Supplementary document to Brace for Impact: A Review of Mitigation Decisions of Critical Infrastructure Operators During the 2024 Solar Maximum

Appendix 1. Survey Questions Supplementary document to LaNeve et al “Brace for Impact: A Review of Mitigation Decisions of Critical Infrastructure Operators During the 2024 Solar Maximum” This appendix contains the questions and response options for the surveys and the interviews conducted during this study. They are arranged as follows: A.1.A Qualitative Interview Questions A.1.B Electric Survey Questions A.1.C Satellite Survey Questions A.1.D Aviation Survey Questions A.1.E Railroad Survey Questions A.1.F GNSS Users (GPS, etc) Survey Questions A.1.A Qualitative Interview Questions 1. Can you describe the processes you have in place to undertake long-term pre-event preparation for space weather (e.g., from GIC)? 2. Can you describe the processes you have in place to undertake short-term pre-event preparation for space weather (e.g., once you have received a notification of an incoming event, likely to affect Earth) 3. Can you describe the operational decisions you take during an event to mitigate any risks to your network? 4. Can you describe the decisions you take after a major event has taken place? 5. Have you experienced any adverse impacts over the current solar maximum, and if so, can you describe them? A.1.B Electricity Survey Questions 1. Operator Background: a. How many employees does your organization have? b. How many customers does your organization have? c. Approximately, how many Megawatt-Hours (MWh) does your organization sell/transfer each year? d. Approximately, what is your peak load in Megawatt (MW)? e. What is the highest AC Voltage in your system? f. Which region do you operate in? g. Which category approximately represents the geomagnetic latitude band of your network? i. Higher geomagnetic latitudes, northern hemisphere (Anchorage, Reykjavik, Stockholm) ii. Mid geomagnetic latitudes, northern hemisphere (New York, London, Berlin) iii. Lower geomagnetic latitudes, northern hemisphere (Los Angeles, Madrid, Baku) iv. Lower geomagnetic latitudes, southern hemisphere (Santiago, Buenos Aires, Harare, Jakarta) v. Mid geomagnetic latitudes, southern hemisphere (Melbourne, Auckland) 2. Long Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the long-term preparation decisions you have taken in relation to space weather events and Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GICs). Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Modeling and simulation activities to understand the impacts of GICs on your network b. Studied operating procedures for handling extreme voltage fluctuation c. Reviewed manufacturer simulations for transformer heating from GICs d. Implemented extra cooling systems to prevent transformer heating/overheating due to GICs e. Re-adjusted the negative-sequence-current protection due to higher-than-normal harmonics f. Ensured smaller structures are adequately rated (e.g., capacitors, converters, etc.) g. Adjusted protection systems (e.g., transformer relays) to deal with excessive harmonics h. Developed an inventory of assets which could be damaged by GICs i. Purchased backup assets for those components which could be damaged by GICs j. Prepared for how to replace a transformer potentially damaged by GICs k. Reviewed the type, condition, and locations of standby spare transformers l. Used past data to understand reactive demand placed on transformers by GICs m. Practiced ‘blackstart’ procedures in case of an outage n. If you carried out options not listed above, please report them here: o. How many magnetometers are installed on your network? 3. Short-Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the short-term preparation decisions implemented once a space weather forecaster has confirmed a major event is expected. For example, what recent preparatory decisions were taken during the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Reduced loads on transformers, lines and other assets (load reduction). b. Implemented line switching/rearrangement. c. Activated GIC blocking devices for vulnerable transformers. d. Network reconfiguration to take certain vulnerable transformers, lines and other assets offline. e. Network reconfiguration to bring more transformers, lines and other assets online. f. Increased reactive power reserves. g. Brought more generation capacity online (if available within your network). h. Ceased power transfers to other networks. i. Canceled routine maintenance of network to bring more assets online. j. Canceled routine maintenance of network to free up maintenance teams. k. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. l. Canceled employee time off. m. Increased staff situational awareness of the incoming space weather event (e.g., enhanced monitoring of products available from space weather forecasters). n. If you carried out options not listed above, please report them here: _____ 4. Operational Decisions During an Event: What operational mitigation decisions have you recently carried out during recent storms, such as for the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all operational decisions you have made. a. Reduced loads on transformers, lines and other assets (load reduction). b. Implemented line switching/rearrangement. c. Activated GIC blocking devices for vulnerable transformers. d. Network reconfiguration to take certain vulnerable transformers, lines and other assets offline. e. Network reconfiguration to bring more transformers, lines and other assets online. f. Increased reactive power reserves. g. Brought more generation capacity online (if available within your network). h. Ceased power transfers to other networks. i. Canceled routine maintenance of network to bring more assets online. j. Canceled routine maintenance of network to free up maintenance teams. k. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. l. Canceled employee time off. m. Increased staff situational awareness of the incoming space weather event (e.g., enhanced monitoring of products available from space weather forecasters). n. If you carried out options not listed above, please report them here: _____ 5. Post Event Decisions: What post-event decisions did you carry out, such as after the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Assessed dissolved gas levels in exposed assets. b. Investigated unusual observations/conditions of exposed assets. c. Removed assets from service for inspection of potential degradation. d. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components (<$10k in value). e. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components ($10k-$100k in value). f. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components ($100k-$1m in value). g. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components (>$1m in value). h. Placed an order for new apparatus to replace exposed assets. i. Liaised with other operators to share data. j. Liaised with other operators to share experiences. k. Revised preparation plans for future events. l. Undertaken new modeling and simulation activities. m. Please add any other considerations we did not list here: ______ 6. Incidents: From a recent space weather event (e.g., May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024), have you experienced a GIC incident leading to any of the following impacts? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Interruption of power supply to customers. b. Power apparatus/asset failure. c. Anomalous protection relay tripping. d. Overloading, or over temperature, alarms triggered. e. Temporary loss of satellite communication links. f. If you carried out options not listed above, please report them here: 7. Survey Results: If you'd also like to receive an email with the survey results once complete, please indicate that here. Emails will be stored separately from survey responses to ensure anonymity. A.1.C Satellite Survey Questions 1. Operator Background: a. How many employees does your organization have? b. How many customers does your organization have? c. How many primary satellites do you operate? d. What is the primary service you offer/support? e. Which region(s) do you operate in? f. Which country/region is your HQ located? 2. Long Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the long-term preparation decisions you have taken in relation to space weather events and satellite assets. Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Modeling and simulation of satellite system design to quantify expected radiation exposure. b. Modeling and simulation of orbital trajectories to quantify expected radiation exposure. c. Evaluation of adequate satellite shielding thickness and ongoing quality levels. d. Developed design redundancy for onboard systems to protect against radiation exposure. e. Monitored satellite asset orbital trajectory to anticipate which assets are likely to receive the largest cumulative radiation exposure. f. Implemented power supply redundancy for ground-based systems (e.g., Earth stations). g. Implemented optical fiber link redundancy for ground-based systems (e.g., Earth stations). h. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 3. Short-Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the short-term preparation decisions implemented once a space weather forecaster has confirmed a major event is expected. Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Moved at-risk satellites out of expected orbit. b. Placed satellites into safe mode. c. Notified customers/stakeholders of coming event and potential service disruption. d. Postponed launch activities for new satellites. e. Canceled routine maintenance of network (e.g., of terrestrial assets). f. Canceled routine maintenance of network to free up maintenance teams. g. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. h. Canceled employee time off. i. Increased staff situational awareness of the incoming space weather event. j. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 4. Operational Decisions During an Event: What operational mitigation decisions have you recently carried out over the solar maximum, such as for the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all operational decisions you have made. a. Moved at-risk satellites out of expected orbit. b. Placed satellites into safe mode. c. Notified customers/stakeholders of coming event and potential service disruption. d. Postponed launch activities for new satellites. e. Canceled routine maintenance of network (e.g., of terrestrial assets). f. Canceled routine maintenance of network to free up maintenance teams. g. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. h. Canceled employee time off. i. Increased staff situational awareness of the incoming space weather event. j. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 5. Post Event Decisions: What post-event decisions did you carry out, such as after the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Assessed Joule heating impacts. b. Estimated total ionizing dose. c. Estimated displacement damage dose. d. Physically replaced exposed satellites with new assets (<$1m in value). e. Physically replaced exposed satellites with new assets ($1-10m in value). f. Physically replaced exposed satellites with new assets ($10-100m in value). g. Physically replaced exposed satellites with new assets (>$100m in value). h. Placed an order to replace exposed assets (<$1m in value). i. Placed an order to replace exposed assets ($1-10m in value). j. Placed an order to replace exposed assets ($10-100m in value). k. Placed an order to replace exposed assets (>$100m in value). l. Liaised with other operators to share data. m. Liaised with other operators to share experiences. n. Revised preparation plans for future events. o. Undertaken new modeling and simulation activities. p. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 6. Incidents: From a recent space weather event (e.g., May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024), have you experienced any of the following impacts? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Interruption of satellite services to customers. b. Satellite asset failure. c. Temporary loss of satellite communication uplink/downlink connections. d. Degraded photovoltaic cell efficiency. e. Temporary loss of onboard systems. f. Permanent loss of onboard systems. g. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 7. Survey Results: If you'd also like to receive an email with the survey results once complete, please indicate that here. Emails will be stored separately from survey responses to ensure anonymity. A.1.D Aviation Survey Questions 1. Operator Background: a. How many employees does your company have? b. How many flights do you operate on a yearly basis? c. How many passengers do you fly on a yearly basis? d. Which region(s) do you operate in? e. Which country/region is your HQ located? 2. Long Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the long-term preparation decisions you have taken in relation to space weather events and aviation operations. Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Installed real-time radiation monitoring systems on airplanes. b. Recorded ongoing radiation data for baseline radiation exposure during normal operations. c. Used modeling and simulation to prepare adjusted flight routes for space weather events. d. Trained crews on space weather impacts to raise awareness. e. Trained crews on space weather contingency plans. f. Implemented backup communication systems in case of disruption (e.g., satellite communication) g. Implemented power supply redundancy for ground-based systems. h. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 3. Short-Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the short-term preparation decisions implemented once a space weather forecaster has confirmed a major event is expected. Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Re-routed at-risk flights out of expected impact areas (e.g., to lower latitudes). b. Changed the altitude of at-risk flights (e.g., to lower altitudes). c. Postponed flights. d. Notified customers/stakeholders of an incoming space event and potential service disruption. e. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. f. Canceled employee time off to maximize available labor resources. g. Increased staff situational awareness of an incoming space weather event. h. Required immediate pilot refresher training for aircraft navigation without electronic instruments or navigation systems. i. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 4. Operational Decisions During an Event: What operational mitigation decisions have you recently carried out over the solar maximum, such as for the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all operational decisions you have made. a. Re-routed at-risk flights out of expected impact areas (e.g., to lower latitudes). b. Changed the altitude of at-risk flights (e.g., to lower altitudes). c. Postponed flights. d. Notified customers/stakeholders of an incoming space event and potential service disruption. e. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. f. Canceled employee time off to maximize available labor resources. g. Increased staff situational awareness of an incoming space weather event. h. Required immediate pilot refresher training for aircraft navigation without electronic instruments or navigation systems. i. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 5. Post Event Decisions: What post-event decisions did you carry out, such as after the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Evaluated radiation exposure of flight crews. b. Evaluated radiation exposure of aircraft, including avionics equipment. c. Physically replaced exposed avionics equipment (<$1m in value). d. Physically replaced exposed avionics equipment ($1-10m in value). e. Physically replaced exposed avionics equipment ($10-100m in value). f. Physically replaced exposed avionics equipment (>$100m in value). g. Placed an order to replace exposed avionics equipment (<$1m in value). h. Placed an order to replace exposed avionics equipment ($1-10m in value). i. Placed an order to replace exposed avionics equipment ($10-100m in value). j. Placed an order to replace exposed avionics equipment (>$100m in value). k. Liaised with other operators to share data. l. Liaised with other operators to share experiences. m. Revised preparation plans for future events. n. Undertaken new modeling and simulation activities to protect crews. o. Undertaken new modeling and simulation activities to protect aircraft. p. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 6. Incidents: From a recent space weather event (e.g., May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024), have you experienced any of the following impacts? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Temporary loss of radio communication services. b. Temporary loss of satellite communication services. c. Temporary loss of avionics equipment. d. Permanent loss of avionics equipment. 7. Survey Results: If you'd also like to receive an email with the survey results once complete, please indicate that here. Emails will be stored separately from survey responses to ensure anonymity. A.1.E Railroad Survey Questions 1. Operator Background: a. How many employees does your company have? b. How many passengers does your organization carry annually? c. How much freight does your organization carry annually? d. What percentage of your trains are passenger versus freight? e. What percentage of your trains are electric versus diesel? f. What percentage of the lines you operate on are electric versus diesel? g. Which region do you operate in? h. Which category approximately represents the geomagnetic latitude band of your network? 2. Long Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the long-term preparation decisions you have taken in relation to space weather. This ranges from assessing the impacts of Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GICs) on rail infrastructure, through to the impacts on signaling and communication systems. Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Modeling and simulation activities to better understand the impacts of GICs on rail signaling. b. Modeling and simulation activities to better understand the impacts of GICs on power distribution systems for electrified rail. c. Modeling and simulation activities to better understand the impacts of GICs on electricity transformers. d. Modeling and simulation activities to better understand space weather impacts on terrestrial radio communications systems. e. Modeling and simulation activities to better understand space weather impacts on satellite communications systems. f. Implemented system design changes to protect electric rail operation. g. Developed an inventory of spare assets and equipment which could be damaged by GIC. h. Purchased backup assets for those components which could be damaged by GIC. i. Prepared for how to replace a transformer potentially damaged by GIC. j. Reviewed the type, condition and locations of spare transformers on standby. k. Added devices to transformers, power lines, or other assets to record baseline transformer currents, as well as GIC during space weather events. l. Trained staff on space weather impacts to raise awareness. m. Trained staff on space weather contingency plans. n. Implemented backup communication systems in case of disruption. o. Implemented backup power systems in case of disruption. p. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 3. Short-Term Pre-Event Preparation: We wish to collect information on the short-term preparation decisions implemented once a space weather forecaster has confirmed a major event is expected. Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Postponed scheduled rail services. b. Canceled scheduled rail services. c. Required train operators to slow to a safe speed when approaching junctions. d. Monitored potential false signaling tripping of both AC and DC track relays. e. Notified customers/stakeholders of coming event and potential service disruption. f. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. g. Canceled employee time off to maximize available labor resources. h. Increased staff situational awareness of the incoming space weather event (e.g., enhanced monitoring of products available from space weather forecasters). i. Required immediate operator refresher training. j. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 4. Operational Decisions During an Event: What operational mitigation decisions have you recently carried out over the solar maximum, such as for the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all operational decisions you have made. a. Postponed scheduled rail services. b. Canceled scheduled rail services. c. Required train operators to slow to a safe speed when approaching junctions. d. Maintained frequent communication with train operators to confirm near-real-time location. e. Monitored potential false signaling tripping of both AC and DC track relays. f. Notified customers/stakeholders of coming event and potential service disruption. g. Placed staff teams on alert to implement existing preparation plans. h. Canceled employee time off to maximize available labor resources. i. Increased staff situational awareness of the incoming space weather event (e.g., enhanced monitoring of products available from space weather forecasters). j. Required immediate operator refresher training. k. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 5. Post Event Decisions: What post-event decisions did you carry out, such as after the May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024 space weather events? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Investigated unusual observations/conditions of exposed signaling systems. b. Investigated unusual observations/conditions of exposed power distribution systems. c. Removed transformers from service for inspection of potential degradation. d. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components (<$10k in value). e. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components ($10-100k in value). f. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components ($100k-$1m in value). g. Physically replaced exposed assets with new components (>$1m in value). h. Placed an order for new apparatus to replace exposed transformers. i. Liaised with other operators to share data. j. Liaised with other operators to share experiences. k. Revised preparation plans for future events. l. Undertaken new modeling and simulation activities. m. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 6. Incidents: From a recent space weather event (e.g., May 10-12th and October 11-12th 2024), have you experienced any of the following impacts? Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Experienced anomalous signaling (without losing power supply). b. Interruption of power supply to signaling. c. Interruption of power supply to trains. d. Power apparatus/asset failure. e. Anomalous protection relay tripping. f. Overloading, or over temperature, alarms triggered on transformers. g. Temporary loss of radio communication services. h. Temporary loss of satellite communication services. i. If there is a signaling issue, is it a right side failure, or a wrong side failure? j. Please add any other considerations we did not list: 7. Survey Results: If you'd also like to receive an email with the survey results once complete, please indicate that here. Emails will be stored separately from survey responses to ensure anonymity. A.1.F GNSS Users (GPS, etc) Survey Questions 1. Operator Background: a. Which sector best represents your use of Global Navigation Satellite Services (GNSS) (e.g., such as GPS)? b. In terms of economic impacts, has your business or livelihood suffered a monetary cost related to disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services? c. If so, in what ways have these monetary costs been incurred? 2. Responses to GNSS Service Disruptions: We wish to collect information on the decisions you have taken in relation to space weather events when your GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services have failed or malfunctioned. Please indicate all options below that you have undertaken. a. Resorted to manual navigation techniques because positioning, navigation, and timing services failed to work properly. b. Worked longer hours to make up for the lack of working positioning, navigation, and timing services. c. Delayed a planned journey, plane flight, train ride because of disruption in positioning, navigation, and timing services. d. Hired more workers to complete an activity that would have been completed earlier with the use of working positioning, navigation, and timing services. e. Reduced reliance on positioning, navigation, and timing services due to disruption from recent events. f. Spoken to neighbors, friends, colleagues/coworkers, etc. and shared experiences to be more prepared for future disruption to positioning, navigation, and timing services. g. Contacted any government agencies or private companies that report on space weather so you could keep updated due to disruption in positioning, navigation, and timing services. h. Taken out any loans or secure monetary assets because of a perceived hardship in the inability to use positioning, navigation, and timing services. i. Changed line of work or industry because of the inability to use positioning, navigation, and timing services. j. If you carried out options not listed here, please report them in the box below: 3. Sector-Specific Impacts of GNSS Disruption k. Agriculture i. If you work in agriculture, has disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services affected your ability to till or harvest your fields? If so, please provide an explanation. l. Aviation i. If you work in Aviation, has disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services affected your ability to confidently crew an aircraft and secure the safety of your passengers? If so, please provide an explanation. m. Environment i. Has disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services affected your ability to locate areas of vulnerable wildlife or any sort of environmental planning related to threatened biodiversity? If so, please provide an explanation. n. Marine i. If you ordered an item from overseas, did it take longer than expected to arrive over the course of a period due to disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services? If so, please provide an explanation. ii. If you work in commercial logistics—moving goods overseas—did it take longer for you to arrive at your destination because of disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services? If so, please provide an explanation. o. Public Safety & Disaster Relief i. If you work in the environment or public safety, did disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services affect your ability to locate wildfires or other related disasters? If so, please provide an explanation. p. Rail i. Did disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services force you to take precautions to mitigate potential ‘right-side’ or ‘wrong-side’ failures during rail operations? If so, please provide an explanation. ii. If you used rail for transportation, was your trip delayed due to disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services? If so, please provide an explanation. q. Recreation i. Did you get lost while relying on GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services? If so, please provide an explanation. r. Roads & Highways i. If you work in the roads & highways sector, were your operations hindered or delayed because of disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services affecting surveying and navigational equipment? If so, please provide an explanation. s. Space i. If you work in the space sector, were your operations affected by disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services? If so, please provide an explanation. t. Surveying & Mapping i. If you work in the surveying and mapping sector, were your operations affected by disruption in GNSS positioning, navigation, and timing services? If so, please provide an explanation. u. Timing i. If you rely on GNSS for timing services, have your operations been affected? If so, please provide an explanation. 4. Survey Results: If you'd also like to receive an email with the survey results once complete, please indicate that here. Emails will be stored separately from survey responses to ensure anonymity.