Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption

Ünal, Sevtap; Devecİ, F. Görgün; Yildiz, Tuğba Article Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption Istanbul Business Research (IBR) Provided in Cooperation with: Istanbul University, Business School Suggested Citation: Ünal, Sevtap; Devecİ, F. Görgün; Yildiz, Tuğba (2019) : Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption, Istanbul Business Research (IBR), ISSN 2630-5488, Istanbul University Press, Istanbul, Vol. 48, Iss. 1, pp. 1-35, https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2019.48.0019 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/250220 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ ©The Authors. Published by the İstanbul University under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited. Istanbul Business Research, 48(1): 1-35 DOI: 10.26650/ibr.2019.48.0019 http://ibr.istanbul.edu.tr/ http://dergipark.gov.tr/ibr Submitted: 09.07.2018 Revision Requested: 30.11.2018 Last Revision Received: 29.01.2019 Accepted: 06.03.2019 Published Online: 11.06.2019 RESEARCH ARTICLE Istanbul Business Research Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption Sevtap Ünal1 , F. Görgün Deveci2 , Tuğba Yıldız3 Abstract The main aim of this study is determining which consumption motives and personal and social factors affect organic food buying decisions. Ajzen’s Planned Behavior Theory (TPB) is used to explain consumers’ organic food selection behaviors. In addition, the moderating role of uncertainty about organic foods and the mediating role of the price of organic foods were tested. Data were gathered via a survey of consumers of organic foods in Turkey. The research model was tested by Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) via Smart PLS3. The findings showed that consumptions motives of healthiness, easiness, mood, and convenience-price of organic foods motivate consumers to buy organic foods. In addition, environmental concern and negative emotions influence on attitudes towards organic foods and purchase intentions. On the other hand, subjective norms and self-monitoring do not influence attitudes towards organic foods and subsequent purchase intentions. Uncertainty has a moderating effect on the relationship between attitudes and purchase intentions whereas price has no mediating effect on the relationship between attitudes and purchase intentions. Keywords Organic food • Consumption motivations • Environmental concern • Consumption emotions * The summary text of this study has been presented at the “7th International Conference on Governance Fraud Ethics and CSR”, Dec 9-11, 2016, İstanbul. 1 Sevtap Unal (Prof.), Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Faculty of Business Administration and Economics, Department of Business, Production Management and Marketing, İzmir, Turkey. Email: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-3227-0756 2 Corresponding author: F. Gorgun Deveci (Res. Asst.), Atatürk University, Faculty of Business Administration and Economics, Department of Business, Production Management and Marketing, Erzurum, Turkey. Email: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0001-8987-2478 3 Tugba Yildiz (Prelactor), Bayburt University, Institute of Social Sciences, The Cooperative Programme, Bayburt, Turkey. Email: tugbayildiz@ bayburt.edu.tr ORCID: 0000-0003-0260-0555 To cite this article: Unal, S. Deveci, F. G. Yildiz, T. (2019). Do we know organic food consumers? the personal and social determinants of organic food consumption. Istanbul Business Research, 48(1), 1-35. http://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2019.48.0019 Istanbul Business Research 48/1 2 Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption Demand for organic foods is continuously increasing as an increasing number of people wish to consume more natural foods. Organics foods are differentiated products from common conventional foods because they have distinctive characteristics (Sashi and Stern, 1995; Chryssochoidis, 2000); Yin et al., 2010. The term ‘“organic food”’ refers to food products that are produced without artificial fertilizers, insecticides, synthetic hormones or artificial coloring (Fotopoulos, 1996; Chen, 2009; Shaharudin et al., 2010; Aertsens et al., 2011; Goh, 2011; Ruiz de Maya et al., 2011). Consumer interest in organic foods has increased due to the effects of pesticides on health and the environment as well as due to genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and other non-natural substances used to increase agricultural production (Teng and Lu, 2016). Consumers’ have positive attitudes toward organic foods in that they perceive them to be healthier, harmless, and less destructive to the environment than traditionally grown foods (Mondelaers et al., 2009; Daniells, 2014). On the other hand, most consumers do not have reliable information about the characteristics of organic foods and always have suspicions about the ingredients of organic foods, although they are generally considered to be reliable foods. Consumers cannot be sure of the quality of an organic product after purchase or consumption. Thus, it is vital that they trust credence goods. Consumers therefore seek trustworthy clues, such as authorized third-party certifications (for example USDA or TKB) whereas they do not trust other certifying organizations. In short, although demand for organic foods is growing, there is simultaneously doubt about organic foods ingredients and attributes. Therefore, if consumer perceptions about the characteristics of organic foods, such as credibility, can be determined, this will enable consumer attitudes towards organic food to be understood, thereby explaining organic food consumption behaviors. Previous studies have found that, organic foods are believed to be more nourishing, healthier, and safer, with their. Safety and positive influence on human health being major reasons for purchasing them (Zanoli and Naspetti, 2002; Fotopoulos et al., 2003; Lea and Worsley, 2005; Hughner et al., 2007). Various researchers have evaluated the personal and environmental factors influencing the purchase of organic foods, including human-animalenvironment centered values, and health-related variables (Hutchins and Greenhalgh, 1995; Nielsen et al, 1998; Lindeman and Väänänen, 2000; Squires et al., 2001; Harper and Makatouni, 2002; McEachern and Willock, 2004; Lea and Worsley, 2008; Hasselbach and Roosen, 2015; Tung et al., 2015). Consumers’ organic food buying behavior has been studied by from various theoretical perspectives. Ajzen’s The Theory of Planned Behavior Theory (TPB) was mostly used to determine consumers’ food selection behaviors. (e.g., Chen, 2007; Verdurme and Viaene, 2003; Bredahl, 2001) while the. TPB is useful for explaining a wide range of individual behaviors and intentions (Lee et al., 2014), including consumption of organic products Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 3 (Gracia and De Magistris, 2007; Gotschi et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2014; Zagata, 2012). TPB explains a wide range of human behaviors based on behavioral intentions (BI), which is the central stage of the TPB. It, is determined by three motivational factors: (1) the attitude of the person to participate in the behavior; (2) the degree of social pressure felt by the person concerned with the behavior (subjective norm); and (3) the degree of individual controllability of the behavior (perceived behavioral control [PBC]) (Lee et al., 2015). This study adopted the, TPB to investigate consumers intentions to purchase organic foods. Literature Review and Research Hypotheses Organic Food Consumption Motivations Motivation is the driving force within individuals that compels them to act. If a consumer is motivated, she or he is ready to act or engage in a goal-oriented activity. Motivation is an inner state of arousal with triggered energy directed to achieving a goal (Schiffman et al., 2010: 88). Motivation therefore precedes behavior and directs it in a specific direction by initiating, guiding, and maintaining goal-oriented behaviors. To understand consumer behavior requires understanding the motives that drive the behavior. As mentioned before, several studies have investigated consumer attitudes towards organic foods and subsequent buying behavior (Roininen et al., 1999; Makatouni, 2002; Zanoli and Naspetti; 2002; Fotopoulos et al., 2003; Lea and Worsley, 2005; Padel, et al., 2005; Vermeir and Verbeke, 2006; Lea and Worsley, 2008); Darsono et al., 2018. Consumer food choice behavior is a complex process that is influenced by many factors, such as consumer-related issues (mood, personality, lifestyle), food-related issues (sensory characteristics of taste, odor, texture, etc.; price, healthiness), and social-cultural factors (ethical-environmental concern) (Prescott et al., 2002; Eertmans et al., 2005; Wądołowska et al., 2008; Honkanen and Frewer, 2009; Machín et al., 2014). Asraf Mohd-Any et al., (2014) claim that food choice motives are affected by both external (life source and influencers) and internal (personal system) factors. Internal values include personal value negotiation and habits. Price, sensory delights, convenience, health, and quality are also important factors choosing organic foods, while emotions also influence consumer decisions. External factors, such as social norms, the economic situation, social roles, physical surroundings, and people’s previous experiences, influence organic food choices. In sum, many researchers agree that food choices are determined by three main groups of factors. These are; • Product-related factors (taste, aroma, packaging, convenience, nutrient content, etc.) • Person-related factors (age, gender, personality, experience, satiety, hunger, etc.), • Environment-related factors (price, income, traditions, beliefs, norms, fashion, society, etc.) (Wądołowska et al., 2008; Oellingrath et al., 2013). Istanbul Business Research 48/1 4 Regarding the motives that mostly drive consumers to buy organic foods several factors have been identified, such as health, and safety (Fotopoulos et al., 2003; Hughner et al. 2007; Cerjak et al. 2010; Hamzaoui-Essoussi and Zahaf, 2012; Shafie and Rennie, 2012; Truong et al., 2012; Çabuk et al., 2014; Wee et al., 2014; Pham et al., 2018; Lian and Yoong, 2019), naturalness, and appearance (Yiridoe et al. 2005; Winter and Davis, 2006). Lockie and colleagues (2002) developed a scale to measure consumer motives to buy organic foods, which was used by Steptoe et al. (1995) as the Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ), which aims to determine the relative importance of different factors on consumers from different populations (Machín et al., 2014:314). Their aim was to develop a comprehensive measure to define green consumer groups. This scale has been widely used to measure organic food consumption behaviors, showing that health, sensory characteristics, naturalness of food, and environmental protection issues are the most important organic food consumption motives (Lockie et al., 2004; Chen, 2007; Honkanen and Frewer, 2009; Żakowska -Biemans and Renko, 2011; Januszewska et al., 2011; Roos et al., 2012; Dowd and Burke, 2013; Schleenbecker and Hamm, 2013; Hasselbach and Roosen, 2015; Lee et al., 2015; Sautron et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2015; Hsu et al., 2016; Teng and Lu, 2016). Several studies have found that health concern is a primary motivational factor for buying organic food (Lockie et al. 2002; Magnusson et al. 2003; Ureña et al., 2007; de Magistris and Gracia, 2008; Pohjanheimo et al., 2010; Januszewska et al., 2011; Vyth et al., 2012; Dowd and Burke, 2013; Russell et al., 2015; Hilverda et al., 2016; Bryla, 2016).; Asif et al., 2018; Goetzke et al., 2014; Eisinger-Watzl et al., 2015; Hansen et al., 2018). Health motivation indicates the individual’s determination to live healthily (Mardon et al., 2015). Health is one of the most significant factors underlying organic food purchasing due to increasing health consciousness, consumer focus on food safety and quality, and avoidance of harmful additives and chemicals (Wier and Calverley, 2002). Price is another important factor given the expense of organic foods (Żakowska-Biemans and Renko, 2011; Bryla, 2016).Aygen, 2012; Buder et al., 2014; Bryla, 2016; Aschemann‐ Witzel and Zielke, 2017; Nguyen et al., 2019). Although consumers are willing to purchase environmentally-friendly products, they are unwilling to pay high prices (Chang et al., 2015). Furthermore, these motivational factors are related to high-quality food intake among adult consumers (Roos et al., 2012). In addition to price, low availability and satisfaction, lack of trust, and poor perceived value prevent consumers buying organic food (Davies et al., 1995; Żakowska-Biemans and Renko, 2011; Hilverda et al., 2016; Misra and Singh, 2016). McEachern and Mc Clean (2002) find that taste is another important factor. Consumer food choices are not just related to food-based issues; rather, many factors affect organic food choice behavior. These include sensory features, individual factors, and environmental, cultural, and social influences. Food choices also reflect personality and Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 5 lifestyles. Other important factors are altruistic motives, especially environmental protection and animal welfare. However, the relative importance of these motives may vary depending on consumer segment and culture (Honkanen and Frewer, 2009). For example, weight control, convenience, familiarity, healthiness, and natural content are important factors for European consumers (Wang et al., 2015). Sensory motives are also important factors in Europe, along with price, health, and environmental issues. Ethical and environmental motives are relatively important in organic food buying (Honkanen and Frewer, 2009). In addition, research in Europe and the USA shows that most important food choice motives among adults are taste, health, price, and convenience (Konttinen et al., 2013). Based on this literature, the present study investigates the following motivating factors: mood, sensory appeal, convenience, natural content, health, price, weight, and familiarity. These factors are studied to test hypothesis H1: Organic food motives influence attitudes towards organic foods. ` Environmental Concern Environmental problems are gradually increasing worldwide, including global warming, ozone layer depletion, water, noise, and light pollution, acid rain, and desertification. Environmental concern, which includes protection of the environment, has been defined as “the degree to which people are aware of problems regarding the environment and support efforts to solve them or indicate the willingness to contribute personally to their solution” (Dunlap and Jones, 2002: 482). Because environmental problems are the result of human activities, consumption, and production patterns, environmental quality depends on human knowledge, attitudes, values, and social practices (Mat Said et al., 2003). Kinnear et al. (1974), summarize the following characteristics of consumers who are concerned about environmental matters. These environmental consumers; • Perceive activity towards environmental pollution is excessive, • Are open to new ideas, • Investigate how products are produced, • Satisfy their curiosity, • Seeking personal security. Todays’ consumers are more concerned about the environment. Due to increasing consciousness of environmental concerns, individuals have begun to prefer natural products (Thieme et al., 2015; Bertrandias and Elgaaied-Gambier, 2014). This environmental concern is based on emotionally-oriented behavior, and is an important factor for making existing behavior more environmentally friendly (Wang and Myint, 2016). Istanbul Business Research 48/1 6 Environmental concern does not just relate to the attributes of a purchase decision. Rather, it consists of consumer emotions towards many different green issues (Newton et al., 2015). Strong environmental concern makes consumers willing to purchase environmentallyfriendly products (Chang et al., 2015; Franzen and Meyer, 2010). It is correlated with beliefs about humanity’s ability to disrupt the natural balance, the existence of growth limits for human societies, and doubts about the right of humanity to dominate the rest of nature (Verhoef, 2005: 251). Environmental concern is the proactive intention of individuals to protect the environment (Paladino and Ng, 2013). That is, environmental concern is a socially accepted norm that affects consumer choices (Bertrandias and Elgaaied-Gambier, 2014). Kim and colleagues claim that environmental concern is related both to selfless and altruistic human values as the individual performs these behaviors of protecting the natural environment with little thought for their own benefits. In other words, attitudes toward the environment depend on the self, other people, or the biosphere (Wesley Schultz, 2001; Kim et al., 2012). Choosing organic foods shows a consumer’s concern for others and the common welfare (Yadav, 2016). Generally, it refers to a persuasive attribute that represents a person’s worries, concerns, likes, and dislikes about the environment (Bhatt and Bhatt, 2015: 48). As mentioned above, environmental concern is a direct and important determinant of specific behaviors (Verhoef, 2005; Lee et al., 2015). However, Mainieri et al. (1997) argue that consumers do not change their behavior according to their environmental concerns while Bamberg (2003) found that environmental concern has no significant influence on behavioral intentions or behavior. In contrast, Kim and Choi (2005) found that environmental concern does direct affect green purchasing behavior. Consumers’ environmental concern has many consequences, such as deciding to buy certain products and services, as well as the rejection of other products and services (Bertrandias and Elgaaied-Gambier, 2014). Environmental concern is related to environmentally conscious behavior, environmental behaviors, willingness to participate in environmental activities, and paying higher prices for environmental products (Verhoef, 2005; Kim et al., 2012). Specifically, it provides a strong motive for purchasing organic food products (Chen, 2007; Hughner et al. 2007; Smith and Paladino, 2010; Cerjak et al. 2010; Lee et al., 2015; Monier-Dilhan and Bergès, 2016). As a pro-environmental attitude, environmental concern is one of the most important motives for purchasing organic foods (Magnusson et al., 2003; Fujii, 2006; Mondelaers et al. 2009; Tang et al., 2014). Environmental concern not only increases green purchasing intentions but also makes consumers more satisfied with such purchases (Hopper and Nielsen, 1991; Keesling and Kaynama, 2003). Environmental concern can thus make individuals’ behavior more environmentally friendly (Paladino and Ng, 2013). That is, environmentally-friendly behaviors and purchase intentions are correlated (Bertrandias and Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 7 Elgaaied-Gambier, 2014). This leads to the second hypothesis of the present study: H2: Environmental concern affects attitudes towards organic foods. Subjective Norm Subjective norms, which are also known as social norms, are perceptions about the nature and content of widespread emotions and thoughts (Verhoef, 2005; Wang, 2014). They also represent normative behavioral beliefs and the motivation to adhere to these beliefs (Kaiser, 2006). A subjective norm is defined as “perceived social pressure to perform or not perform the behavior” (Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005; Ruiz de Maya et al., 2011; Wang, 2014; Suh et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2015; Yadav and Pathak, 2016). Thus, it refers to external social pressure (Wang and Myint, 2016), which is perceived as an important factor determining attitudes and behaviors. A subjective norm includes beliefs influenced by reference groups (such as family members or friends) who influence the individual regarding performing or not performing the behavior (Teng and Wang, 2015). Therefore, subjective norms affect both individual intentions and behaviors (Paladino and Ng, 2013). Individuals comply with subjective norms because they want to avoid reactions and pressures from their reference groups (Wang, 2014; Lee et al., 2015). Thus, subjective norms influence attitudes and intention to buy organic food (Chang, 1998; Tarkiainen and Sundqvist, 2005; Numraktrakul et al., 2012; Irianto, 2015; Paul et al., 2016; Chu, 2018). They are therefore an important factor in organic food purchase intentions and environmentally conscious consumption. A subjective norm decreases risk perception of a consumer, which increases their tendency to purchase (Paladino and Ng, 2013). According to Armitage and Conner (2001), there is a connection between subjective norms and intention. More specifically, Chen (2007) claims that, if subjective norms regarding organic products are positive, then intentions to buy them will increase. Relevant subjective norms also increase recycling intentions, and purchases of sustainable and environmentally friendly products (Wang, 2014). This leads to the third hypothesis: H3: Subjective norms influence attitudes towards organic foods. Consumption Emotions According to Laros and Steenkamp (2005), emotion is the power that describes consumer behavior. Emotions emerge in line with an individual’s subjective assessments and reflect the inner world of that individual (White, 2010: 382). They therefore provide the basic motivations for evaluating products and product choices (Chaudhuri, 1997). Consumption emotions, specifically, are a set of emotions that are elicited during product usage or consumption experiences (Mattila and Ro, 2008; Han et al., 2010). These emotions are crucial for the shopping experience. The positive and negative emotions experienced before and after the moment of purchase directly influence the consumer’s perception, evaluation, Istanbul Business Research 48/1 8 and behavior (Chaudhuri, 1997; Argan et al., 2014). In other words, consumption emotions are responses to the consumption of products that affect the next consumption experience (Richins, 1997; Phillips and Baumgartner, 2002). There is rising interest in assessing emotions to understand consumer behavior better, with measurement of emotional response to food and beverages being seen as a valuable source of information for marketing strategists. Emotional data provide valuable information about products, such as to reveal previously unidentified aspects of sensory profiles and product attributes (Kenney and Adhikari, 2016). Emotions affect human eating behavior in terms of food choices, quantity, and frequency of meals. These behaviors depend on many different variables, not just physiological needs. Generally, individual eating behavior is affected by changes in emotional state. Consumers have many options to buy or eat food, with price, health, convenience, and taste being prominent variables. In addition, affect-focused and environmental motives play significant roles (Verhoef, 2005; Onwezen, 2015). Various emotions, like anger, fear, sadness, and joy, influence food choices and eating. Emotional stress has an especially strong effect on food consumption. These different emotions may increase or decrease eating due to mood changes (Gibson, 2006; Macht, 2008; Köster and Mojet, 2015). There are many emotional distinctions, of which the most common is between negative and positive emotions (Verhoef, 2005; Onwezen, 2015). According to Lyman (1982), healthy foods are consumed in association with positive emotions whereas junk food is consumed with negative emotions. Patel and Schlundt (2001) also found that positive and negative emotions influence the meals that are eaten, with positive emotions having a stronger impact on food consumption than negative emotions. Macht (1999) report that anger increases impulsive eating whereas joy increases hedonic eating habits. Both these emotions influence eating more strongly than sadness and fear. Studies on consumption emotions show that negative emotions increase impulsive eating and junk food while decreasing food pleasantness. Conversely, positive emotions make consumers perceive organic food as more appealing and become more eager to consume healthy foods (Macht, 2008; Köster and Mojet, 2015). These findings lead to the following three hypotheses. H4a: Consumption emotions influence attitudes towards organic foods. H4b: Positive emotions influence attitudes towards organic foods. H4c: Negative emotions influence attitudes towards organic foods. Self-monitoring The concept of self–monitoring was introduced by Snyder (1974), who defined it as “the degree to which individuals observe the situations and behaviors in their surroundings and Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 15 The consistently higher prices of organic foods was an obstacle for these consumers. Table 2 summarizes how much more consumers were willing to pay for organic foods. The table 2 shows that over half of respondents were willing to pay between and 10 and 20% more. Hypotheses Testing Before testing the research model, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to explore the appropriateness of the construct of FCMs for this Turkish sample. Principal component analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation was used. Table 3. FCMs factor analysis Variables Factor Loadings % of Variance Eigenvalue Cronbach Alpha Factor1: Health 12,476 3,743 ,881 1.Organic food contains a lot of vitamins and minerals. ,821 2.Organic food keeps me healthy. ,798 3.Organic food is nutritious. ,647 4.Organic food is high in protein. ,606 5.Organic food is good for my skin/teeth/hair/ nails etc. ,520 21. Organic food tastes good. ,504 22. Organic food contains no additives. ,530 Factor2: Weight control 11,956 3,587 ,852 27. Organic food is good value for money. ,658 28. Organic food is low in calories. ,745 29.Organic food helps me control my weight. ,780 30. Organic food is low in fat. ,716 31. Organic food is what I usually eat. ,734 32. Organic food is familiar ,684 Table 2. Organic Food Price Rate Organic Food Price Rates Frequency Percent Same as regular foods 41 18,1 %10 more 75 33,2 %20 more 57 25,2 %30 more 19 8,4 %40 more 16 7,1 %50 and over 16 7,1 Istanbul Business Research 48/1 16 In this study, the FCM items formed 7 factors with 30 items (after deleting 3 items) whereas the initial scale had 8 factors. The familiarity dimension was excluded, with its items falling under other factors. Total variance explained was 68.601% while the KaiserMeyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was 0.856, and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was statistically significant (3860.632: df: 435, sig: 000). In the second step, the research model was tested. The path model is shown in Figure 2. Variables Factor Loadings % of Variance Eigenvalue Cronbach Alpha Factor3: Easiness 10,045 3,013 ,761 6. Organic food is high in fiber and roughage. ,646 7. Organic food helps me cope with stress. ,800 15. Organic food takes no time to prepare. ,678 Factor4: Sensory Appeal 9,683 2,905 ,823 18. Organic food smells nice. ,676 19. Organic food looks nice. ,799 20. Organic food has a pleasant texture. ,712 Factor5: Mood 9,013 2,704 ,824 11. Organic food cheers me up. ,581 12. Organic food makes me feel good. ,755 13. Organic food is easy to prepare. ,858 14. Organic food can be cooked very simply. ,810 Factor6: Relaxing 7,832 2,350 ,800 8. Organic food helps me to cope with life. ,743 9. Organic food helps me relax. ,649 10. Organic food keeps me awake/alert. ,644 Factor7: Convenience and price 7,748 2,324 ,706 16. Organic can be bought in shops close to where I live or work. ,611 17. Organic food is easily available in shops and supermarkets. ,751 25. Organic food is not expensive. ,696 26. Organic food is cheap. ,757 Table 4 R Square and model fit summery R Square Adjusted R Square Positive Attitude 0,424 0,413 Purchase Intentions 0,413 0,407 negative attitude 0,259 0,245 Saturated Model Estimated Model SRMR 0,098 0,104 d_ULS 4,476 5,057 d_G 1,198 1,225 Chi-Square 1.455,655 1.476,075 NFI 0,611 0,606 Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 17 The figure shows that four motives, along with health and mood, had positive effects on positive attitudes towards organic foods whereas easiness had a negative effect. That is, organic food buyers thought that organic foods are healthy and help their mood, i.e. feeling better, although it is not easy to prepare them. Easiness and convenience-price had positive effects on negative attitudes towards organic foods. That is, consumers with negative attitudes towards organic foods (because they believe they are fake and worse than conventional foods) also believe that their prices are unreasonable and that they cannot be purchased or prepared easily. Mood has a negative effect on negative attitudes towards organic foods in that consumers with negative attitudes towards organic foods believe that these foods do not help them feel better. Thus, H1 (Organic food motives influence attitudes towards organic foods) was confirmed. According to Figure 2, environmental concern affects positive attitudes toward organic foods. Therefore, H2 was confirmed. Likewise, negative emotions influenced negative attitudes towards organic foods. Therefore, H4a (Negative emotions have an influence on attitudes towards organic foods) was confirmed. On the other hand, self-monitoring, Figure 2. Research Model Istanbul Business Research 48/1 18 subjective norms and positive consumption emotions had no effects on attitudes towards organic foods. Thus H3, H4a, and H5 were rejected. Model fit values, R squared, coefficients, t values and Construct Reliability and Validity are shown in tables 4, 5, and 6 respectively All factors in the research model were reliable and valid. The Q² value (Stone-Geisser’s Q² value), used as a criterion of predictive accuracy, examines the predictive relevance of latent variables in the PLS path model, obtained using the blindfolding procedure (Stone, 1974; Geisser, 1974). A Q² value larger than zero for a specific endogenous latent variable indicates the PLS path model has predictive relevance for this construct (Hair et al. 2017). As Table 6 shows, all endogenous variables had predictive relevance in the model. As discussed earlier, even if consumers are willing to buy organic food, their uncertainty about the products affects organic product consumption. Organic food ingredients or production conditions are mostly confusing for consumers, so they hesitate to choose organic food and even give up their buying decisions. Thus, it was assumed that because uncertainty Table 5. Path Coefficient and T Values Original Sample (O) T Statistics P Values Convenience and Price -> Negative Attitude 0,181 3,086 0,002 Environmental concern -> Positive Attitude 0,298 4,634 0,000 Health -> Positive Attitude 0,424 6,848 0,000 Mood -> Positive Attitude 0,208 3,364 0,001 Mood -> negative attitude -0,217 3,773 0,000 Positive Attitude -> Purchase Intentions 0,603 11,252 0,000 easiness -> Positive Attitude -0,127 2,017 0,044 easiness -> negative attitude 0,214 3,767 0,000 negative attitude -> Purchase Intentions -0,132 2,540 0,011 negative emotions -> negative attitude 0,256 4,640 0,000 Table 6 Research Model Construct Reliability, Validity, and Q2 Cronbach’s Alpha rho_A Composite Reliability Average Variance Extracted (AVE) Q² (=1-SSE/ SSO) Convenience and Price 0,715 0,729 0,822 0,609 Environmental Concern 0,791 0,819 0,865 0,617 Health 0,881 0,890 0,903 0,571 Mood 0,786 0,894 0,871 0,695 Positive Attitude 0,711 0,736 0,838 0,635 0,247 Purchase Intentions 0,872 0,875 0,913 0,724 0,279 Easiness 0,765 0,797 0,862 0,676 Negative attitude 0,778 0,805 0,899 0,816 0,192 Negative emotions 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 19 about organic foods makes attitudes towards organic foods less positive, it has a moderating effect on organic food motives. Figure 3 shows this moderating effect of uncertainty, including the path coefficients and t values. Figure 3 shows that uncertainty did indeed have a moderating effect on the relationship between positive attitude towards organic foods and purchasing intention. Uncertainty Figure 3. Moderating Effect of the Uncertainty Figure 4. Moderating effect of Uncertainty Istanbul Business Research 48/1 20 dampened the positive relationship between attitude and purchase intention, as seen in Figure 4. However, it had no moderating effect on the relationship between negative attitude and purchase intention. Thus, H7 (Uncertainty moderates the relationship between food choice motives and organic food attitude) was confirmed. To test the mediating effect of price, the method proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) was used. According to this method, three conditions should be met. First, the independent variable must affect the mediator variable. Second, there must be a significant relationship between the dependent variable and mediator variable. Third, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable must be less in the third equation than in the second. In other words, when the independent variable and the mediator variable are included in the analysis together, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable must be reduced or zero (Preacher and Andrew, 2004). In this study, there was no mediating effect of price on attitude and organic food purchase intention tested. The findings are shown in Table 7. Discussion and Conclusions This study examined the effect of organic food choice motives, and personal and social factors on purchasing intentions regarding organic food consumption. It also tested the moderating role of uncertainty and the mediating role of the price of the organic foods. The findings showed that consumers buy organic foods because they believe they are healthy, easy to prepare, easy to get, are reasonably priced, and help improve their mood. Thus, consumers think that organic food is beneficial for both their body and mind. Organic foods are easy to find and prepare while the price has no effect on the decision to choose organic foods. These findings support previous studies claiming that the price becomes less important once consumers start to buy organic food as their experience increases and organic food buying become a lifestyle (Krystallis and Chryssohoidis, 2005; Marian et al., 2014). This study tested the role of subjective norms, environmental concern, consumption emotions, and self-monitoring. Subjective norms, self-monitoring, and positive emotions have no effect on holding an attitude towards organic foods, suggesting that social groups have no impact on consumer decisions regarding organic food consumption. That is, organic food consumption is not related to group-oriented decision-making processes and unrelated to conspicuous consumption. Instead, consumers want to buy organic food products to Table 7. Mediating Effect of Price Mediator effect Coefficients T value p-value Price - Attitude -0,036 0,513 ,608 Purchase Intentions - Price 0,009 0,189 ,850 Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 21 satisfy their psychological and physical needs. In short, organic food oriented consumption is related to self-enhancement decisions rather than reference group-centered. Another finding is that environmental concern and organic food buying are positively related. That is, consumers who are aware about and interested in environmental issues choose the organic foods more. Considering environmental concern from a wide perspective, Yadav (2016) argues that environmental concern is connected to altruistic human values. Individuals perform these behaviors of protecting the natural environment with little thought of benefits for themselves. Thus, choosing organic food products shows concern for others and the common welfare. This assumption is supported by our findings. Regarding consumption emotions, negative emotions are associated with negative attitudes towards organic foods. Consumption emotions are an indicator of organic foods consumption (Richins, 1997; Phillips and Baumgartner, 2002). The findings in the present study confirm that uncertainty has a moderating effect. Specifically, if consumers believe that organic foods are fraudulent or worse than conventional foods then they have negative feelings like anger, fear and sadness about these products. According to the literature, consumers do not have enough knowledge about organic food ingredients or farming conditions, which is the main reason why they lack confidence in organic food consumption. Our study showed that uncertainty also has a moderator effect on the relationship between a positive attitude towards organic foods and purchase intentions. That is, if the consumer has some doubts about organic food ingredients or lacks information about them then their purchase intention decreases despite their positive attitudes towards organic foods. The main contribution of this study is that several authors have claimed that consumers’ food choices are related to many factors – not just food-based issues. Social factors or ethical properties, such as environmental protection, affect organic food choosing behavior (Chen, 2007: Schleenbecker and Hamm, 2013; Lee et al., 2015). This claim is confirmed by the findings of this study, which showed that consumers choose organic foods according to both food-based issues and personal factors. This indicates that organic food consumption should be evaluated from a wider perspective as purchase intentions are both food-related (health, natural content, convenience, familiarity) and personal (mood, health, convenience, and consumption emotions). The following section discusses some implications for both academicians and business. Implications While a healthy life has always been important for human beings, consumer tendencies are currently becoming more health consciousness so that consumers now want to more natural foods. At the very least, they do not want to eat foods that include growth hormones, Istanbul Business Research 48/1 22 antibiotics or pesticides. Yet, the matter is not just about consuming more natural and healthier but also increasing the quality of life through eating natural healthy foods. We therefore have several recommendations for companies to emphasize organic consumption. The motives driving the consumer towards organic food consumption are health consciousness and supporting an inner world with natural foods. Moreover, they want buying and preparing organic foods to be easy. Thus, companies who want to reach organic food consumers should emphasize both health issues and mood issues. Consumers feel good when they consume organic foods because they believe that feeding the body naturally also feeds the soul. Messages that point out how organic foods can produce good feelings, physically and mentally, can attract consumers. Consumers’ organic food buying behavior does not relate just to food-based issues. It is the same as other buying behaviors In that, in their decision-making process, consumers reflect all attributes of being a consumer. Thus, companies should evaluate this process in terms of all relevant factors, including social, personal or situational ones. As this study demonstrated, emotions influence consumers when they are deciding to buy organic foods. That is, consumers are not just following utilitarian expectations. Rather, they are also expecting hedonic value from their organic food consumption decisions. Consequently, developing marketing strategies and communicating with consumers as just rational problem solvers is incorrect. According to these findings, consumers decide with their emotions, and are also affected by their social group. If other people in their social environment buy organic food consistently, this behavior will spread to them through modeling. Thus, it would be advantageous for companies to spread a positive attitude towards organic foods behavior through the help of social and reference groups. While the price of organic foods is always important for consumers, their high cost is already well known. As a result, conscious organic food consumers pay attention to other issues than price, such as environmental protection and sustainable agriculture. Nevertheless, they also do not want to pay extreme prices so a premium of 10-20% may be affordable. The sensory appeal of organic foods is important for the consumer too. They want natural, hormone or pesticide-free foods, but at the same time the taste, smell and look of organic foods are also critical for consumers. Companies should therefore be aware of the importance of the consumers’ sensory perceptions. Convenience is another motivating factor for consumers. If they can buy and prepare organic foods easily then they consume more. Consequently, although intensive distribution is the costliest distribution strategy, selective or intensive distribution may be preferable given the demand for organic foods in the market and of the durability of organic food. Consumers can also lack knowledge about how to prepare or cook organic foods so information on the packages, programs or ads could support consumers. Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 23 Limitations The major limitations of this study are that it did not focus on any specific product category and had a relatively small sample size. The aim was to test which motives drive the consumer to buy organic foods, and the effect of social and personal factors on buying decisions. The reason for the small sample size is that the study was conducted with just organic food consumers. This means that the results cannot be applied to specific product categories or generalized to all organic food consumers. Future Research The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of social, personal and food-related factors on organic food buying behavior, given that consumers’ buying decisions are affected by many different factors. Although organic food consumption is regarded as a health-related or environment-focused decision, like other buying decisions, hedonic and utilitarian benefits, and several social-personal factors may play a role. Thus, future research should also investigate the effects of consumer personality, lifestyle and social-cultural factors. This study focused on organic food buyers so future studies can also investigate the attitudes and decision making of consumers who do not buy organic foods in order to understand the underlying reasons why. The all kind of organic foods indicated in this study regardless their category like vegetable, meat, milk etc.. Finally, regarding consumer motives and attitudes for different organic food categories, future research can consider one specific category of organic foods and perhaps compare this to other organic food categories in terms of motives or buying intentions. Grant Support: The author received no financial support for this work. Istanbul Business Research 48/1 24 Appendix A Kolmogorov-Simirnov Test Variables Test statistics P Health 1.525 .019 Mood 1,038 .231 Convenience 1,166 .132 Sensory Appeal 1,168 .131 Natural Context 2.222 .000 Weight control 2.163 .000 Familiarity 1.419 .036 Subjective norms 2.025 .001 Uncertainty 1.130 .156 Attitude 1.1969 .001 Environmental Concern 2.129 .000 Purchase intention 2.392 .000 Self-Monitoring 0.963 .312 References Aaker, J.L. (1999). The Malleable Self: The Role of Self-Expression in Persuasion. Journal of Marketing Research, 36(1), 45-57. Aertsens, J. van Huylenbroek, G., Verbeke, W., Mondelaers, K., & Van Huylenbroeck, G. (2009). Personal Determinants of Organic Food Consumption: A Review. British Food Journal, 111(10), 1140-1167. Aertsens, J., Mondelaers, K., Verbeke, W., Buysse, J., & Van Huylenbroeck, G. (2011). The Influence of Subjective and Objective Knowledge on Attitude, Motivations and Consumption of Organic Food. British Food Journal, 113(11), 1353-1378. Al-Swidi, A., Mohammed Rafiul Huque, S., Haroon Hafeez, M., & Noor Mohd Shariff, M. (2014). The Role of Subjective Norms in Theory of Planned Behavior in the Context of Organic Food Consumption. British Food Journal, 116(10), 1561-1580. Anburaj, R. (2015). Detoxification of Hexavalent Chromium. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 7(5), 805-810. Argan, M.T., Argan, M., & Akyıldız, M. (2014). Dimensions of Consumption Emotions: Turkish Consumers’ Experiences. Journal of Marketing and Management, 5(1), 136-145. Armitage, C.J., & Conner, M. (2001). Efficacy of the Theory of Planned Behaviour: A MetaAnalytic Review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 471–499. Aschemann-Witzel, J., Maroscheck, N., & Hamm, U. (2013). Are Organic Consumers Preferring or Avoiding Foods with Nutrition and Health Claims? Food Quality and Preference, 30(1), 68-76. Aschemann‐Witzel, J., & Zielke, S. (2017). Can’t Buy Me Green? A Review of Consumer Perceptions of and Behavior toward The Price of Organic Food. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 51(1), 211-251. Asif, M., Xuhui, W., Nasiri, A., & Ayyub, S. (2018). Determinant Factors Influencing Organic Food Purchase İntention and the Moderating Role of Awareness: A Comparative Analysis. Food Quality and Preference, 63, 144-150. Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 31 Mie, A., Andersen, H. R., Gunnarsson, S., Kahl, J., Kesse-Guyot, E., Rembiałkowska, E., Quaglio, G., & Grandjean, P. (2017). Human Health Implications of Organic Food and Organic Agriculture: A Comprehensive Review. Environmental Health, 16(1), 111, 1-22. Millock, K., Wier, M., & Andersen, L.M. (2004). Consumer’s Demand for Organic FoodsAttitudes, Value and Purchasing Behaviour. XIII Annual Conference of European Association of Environmental and Resfource Economics, June 25–28, Budapest, Hungary. Misra, R., & Singh, D. (2016). An Analysis of Factors Affecting Growth of Organic Food. British Food Journal, 118(9),2308-2325. Mondelaers, K., van Huylenbroek, G., Verbeke, W., & Van Huylenbroeck, G. (2009). Importance o f Health and Environment as Quality Traits in the Buying Decision of Organic Products. British Food Journal, 111(10), 1120-1139. Monier-Dilhan, S., & Bergès, F. (2016). Consumers’ Motivations Driving Organic Demand: Between SelfInterest and Sustainability. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 45(3), 522-538. Moser, J. S., Schroder, H. S., Heeter, C., Moran, T. P., & Lee, Y. H. (2011). Mind Your Errors: Evidence for a Neural Mechanism Linking Growth Mind-Set to Adaptive Posterror AdJustments. Psychological Science, 22(12),1484-1489. Nedra, B.A., Demetris Vrontis, D. M. C. P., Sharma, S., & Dakhli, A. (2015). Perception and Motivation to Purchase Organic Products in Mediterranean Countries. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 17(1), 67-90. Newton, J. D., Tsarenko, Y., Ferraro, C., & Sands, S. (2015). Environmental Concern an Environmental Purchase Intentions: The Mediating Role of Learning Strategy. Journal of Business Research, 68(9), 1974-1981. Nguyen, H. V., Nguyen, N., Nguyen, B. K., Lobo, A., & Vu, P. A. (2019). Organic Food Purchases in an Emerging Market: The Influence of Consumers’ Personal Factors and Green Marketing Practices of Food Stores. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(6), 1037, 1-17. Nielsen, N.A., Bech-Larsen, T., & Grunert, K.G. (1998). Consumer Purchase Motives and Product Perceptions: A Laddering Study on Vegetable Oil in Three Countries. Food Quality and Preference, 9(6), 455-466. Numraktrakul, P., Ngarmyarn, A., & Panichpathom, S. (2012). Factors Affecting Green Housing Purchase. 17th International Business Research Conference. 7-8 June 2012, Toronto, Canada. O’Cass, A. (2000). A Psychometric Evaluation of a Revised Version of the Lennox and Wolfe Revised SelfMonitoring Scale. Psychology & Marketing, 17(5), 397-419. O’Cass, A. (2001). Consumer Self-monitoring, Materialism and Involvement in Fashion Clothing. Australasian Marketing Journal, 9(1), 46-60. O’Cass, A., & McEven, H. (2004). Exploring Consumer Status and Conspicuous Consumption. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 4(1), 25-39. O’Donovan, P., & McCarthy, M. (2002). Irish Consumer Preference for Organic Meat. British Food Journal, 104(3/4/5), 353-370. Oellingrath, I. M., Hersleth, M., & Svendsen, M. V. (2013). Association between Parental Motives for Food Choice and Eating Patterns Of 12To 13-Year-Old Norwegian Children. Public Health Nutrition, 16(11), 2023-2031. Istanbul Business Research 48/1 32 Onwezen, M. C. (2015). I Did Good, and We Did Bad: The Impact of Collective Versus Private Emotions a Pro-environmental Food Consumption. Food Research International, 76, 261-268. Organic Food Associate http://ota.com/sites/default/files/indexed_files/OTA_StateofIndustry_2016.pdf Accessed 17 October 2016. Oroian, C., Safirescu, C., Harun, R., Chiciudean, G., Arion, F., Muresan, I., & Bordeanu, B. (2017). Consumers’ Attitudes towards Organic Products and Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Romania. Sustainability, 9(9), 1559, 1-14. Padel, S., McEachern, M., & Foster, C. (2005). Exploring the Gap Between Attitudes and Behaviour. British Food Journal, 107(8), 606-625. Paladino, A., & Ng, S. (2013). An Examination of the Influences on ‘Green’ Mobile Phone Purchases Among Young Business Students: An Empirical Analysis. Environmental Education Research, 19(1), 118-145. Patel, K. A., & Schlundt, D. G. (2001). Impact of Moods and Social Context on Eating Behavior. Appetite (2001), 36, 111–118. Paul, J., Modi, A., & Patel, J. (2016). Predicting Green Product Consumption Using Theory of Planned Behavior and Reasoned Action. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 29, 123-134. Petljak, K., Štulec, I., & Renko, S. (2017). Consumers’willingness to Pay More for Organic Food in Croatıa. Ekonomski vjesnik/Econviews-Review of Contemporary Business, Entrepreneurship and Economic Issues, 30(2), 441-455. Petrescu, D., & Petrescu-Mag, R. (2015). Organic Food Perception: Fad, or Healthy and Environmentally Friendly? A Case on Romanian Consumers. Sustainability, 7(9), 12017-12031. Pham, T. H., Nguyen, T. N., Phan, T. T. H., & Nguyen, N. T. (2018). Evaluating the Purchase Behaviour of Organic Food by Young Consumers in an Emerging Market Economy. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 1-17. Phillips, D. M., & Baumgartner, H. (2002). The Role of Consumption Emotions in the Satisfaction Response. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12(3), 243-252. Pohjanheimo, T., Paasovaara, R., Luomala, H., & Sandell, M. (2010). Food Choice Motives and Bread Liking of Consumers Embracing Hedonistic and Traditional Values. Appetite, 54(1), 170-180. Preacher C. J. & Andrew F. H. (2004). SPSS and SAS Procedures for Estimating Indirect Effects in Simple Mediation Models Behavior Research Methods. Instruments, & Computers, 36 (4), 717-731. Prescott, J., Young, O., O’Neil, L., Yau, N. J. N., & Stevens, R. (2002). Motives for Food Choice: A Comparison of Consumers from Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia And New Zealand. Food Quality and Preference, 13, 489–495. Richins, M.K. (1997). Measuring Emotions in the Consumption Experience. Journal of Consumer Research, 24(2), 127-146. Roininen, K., Lähteenmäki, L., & Tuorila, H. (1999). Quantification of Consumer Attitudes to Health and Hedonic Characteristics of Foods. Appetite, 33, 71–88. Roos, E., Lehto, R., & Ray, C. (2012). Parental Family Food Choice Motives and Children’s Food Intake. Food Quality and Preference, 24(1), 85-91. Ruiz de Maya, S., López-López, I., & Munuera, J. L. (2011). Organic Food Consumption in Europe: International Segmentation Based on Value System Differences. Ecological Economics, 70(10), 17671775. Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 33 Russell, C. G., Worsley, A., & Liem, D. G. (2015). Parents’ Food Choice Motives and Their Associations with Children’s Food Preferences. Public Health Nutrition, 18(6), 1018-1027. Shaharudin, M. R., Pani, J. J., Mansor, S. W., & Elias, S. J. (2010). Purchase Intention of Organic Food; Perceived Value Overview. Canadian Social Science, 6(1), 70-79. Salleh, M. M., Ali, S. M., Harun, E. H., Jalil, M. A., & Shaharudin, M. R. (2010). Consumer’s Perception and Purchase Intentions towards Organic Food Products: Exploring Attitude Among Academician. Canadian Social Science, 6(6), 119-129. Sashi, C.M., & Stern, L.V. (1995). Product Differentiation and Market Performance in Producer Good Industries. Journal of Business Research, 33, 115-127. Sautron, V., Péneau, S., Camilleri, G. M., Muller, L., Ruffieux, B., Hercberg, S., & Méjean, C. (2015). Validity of a questionnaire measuring motives for choosing foods including sustainable concerns. Appetite, 87, 90-97. Schleenbecker, R., & Hamm, U. (2013). Consumers’ Perception of Organic Product Characteristics. A Review. Appetite, 71, 420-429. Schiffman, L.G., Kanuk, L.L., & Wisenblit, J. (2010). Consumer Behavior. Pearson Prentice Hall, London. Shafie, F. A., & Rennie, D. (2012). Consumer Perceptions towards Organic Food. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 49, 360-367. Sharma, N., & Singhvi, R. (2018). Consumers Perception and Behaviour towards Organic Food: A Systematic Review of Literature. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 7(2), 2152-2155. Shiu, E. M. K., Walsh, G., Hassan, L. M., & Shaw, D. (2011). Consumer Uncertainty Re-Visited. Psychology and Marketing, 28(6), 584-607. Smith, S., & Paladino, A. (2010). Eating Clean and Green? Investigating Consumer Motivations towards the Purchase of Organic Food. Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ), 18(2), 93-104. Snyder, M. (1974). Self-monitoring of Expressive Behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30(4), 526-537. Singh, A., & Verma, P. (2017). Factors Influencing Indian Consumers’ Actual Buying Behaviour towards Organic Food Products. Journal of Cleaner Production, 167, 473-483. Squires, L., Juric, B., & Bettina Cornwell, T. (2001). The Level of Market Development and Intensity of Organic Food Consumption: A Cross‐Cultural Study of Danish and New Zealand Consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(5), 392-409. Stone, M. (1974). Cross-Validatory Choice and Assessment of Statistical Predictions. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B (Methodological), 111-147. Steptoe, A., Pollard, T. M., & Wardle, J. (1995). The Development of a Measure of the Motives Underlying the Selection of Food: The Food Choice Questionnaire. Appetite, 25, 267–284. Suh, B. W., Eves, A., & Lumbers, M. (2012). Consumers’ Attitude and Understanding of Organic Food: The Case of South Korea. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 15(1), 49-63. Suh, B. W., Eves, A., & Lumbers, M. (2015). Developing a Model of Organic Food Choice Behavior. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 43(2), 217-230. Tang, Y., Wang, X., & Lu, P. (2014). Chinese Consumer Attitude and Purchase Intent towards Green Products. Asia-Pacific Journal of Business Administration, 6(2), 84-96. Istanbul Business Research 48/1 34 Tarkiainen, A., & Sundqvist, S. (2005). Subjective Norms, Attitudes, and Intentions of Finnish Consumers in Buying Organic Food. British Food Journal, 107(11), 808-822. Teng, C.-C., & Wang, Y.-M. (2015). Decisional Factors Are Driving Organic Food Consumption. British Food Journal, 117(3), 1066-1081. Teng, C. C., & Lu, C. H. (2016). Organic Food Consumption in Taiwan: Motives, Involvement, and Purchase Intention Under the Moderating Role of Uncertainty. Appetite, 105, 95-105. Thieme, J., Royne, M. B., Jha, S., Levy, M., & Barnes McEntee, W. (2015). Factors Affecting the Relationship between Environmental Concern and Behaviors. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 33(5), 675-690. Thøgersen, J., & Zhou, Y. (2012). Chinese Consumers’ Adoption of a ‘Green’ Innovation the Case of Organic Food. Journal of Marketing Management, 28(3/4), 313-333. Truong, T. T., Yap, M. H., & Ineson, E. M. (2012). Potential Vietnamese Consumers’ Perceptions of Organic Foods. British Food Journal, 114(4), 529-543. Tung, S.-J., Tsay, J. C., & Lin, M.-C. (2015). Life Course, Diet-Related Identity and Consumer Choice of Organic Food in Taiwan. British Food Journal, 117(2), 688-704. Uma, R., & Selvam, V. (2017). Consumer’s Attitude towards Organic Food Products buying Decision in Vellore City: Structural Equation Modeling–Using Partial Least Square (SEM-PLS) approach. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology, 10(12), 4333-4338. Ureña, F., Bernabéu, R., & Olmeda, M. (2007). Women, Men, and Organic Food: Differences in Their Attitudes and Willingness to Pay. A Spanish Case Study. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 32, 18-26. Van Loo, E., Caputo, V., Nayga, R. M., Jr., Meullenet, J. F., Crandall, P. G., & Ricke, S. C. (2010). Effect of Organic Poultry Purchase Frequency on Consumer Attitudes toward Organic Poultry Meat. Journal of Food Science, 75(7), S384-397. Van Loo, E. J., Caputo, V., Nayga, R. M., Meullenet, J.-F., & Ricke, S. C. (2011). Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Organic Chicken Breast: Evidence from the Choice Experiment. Food Quality and Preference, 22(7), 603-613. Verdurme, A., & Viaene, J. (2003). Consumer Beliefs and Attitude towards Genetically Modified Food: Basis for Segmentation and Implication for Communication. Agribusiness, 19, 91–113. Verhoef, P. C. (2005). Explaining Purchases of Organic Meat By Dutch Consumers. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 32(2), 245-267. Vermeir, I., & Verbeke, W. (2006). Sustainable Food Consumption: Exploring the Consumer “Attitude – Behavioral Intention” Gap. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 19(2), 169-194. Vyth, E. L., Van Der Meer, E. W., Seidell, J. C., & Steenhuis, I. H. (2012). A Nutrition Labeling Intervention in Worksite Cafeterias: An Implementation Evaluation Across Two Large Catering Companies in the Netherlands. Health Promot Int, 27(2), 230-237. Wądołowska, L., Babicz-Zielińska, E., & Czarnocińska, J. (2008). Food Choice Models and Their Relation with Food Preferences and Eating Frequency in the Polish Population: POFPRES Study. Food Policy, 33(2), 122-134. Wang, S.T. (2014). Consumer Characteristics and Social Influence Factors on Green Purchasing Intentions. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 32(7), 738-753. Wang, O., De Steur, H., Gellynck, X., & Verbeke, W. (2015). Motives for Consumer Choice of Traditional Food and European Food in Mainland China. Appetite, 87, 143-151. Unal et al. / Do We Know Organic Food Consumers? The Personal and Social Determinants of Organic Food Consumption 35 Wang, C., & Myint, S. (2016). Environmental Concerns of Deforestation in Myanmar 2001–2010. Remote Sensing, 8(9), 728. Wang, X., Pacho, F., Liu, J., & Kajungiro, R. (2019). Factors Influencing Organic Food Purchase Intention in Tanzania and Kenya and the Moderating Role of Knowledge. Sustainability, 11(1), 209, 1-18. Wee, C. S., Ariff, M. S. B. M., Zakuan, N., Tajudin, M. N. M., Ismail, K., & Ishak, N. (2014). Consumers Perception, Purchase Intention and Actual Purchase Behavior of Organic Food Products. Review of Integrative Business and Economics Research, 3(2), 378. Wesley Schultz, P. (2001). The Structure of Environmental Concern: Concern for Self, Other People, and the Biosphere. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(4), 327-339. White, C. J. (2010). The Impact of Emotions on Service Quality, Satisfaction, and Positive Word-of-Mouth Intentions Over Time. Journal of Marketing Management, 26(5/6), 381-394. Wier, M., & Calverley, C. (2002). The Market Potential for Organic Foods in Europe. British Food Journal, 104(1), 45-62. Williams, P.R.D., & Hammitt, J.K. (2000). A Comparison of Organic and Conventional Fresh Produce Buyers in the Boston Area. Risk Analysis, 20(5), 735-746. Winter, C. K., & Davis, S. F. (2006). Organic Foods. Journal of Food Science, 71(9), 117-124. Xie, B., Wang, L., Yang, H., Wang, Y., & Zhang, M. (2015). Consumer Perceptions and Attitudes of Organic Food Products in Eastern China. British Food Journal, 117(3), 1105-1121. Yadav, R. (2016). Altruistic or Egoistic: Which Value Promotes Organic Food Consumption Among Young Consumers? A Study in the Context of a Developing Nation. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 33, 92-97. Yadav, R., & Pathak, G. S. (2016). Intention to Purchase Organic Food Among Young Consumers: Evidences from a Developing Nation. Appetite, 96, 122-128. Yazdanpanah, M., & Forouzani, M. (2015). Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour to Predict Iranian Students’ Intention to Purchase Organic Food. Journal of Cleaner Production, 107, 342-352. Yin, S., Wu, L., Du, L., & Chen, M. (2010). Consumers’ Purchase Intention of Organic Food in China. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 90(8), 1361-1367. Yiridoe, E. K., Bonti-Ankomah, S., & Martin, R. C. (2005). Comparison of Consumer Perceptions and Preference toward Organic Versus Conventionally Produced Foods: A Re-View and Update of the Literature. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 20(4), 193-205. Żakowska‐Biemans, S., & Renko, S. (2011). Polish Consumer Food Choices and Beliefs about Organic Food. British Food Journal, 113(1), 122-137. Zanoli, R., & Naspetti, S. (2002). Consumer Motivations in the Purchase of Organic Food. British Food Journal, 104(8), 643-653. Zeithaml, V. A. (1988). Consumer Perceptions of Price, Quality, and Value: A Means-End Model and Synthesis of Evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52(3), 2–22. Zhu, Y. (2018). Using the Theory of Planned Behavior to Investigate What Influences Chinese Intention to Purchase Organic Food. China-USA Business Review, 17(6), 324-333. Žibret, M., Hafner-Fink, M., & Kline, M. (2018). Testing an Extended Model of Organic Food Purchasing Behaviour. Teorija in Praksa, 55(1), 180-226.