services) and zero otherwise. The three fintech services that are available are (i) e-banking services; (ii) e-payment services; and (iii) e-transfer services. It should be noted that these three services are not exclusively excluded. One can use e-banking apps for e-payment or e-transfer. However, there are other fintech service providers that are not banks, so those who use e-payment or e-transfer may not use ebanking services. Because the adoption of fintech services is only observed among those who are using the internet (either via mobile phone or computer), sample selection will lead to biased OLS estimates. To remedy the sample selection bias, we estimate equation (2) using the Heckman procedure. 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 ∗=𝛾𝛾0+𝛾𝛾1𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖+𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝛾𝛾2+𝜂𝜂𝑖𝑖 ∗ (3) Of which 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 ∗ is a latent variable, indicating whether individual 𝑖𝑖 adopts the fintech or not. 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖 ∗ is only observed if individual 𝑖𝑖 uses the internet. 𝑃𝑃(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝐹𝐹𝑒𝑒𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝐹𝐹 = 1|𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖,𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖) = Φ(𝜃𝜃0+𝜃𝜃1 𝐹𝐹𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖+𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝜃𝜃2 + 𝜇𝜇𝑖𝑖) (4) 3 Although we prefer to use the specific amount of income per person, about 20% of households did not reveal their specific annual income. They reported their household’s income within a certain range. ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 12 The Heckman two-step procedure will estimate equation (4) as the first state, then calculating the inversed Mills’ ratio (IMR) and estimation equation (2) with IMR being controlled for. It should be noted that our estimates could suffer from endogeneity biases. While possible reverse causality running from fintech adoption to financial literacy may not pose a big threat to our estimation since fintech has only recently been developed in Viet Nam, various unobservable factors may be correlated with both fintech adoption and financial literacy. To deal with this issue, the instrumental variable approach is appropriate. However, it is rather difficult to find suitable variables that are related to financial literacy but exogenous to fintech adoption. Therefore, our estimates should be interpreted cautiously. 5.2 Empirical Results Table 2 reports our estimation results on the relationship between financial literacy and the awareness of five fintech products (digital borrowing, digital lending, digital money, digital insurance, and digital financial advisor) and our fintech awareness index. The result in Table 1 shows that financial literacy is positively associated with the likelihood of awareness of most fintech products. A one-standard deviation increase in the financial literacy score is associated with an increase in the probability of awareness of digital borrowing by 5.2 percentage points; of digital lending by 3 percentage points; digital payment by 3.6 percentage points; and by digital insurance by 1.6 percentage points. A one-standard deviation increase in financial literacy also increases our awareness index by 9 percentage points. However, financial literacy does not have a correlation with awareness of digital financial advisors. This result is consistent with previous results. Morgan and Trinh (2020) found that one-standard deviation increase in financial literacy raises the awareness of at least one fintech product by 8 percentage points in the Lao PDR. The result also suggests that those living in households with annual income higher than 190 million Vietnamese dong (VND) have a higher likelihood of being aware of fintech products (except for digital insurance) than those with income lower than VND85 million (the reference group), while there is no statistically significant difference in awareness of any fintech products between the reference group and those with incomes from VND85 million to VND190 million. This result suggests that only a proportion of high-income people are more likely to know about fintech products. Even when financial literacy and income are controlled for, individuals with higher education levels have a significantly higher likelihood of awareness of fintech products. For example, an individual with at least university degree education tends to have a higher probability of awareness of digital borrowing than those with only primary education by about 18 percentage points. The likelihood of awareness of some fintech services such as digital lending and digital financial advisors among those with secondary school education are no different from those with primary education. Especially for digital financial advisor, only those with at least college education have higher likelihood of awareness than those in the reference group, while there is no difference in the awareness between those with secondary education and high school education and those with primary education. Our estimation results also show that, after controlling for education level and income level, the likelihood of awareness of some fintech products such as digital lending and digital insurance is not statistically significantly related to age groups and gender. Meanwhile, for digital borrowing, people aged more than 60 are less likely to be aware than those who are under 30, while there is no difference among those who are over 30 ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 13 and those who are under 30 years old. The results also show that individuals who are over 40 (over 30) are less likely to be aware of digital payments (digital financial advisor) than people who are less than 30 years old. This may partly be due to higher exposure to new information for those who are under 30 than people in other age groups. Female and male individuals show no difference in awareness of fintech products, except for two products, digital payment and digital financial advisor. Table 2: Effect of Financial Literacy on Awareness of Fintech Products (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Digital Borrowin g Digital Lending Digital Payment Digital Insuranc e Digital Advisor Awareness Index Financial knowledge 0.052*** 0.030*** 0.036*** 0.016* 0.006 0.090*** [0.011] [0.011] [0.009] [0.008] [0.007] [0.020] Age: 30–39 yo 0.088 0.057 –0.054 –0.007 –0.106** –0.014 [0.054] [0.055] [0.046] [0.045] [0.043] [0.095] Age: 40–49 yo –0.015 0.033 –0.097** 0.038 –0.132*** –0.111 [0.053] [0.053] [0.042] [0.044] [0.040] [0.092] Age: 50–59 yo –0.065 –0.049 –0.147*** –0.018 –0.140*** –0.270*** [0.053] [0.052] [0.042] [0.041] [0.039] [0.090] Age: Over 60 yo –0.100* –0.048 –0.124*** –0.003 –0.116*** –0.252*** [0.052] [0.051] [0.042] [0.043] [0.042] [0.095] Male 0.040 0.042 0.081*** 0.041 0.115*** 0.205*** [0.030] [0.030] [0.025] [0.025] [0.023] [0.056] Income: VND85m–190m 0.057 –0.024 –0.009 0.015 0.018 0.037 [0.037] [0.036] [0.031] [0.028] [0.024] [0.067] Income: >VND190m 0.093** 0.075* 0.091** 0.038 0.080** 0.243*** [0.043] [0.043] [0.036] [0.035] [0.031] [0.079] Income: Not reported –0.063 –0.097 –0.054 –0.043 –0.032 –0.186 [0.080] [0.079] [0.072] [0.063] [0.048] [0.161] Education: Up to secondary 0.081* 0.065 0.071** 0.055** –0.008 0.170** [0.043] [0.044] [0.031] [0.027] [0.019] [0.072] Education: Up to high school 0.149*** 0.100** 0.163*** 0.067* 0.027 0.325*** [0.049] [0.049] [0.038] [0.034] [0.025] [0.083] Education: Higher education 0.226*** 0.180*** 0.370*** 0.183*** 0.196*** 0.744*** [0.061] [0.062] [0.052] [0.051] [0.045] [0.116] Education: College and higher 0.176*** 0.139** 0.493*** 0.148*** 0.229*** 0.763*** [0.059] [0.060] [0.047] [0.048] [0.043] [0.107] Provincial dummies Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Intercept 0.160** 0.199** 0.237*** 0.056 0.130** –0.500*** [0.079] [0.079] [0.064] [0.064] [0.054] [0.141] R-sq 0.137 0.071 0.370 0.089 0.183 0.284 N 1,058 1,058 1,058 1,058 1,058 1,058 Note: Figures in bracket are standard errors. ***, **, and * denote coefficient is statistically significant at the 1%, 5%, and 10% levels, respectively. Source: Authors’ estimates. ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 14 We also explore whether financial literacy is correlated with adoption of fintech services or not. Adoption of fintech products could be observed for those who had access to the internet. Using the OLS estimation method may give a biased estimation due to the sample selection issue. Therefore, we estimate this relationship using the Heckman two-step procedure.4 Table 3 presents our estimation results. Columns 1–3 are three dummy variables which indicate the adoption of three services: e-banking services, e-payment, and e-transfer. Column 4 is the first stage estimation results from estimating the probability of access to the internet.5 From the first stage, the inversed Mill’s ratio is calculated and is added as an additional control variable in the second stage. Our estimation results show the estimates of inversed Mills’ ratio variables are statistically significant in all three 2nd stage equations, implying that control for sample bias is important to have better estimates of the relationship between financial literacy and fintech adoption. Our estimation results show that financial literacy is positively correlated with adoption of some fintech products. For example, a one-standard deviation increase in the financial literacy raises the likelihood of using e-banking services by 4.1 percentage points and the likelihood of using e-payment services by 3.9 percentage points. However, financial literacy is not correlated with using e-transfer services. With regards to other control variables, our results suggest that those with higher income tend to use fintech services more than those with lower income. However, the relationship is only statistically significant for those living in households with annual income higher than VND190 million, i.e., their likelihood of using fintech services is statistically significantly higher than that of those from households with annual income less than VND85 million. People with higher education are also more likely to use fintech services than those having lower education. For example, individuals with at least university degree education have higher likelihood of using e-banking than those with primary education by 80%. The figures for those with higher education, high school education, and secondary education are 64.1, 39.7, and 22 percentage points. We also observed the same pattern for other fintech products. While age does not affect the awareness of fintech products, it is correlated with the use of fintech services. Generally, the likelihood of using fintech products among younger people is higher than that among older people. For example, people over 60 years old have lower likelihood of using e-banking than those under 30 years old by 65.5 percentage points. The figures for people from 50 to 59 years old and from 40 to 49 years old are 51.6 and 22.4 percentage points. There are some differences among those from 30 years old to 40 years old and those under 30 years old, but these differences are small and only statistically significant at the 10% level. Our results also suggest that men are more likely to use fintech services (e-banking and e-payment) than women. 4 Please refer to Appendix 1 for the OLS estimation results. 5 It would be ideal to have exogenous variables which are correlated with access to the internet but not related to the decision to adopt fintech products. There are several for this including internet development, and telecom development at the provincial level. ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 15 Table 3: Effects of Financial Knowledge on Fintech Adoption: Heckman Two-step Procedure (1) (2) (3) (4) e-Banking e-Payment e-Transfer First Stage Financial knowledge 0.041** 0.039** 0.000 0.151*** [0.016] [0.015] [0.013] [0.041] Age: 30–39 yo –0.108* –0.101* 0.034 –0.182 [0.056] [0.054] [0.043] [0.222] Age: 40–49 yo –0.224*** –0.208*** 0.021 –0.794*** [0.059] [0.057] [0.046] [0.206] Age: 50–59 yo –0.516*** –0.459*** –0.140** –1.528*** [0.082] [0.079] [0.067] [0.205] Age: Over 60 yo –0.655*** –0.606*** –0.228*** –1.811*** [0.087] [0.084] [0.071] [0.211] Male 0.089** 0.069* –0.006 0.518*** [0.038] [0.036] [0.030] [0.172] Income: VND85m–190m 0.077 0.077 0.051 0.379*** [0.054] [0.053] [0.045] [0.123] Income: > VND190m 0.289*** 0.225*** 0.165*** 0.598*** [0.060] [0.058] [0.050] [0.148] Income: Not reported –0.163 0.027 –0.059 –0.193 [0.116] [0.112] [0.096] [0.286] Education: Up to secondary education 0.220** 0.182** 0.124 1.152*** [0.088] [0.085] [0.079] [0.183] Education: Up to high school 0.397*** 0.376*** 0.247*** 1.810*** [0.107] [0.103] [0.092] [0.239] Education: Higher education 0.641*** 0.570*** 0.385*** 2.075*** [0.122] [0.118] [0.104] [0.252] Education: College & higher 0.807*** 0.666*** 0.458*** 0.314*** [0.126] [0.122] [0.107] [0.107] Province dummies Yes Yes Yes Yes Intercept –0.476*** –0.445*** –0.186 –0.536* [0.173] [0.167] [0.145] [0.313] Mills \lambda 0.480*** 0.463*** 0.180* [0.108] [0.105] [0.095] N 631 631 631 1,058 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS This study is one of the first to examine the relationship between financial literacy and awareness and adoption of fintech products and services in the context of developing countries. We use our newly collected data on financial literacy and fintech adoption in Viet Nam. We examine whether higher financial literacy could improve the awareness of five fintech products (digital borrowing, digital lending, digital payment, digital insurance, and digital financial advisor) and raise the level of our own awareness index. We also examine the correlation between financial literacy and the adoption of fintech services (e-banking, e-payment, and e-transfer). ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 16 Our empirical results show that financial literacy is correlated with the awareness of almost all fintech products (except for digital financial advisors) and of our awareness index. It also correlates with the adoption of two fintech services (e-banking and e-payment). Our results also show a positive relationship among income, education level, and fintech awareness and fintech adoption. While age does not affect awareness of some fintech products, it has a negative correlation with fintech adoption. Older people have lower likelihood of using fintech products. We also find that people living in Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City are more likely to be aware and adopt fintech services than people living in other provinces. Not only does the low level of financial literacy explain the low level of awareness and adoption of fintech products; it is also related to the underdeveloped state of ICT infrastructure in the country. Therefore, in addition to general and financial education programs, the country needs to put more effort into the development of ICT infrastructure as a necessary condition for fintech development. 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ADBI Working Paper 1154 Morgan and Trinh 19 APPENDIX 1: FINANCIAL KNOWLEDGE AND FINTECH ADOPTION: OLS ESTIMATION (1) (2) (3) e-Banking e-Payment e-Transfer Financial knowledge 0.009 0.008 –0.002 [0.007] [0.007] [0.006] Age: 30–39 yo –0.106** –0.088** 0.025 [0.043] [0.042] [0.039] Age: 40–49 yo –0.141*** –0.123*** 0.029 [0.040] [0.038] [0.035] Age: 50–59 yo –0.234*** –0.193*** –0.032 [0.037] [0.035] [0.032] Age: Over 60 yo –0.292*** –0.258*** –0.088*** [0.037] [0.035] [0.031] Male 0.026 0.018 –0.011 [0.020] [0.019] [0.019] Income: VND85m–190m –0.022 –0.015 0.010 [0.020] [0.017] [0.016] Income: > VND190m 0.133*** 0.094*** 0.101*** [0.028] [0.025] [0.025] Income: Not reported –0.073** 0.017 –0.006 [0.037] [0.043] [0.042] Education: Up to secondary education –0.025 –0.033** –0.010 [0.016] [0.013] [0.013] Education: Up to high school –0.002 –0.001 0.047** [0.022] [0.020] [0.021] Education: Higher education 0.154*** 0.123*** 0.146*** [0.041] [0.038] [0.037] Education: College & higher 0.309*** 0.203*** 0.230*** [0.041] [0.038] [0.039] Provincial dummies Yes Yes Yes Intercept 0.221*** 0.194*** 0.064 [0.051] [0.048] [0.046] R-sq 0.349 0.256 0.171 N 631 631 631