Strengthening the concordance between entrepreneurship orientation with indigenous cultural values

Dauletova, Victoria; Al-Busaidi, Adil S.; Al-Wahaibi, Ibtisam; Al-Khaldi, Salim O. Article Strengthening the concordance between entrepreneurship orientation with indigenous cultural values Cogent Business & Management Provided in Cooperation with: Taylor & Francis Group Suggested Citation: Dauletova, Victoria; Al-Busaidi, Adil S.; Al-Wahaibi, Ibtisam; Al-Khaldi, Salim O. (2024) : Strengthening the concordance between entrepreneurship orientation with indigenous cultural values, Cogent Business & Management, ISSN 2331-1975, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon, Vol. 11, Iss. 1, pp. 1-15, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2333060 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/326187 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Cogent Business & Management ISSN: 2331-1975 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/oabm20 Strengthening the concordance between entrepreneurship orientation with indigenous cultural values Victoria Dauletova, Adil S. Al-Busaidi, Ibtisam Al-Wahaibi & Salim O. Al-Khaldi To cite this article: Victoria Dauletova, Adil S. Al-Busaidi, Ibtisam Al-Wahaibi & Salim O. Al-Khaldi (2024) Strengthening the concordance between entrepreneurship orientation with indigenous cultural values, Cogent Business & Management, 11:1, 2333060, DOI: 10.1080/23311975.2024.2333060 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2333060 © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Published online: 26 Mar 2024. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 758 View related articles View Crossmark data Citing articles: 3 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oabm20 ManageMent | ReseaRch aRticle Cogent Business & ManageMent 2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2333060 Strengthening the concordance between entrepreneurship orientation with indigenous cultural values Victoria Dauletovaa , adil s. al-Busaidib , ibtisam al-Wahaibia and salim O. al-Khaldic aCollege of economics and Political science, Department of Business Communication, sultan Qaboos university, Muscat, sultanate of oman; bCollege of economics and Political science, Department of Business Communication, Director of innovation and technology transfer, sultan Qaboos university, Muscat, sultanate of oman; cCollege of economics and Political science, Department of Management, sultan Qaboos university, Muscat, sultanate of oman ABSTRACT in light of implementing Western models to develop entrepreneurship capabilities and capital in the arab gulf, it has become apparent that a more nuanced and better contextually-situated approach to entrepreneurship development is recommended when dealing with such deeply traditional communities. this paper seeks to provide insight into the relationship between Western and local orientations in terms of entrepreneurship in the sultanate of Oman. twenty face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with contemporary Omani entrepreneurs, revealing that these Western entrepreneurship Orientation (eO) models are perceived as potentially threatening the integrity and harmony of local communities. this perception causes partial resistance toward integrating Western dimensions of eO into the indigenous mindset. hence, this paper strives to, firstly, identify the Omani cultural orientations that directly impact the application of Western dimensions of eO. secondly, this paper proposes an alternative scenario for entrepreneurship development through strengthening dimensions of eO taking account of and blending with Omani cultural orientations. the paper will add to the body of literature exploring the impact of indigenous cultures on entrepreneurial orientation. Results offer recommendations to decision-makers and entrepreneurs from Oman and other countries with similar socio-cultural profiles on boosting a culture of entrepreneurship that aligns with preserving cultural heritage and local customs. Introduction to achieve economic diversification and offer more employment opportunities for the local population, the arab gulf countries started actively promoting entrepreneurship (Bilal & hussien, 2019). as a result of various government initiatives directed towards boosting entrepreneurship and building a support system for entrepreneurs, the number of sMes and start-ups has increased in the gcc region. For example, in Qatar, with a population of 2.6 million, the number of sMes nearly doubled from 3.6% in 2019 to 6.78% of the total number of enterprises in 2021. however, this increase in Oman, given its larger population, is rather insignificant compared to its neighbor - from 2% in 2019 to 2.84% in 2021of the total number of enterprises (global economic Monitor, n.d.). this fact raises a question - why does the local population show little interest in starting their own businesses despite the combined forces of the public and private sectors. it is worth noting that the slow growth in sMes comes amidst national efforts such as entrepreneurship-driven training programs and initiatives aligned with Omani Vision 2040 strategic Plan, state-of-the-art business incubation and acceleration facilities, and established entities providing start-up opportunities for sMes (Baporikar, 2015). the available body of literature concerned with the relationship between indigenous cultures and modern state entrepreneurship development is limited especially in relation to the arab world. Our study © 2024 the author(s). Published by informa uK Limited, trading as taylor & Francis group. CONTACT Victoria Dauletova [email protected] sultan Qaboos university, College of economics and Political science, Department of Business Communication, P.o. Box 50, al-Khoud 123, Muscat, sultanate of oman https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2333060 this is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. the terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent. ARTICLE HISTORY Received 20 June 2023 Revised 1 March 2024 accepted 12 March 2024 KEYWORDS entrepreneurship orientation; indigenous culture; values; entrepreneurship development REVIEWING EDITOR len tiu Wright, De Montfort University Faculty of Business and law, United Kingdom SUBJECTS Organizational communication; culture & Development; Rural Development; Regional Development; Business, Management and accounting; sociology & social Policy 2 V. DaUletOVa etal. adds to the scholarly discussion on how to preserve the well-being of indigenous communities in the arab countries and at the same time, how to foster economic opportunities of the states alongside with the preservation of indigenous values and business practices. this research also informs literature on hybrid models of entrepreneurship that are often disadvantaged due to the lack of empirical studies exploring their complexities, impacts, and potentials. entrepreneurship in the gcc countries, with their extensive and ancient tribal systems which are integrated into the modern state, takes a hybrid form and represents a mixture of indigenous and non-indigenous types of entrepreneurship. indigenous entrepreneurship is defined as a system where business ventures are created, managed, and developed by indigenous people whose communities draw motivation and resources from their land, the local environment, traditions, and cultural and religious values. these communities manifest a strong desire to retain their cultural identity, community engagement, and heritage (colbourne, 2021; lindsay, 2005; Peredo & chrisman, 2006). such communities’ holistic and non-monetary orientations, together with a strong concern for the community, differentiate it from non-indigenous entrepreneurship that penetrates local communities through various government-led training programs and initiatives promoting entrepreneurship and innovation (Maritz & Foley, 2018; Morley, 2014; spencer et al., 2016; tamtik, 2020). in Oman, the indigenous model of entrepreneurship is steadily if imperceptibly more popular and widespread even in the urban areas. this is due primarily to government policies to preserve and sustain cultural heritage and traditional businesses related to farming, fishing, and crafts. secondly, islam, the main religion of the county, promotes family and community values such as solidarity, trust, non-violence, non-interference in other people’s affairs, generosity, justice, respect, and more. a large number of entrepreneurs have offices in Muscat, but were born and raised in rural localities where the traditions and indigenous cultural and social values have been enacted and sustained throughout their childhood and into adulthood. Due to the heterogeneity of Omani communities, it would be unfair to generalize entrepreneurship values and orientations among Omanis. Depending on the geographical position, history, tribal context, and openness to the external world, some communities are more entrepreneurial than others. however, as a shared feature, all Omani communities are preoccupied with ensuring they run their business in line with islamic values and Omani social conduct, putting reputation above money and sustaining pride in Omani identity. Business ventures in Oman are not just a matter of an entrepreneur and his/her team, they also involve a larger circle of people such as an entrepreneur’s extended family as well as their cultural values and practices (lindsay, 2005). the literature on indigenous entrepreneurship claims that indigenous culture continues to shape modern-day entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions (Reihana et al, 2007; Foley, 2010; Klyver & Foley, 2012). a number of studies have perceived indigenous culture as a hindrance to entrepreneurship and used it as an explanation for the low number of business ventures by indigenous entrepreneurs compared to non-indigenous ones. For example, lindsay (2005) suggests that the reasons behind the low rate of businesses in indigenous cultures are the consequences of their weak orientation towards achievement, innovation, personal control, self-esteem, and opportunity recognition. Peredo and Mclean (2013) consider that indigenous communities are collective in nature and strongly influenced by indigenous cultures incompatible with business success (Peredo & Mclean, 2013). in relation to Oman, Belwal et al. (2015) confirm low entrepreneurial intentions, which they attribute to a lack of knowledge, an unwillingness to take risks and/or a lack of confidence. thomas (2017) also highlights risk aversion together with a strong dependency on the community and the government, as the main features blocking entrepreneurship development. Matriano and suguku (2015) point to a high uncertainty avoidance index and collectivistivism as two Omani cultural features that negatively impact entrepreneurship dissemination. according to Redpath and nielsen (1997), collectivism guides the locus control of arab culture in general and the Omani population in particular when individual interests and aspirations are subordinate to collective ones leading to the perceived image of entrepreneurs as individuals rupturing the fabric of social equality, collective responsibility and shared gain in their pursuit of personal control. some researchers make an attempt to present culture as an enabler of entrepreneurship development. Widjojo and gunawan (2020) consider traditional culture as a competitive advantage that is unique and difficult to imitate. De Massis et al. (2016) believe that indigenous knowledge can serve as a source cOgent BUsiness & ManageMent 3 of innovation. chew et al. (2022) named culture as one of the key dimensions shaping the values and behavior of enterprises in society. Dauletova and al-Busaidi (2022) argue that one of the most influential drivers of entrepreneurial success in rural Oman is centered around Omani cultural heritage and is fueled by specific factors and values of islamic and Omani culture. the construct of eO has five dimensions: innovation; risk-taking; proactiveness; autonomy, and competitive aggressiveness (lumpkin & Dess, 1996; Rauch et al., 2009; Mthanti & Ojah, 2017). these dimensions have been proven to positively contribute to growth, competitive advantage, and superior performance of start-ups and sMes (Kraus, et al, 2012). the construct has been studied in relation to both multi-person businesses (gupta and gupta, 2015) and individual entrepreneurs (Koe, 2016; hassan et al., 2021; Robinson and stubberud, 2014). in our research, we argue that the construct can be effectively applied to a group level as well as to individual entrepreneurs. conceptually, the paper is built on the model of indigenous entrepreneurial orientation (Mrabure etal., 2021), which offers three forms of eO: culturally constituted eO where business practices are based on indigenous cultural values and beliefs; Western eO with business practices anchored on Western cultural values and orientations; and hybrid eO aims to create a balance in social and profitability goals within indigenous contexts. the worldview and entrepreneurial ecosystem impact both aspiring or existing entrepreneurs’ choices of which eO form is most suitable for them. the purpose of this study is, firstly, to identify the Omani cultural orientations which directly impact the application of dimensions of eO, and secondly, to propose an alternative scenario for entrepreneurship development in Oman through the local culture orientations strengthening the eO dimensions which are currently alien to the Omani context but which could then be accepted and implemented. (Bruton et al, 2018). the paper is structured as follows: we start with describing the socio-economic, socio-cultural and historical background of Oman as a backdrop against which the analysis of the culture of entrepreneurship in the country has been performed. then we focus on the traditional value system and social conduct norms linked with entrepreneurship in Oman. next, we outline the theoretical background and applied methodology used to collect results and develop findings which lead to the discussion section where we focus on recommendation for Omani policy-makers. The historical background of Omani entrepreneurship Omani entrepreneurship has a long and complicated history where the renaissance of trade and commerce in the country was followed by a long period of oblivion associated with the socio-economic decline. Only with sultan Qaboos bin said’s ascendance to the throne in 1970, combined with the rise of the oil industry (1967), did Oman see renewed economic growth and modernization (hoffman, 2012). Oil has been the economy’s main driver since Oman began commercial production in 1967. the oil sector supports Oman’s modern and extensive infrastructure, including electrical utilities, roads, public education, and healthcare facilities. according to the national center for statistics and information (ncsi, 2018), the oil industry is the primary driver of Oman’s economy, contributing up to 80% of government revenue, 60% of export value, and 40% of gDP in 2017. the reforms initiated by the late sultan Qaboos bin said brought prosperity to the country. however, this prosperity has turned Oman into a rentier state (Ramady & Kropf, 2015), resulting in reduced interest in entrepreneurship but an increased preference for government jobs (steiner, 2020). With the new ruler haitham bin tariq al said in power, entrepreneurship is once again viewed as an opportunity to: tackle unemployment; enhance the diversification of the country’s economy; and continue with the country’s modernization by bringing technology-based start-ups into the industry, as reflected in Oman Vision 2040 (Oman Vision 2040, n.d.). the initiative to promote entrepreneurship as a strategy to support the national diversification plan has driven the Omani government’s efforts at economic diversification to boost the number of sMes owned by the local labor force, encourage Omani nationals to work in the private sector, and establish a different, more stable, and sustainable economy (tanfeedh, 2017). currently, Oman is going through a challenging transition period towards a post-oil future. in the framework of this transition, Oman is practicing two forms of entrepreneurship – indigenous and 4 V. DaUletOVa etal. non-indigenous. the first is initiated and sustained by the rural communities, while the second is influenced by the state’s leading role towards modernization. Within the Omani context, no conflict between the two forms of entrepreneurship has been observed, while neighboring countries have been struggling with tense relationships between merchants and rulers (Rabi, 2006). Entrepreneurship and Oman’s traditional value system culture and the economic environment have always been important catalysts for innovation and entrepreneurship in their various manifestations. entrepreneurs can map their business aims and define enablers and deterrents by understanding the community’s cultural characteristics and economic situation (alanzi, et al, 2022). Religion is among the most significant and distinctive features of arab culture. Most parts of arab culture are influenced by religion, according to numerous studies (Kalliny and gentry, 2007; shahin and Wright, 2004). islam is said to have had the greatest influence on islamic nations’ cultures, particularly those of arab nations. islam, which is seen as a comprehensive way of life, is the foundation of the arabic language, social life, and traditions (Kavoossi, 2000). therefore, it is argued that the religious background of Muslim arab entrepreneurs impacts their attitudes toward work and entrepreneurial activities (Dana, 2009). Muslims place a high value on morality and virtue because they represent the religion and the Prophet Mohammed’s mission. according to islam, entrepreneurs who identify as Muslims are obliged to uphold high standards of morals, ethics, and virtue to achieve ‘Falah’ (the goal of life). they frequently make an effort to exhibit high moral character, as the Prophet did, who was characterized in the Qur’an as having strong morality, virtue, and ethics (Beekun, 2012). another value of islam that is connected to entrepreneurial activities is hard work. hard work is highly regarded in islam, to the extent that it is associated with martyrdom, as suggested in the following hadeeth ‘On the judgement day, the truthful, honest Muslim merchant will stand side by side with the martyrs’. according to the interpretation of these teachings, islam views perseverance and hard work as virtues that are necessary for growth and success (ali, 1988; Possumah et al., 2013). islam places a great value on sidik (truthfulness), and amanah (trustworthiness), and the Prophet is usually referred to as ‘Mohammad, al sadiq, al ameen’, or ‘Mohammed, the honest, true, and Reliable’. Muslims strive to live their lives in accordance with the Prophet, who exemplified the highest standards of honesty and integrity in his daily life. Muslims do this by being honest in their words, deeds, and feelings as well as true to their beliefs and faith. at work, truthfulness and trustworthiness also entail rejecting all manifestations of corruption and deceit (tlaiss, 2015). While islam has laid the ethical foundation for business practices, the traditional indigenous culture tries to protect the local population from dangers and threats from the external world. hence the appreciation of and reliance on the community in all aspects of everyday life activities, avoidance of interpersonal conflicts, and a philosophy of non-interference in other people’s affairs (Jones & Ridout, 2015). however, being successful in performing the role of a ‘protector of the people’, indigenous culture is less effective in accommodating modern entrepreneurial orientations. according to Porter (2004), cultural factors have closed and may continue to close the door for new business in Oman. in its honest pursuit to give its best to the community, the local culture remains risk-averse and highly dependent. a high government post or high military rank is perceived more favorably by society than being a successful entrepreneur. there is a scarcity of successful, self-made entrepreneur role models in Omani society, and even those few role models have not received much media attention. Based on the review mentioned above, based on Omani cultural values and eO dimensions, and based on an attempt to understand the local context in light of the indigenous entrepreneurial orientation model, we propose the following research questions (RQs): RQ1: What are the key concerns of the local entrepreneurs regarding the compatibility of eO dimensions with indigenous entrepreneurial values? RQ2: Which indigenous entrepreneurial orientation form is most suitable for Omani entrepreneurs? cOgent BUsiness & ManageMent 5 Methodology in order to answer the proposed research question about the key concerns of the local population regarding the implementation of eO dimensions as a driver of entrepreneurship development, we selected an interpretivism approach using semi-structured interviews to understand better how Omani communities and entrepreneurs make sense of their world (lindlof and taylor, 2002). Participants twenty contemporary entrepreneurs operating in urban areas of Oman but originating from rural localities were recruited for the study using purposeful snowball sampling (lindlof & taylor, 2002; noy, 2008). the research team recruited the interviewees by using personal contacts; reviewing their public social media profiles, if any (e.g., twitter, instagram); and also depending on referrals provided by the previously interviewed informants. interviewees who met the following criteria were recruited: to be Omani nationals and to run a start-up or an sMe in Muscat governorate. the descriptive statistics of the participants is summarized in table 1 below. Interview procedure Before eliciting in-depth stories and insights, the participants were first asked several general questions related to their demographics and business-profile. they were followed by the questions pursuing the goal of eliciting information about the participants’ views about enabling and inhibiting factors related to eO. these questions included but were not limited to: ‘What aspects of cultural values keep you sustain your business? have you done business with Western entrepreneurs? Do you see any differences in how they approach the notion of entrepreneurship from yours? how? Which value from Omani culture and/or islam drives your entrepreneurial mindset the most? could you share an example manifesting this value? after receiving the participants’ informed consent, all the interviews were conducted and voice-taped in english. On average, interviews lasted between one hour and one hour and a half. We stopped recruiting new participants after reaching data saturation in which no new significant themes occurred (lindlof and taylor, 2002). Table 1. Descriptive statistics of participants and their businesses (N = 20 interviewees). Variables Percentage Biological sex Male 55% Female 45% age 19–24 years old 35% 25–34 years old 55% 35–45 years old 10 % education university graduates 90% university drop-outs 10% Business tenure 10 years and above 65% 9 years and below 35% Business type technology-based start-ups 45% sMes 45% Pre-incubated start-ups 10% Markets Local market (inside the country) 91% international market 9% number of employees 4–8 40% 9–15 60% Place of origin rural 80% urban 20% 6 V. DaUletOVa etal. Data analysis We applied the constant comparative method (ccM) suggested by glaser and strauss (1967) to analyze the data. We read the transcripts and labeled the categories. emerging categories were then compared to the transcripts of other entrepreneurs. We then re-read the transcripts to find patterns in the data to develop more consistent codes and categories. Using the three coding stages, open coding, axial coding, and properties identification, as suggested by lindlof and taylor (2002) allowed us to develop categories better. the data’s trustworthiness and credibility were assured by auditing transcripts and finding areas of agreement in understanding data. Results the narratives obtained informed the researchers about key cultural orientations of Omani communities (see table 2) that are found to be lacking alignment with universal eO dimensions. the identified orientations are seen as triggered by concerns and anxieties experienced by the local population. Overall, the eO dimensions are found to be perceived as potentially threatening the integrity and harmony of local communities causing partial resistance towards the integration of eO dimensions into the indigenous mindset. the findings of the current research confirm that one of the reasons behind the local population’s tendency to be careful with choosing a career as an entrepreneur lies in perceiving western-born entrepreneurship orientations (lumpkin & Dess, 2001; semrau et al, 2016; Mthanti & Ojah, 2017; stambaugh et al, 2017) as not properly aligned with the indigenous culture and social conduct of the Omani community (see table 3). specifically, we argue that the dimensions of eO fail to sufficiently address the concerns of local people and do not fit the image of a ‘good entrepreneur’. in terms of Omani scenarios, the hybrid form seems to be the most optimal choice due to its intention to bridge individual and communal goals and aspirations. in this regard, we are proposing to strengthening the concordance between eO dimensions and Omani cultural orientations in order to facilitate the process of building them into the mindset of the Omani community and aspiring entrepreneurs. the following sections offer more elaboration about the misalignment between the universal eO dimension and the indigenous eO. Omani cultural orientations in order to ensure the reliability of the study, the first two authors rated their agreement level. We performed this process by estimating the reliability by dividing the number of agreements by the sum of agreement and disagreement, as suggested by Miles and huberman (1994). We achieved a consensus rate of 90%. as shown in table 2, the five occurring themes emerged from the analyzed data. Table 2. Description of emerging themes. Code theme Description Frequency • cautious attitude to change • anxiety towards failure • a feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility orientation towards stability the theme reflects the value the omani population attaches to maintaining stability in the community 15 • avoid damaging your own ‘face’ or the ‘face’ of the other • avoid damaging the relationship with the other orientation towards relationship the theme points at the tendency of the omani community to avoid criticism and maintain amicable relationships with neighbors 10 • avoid drawing attention to oneself • avoid interfering in other people’s affairs orientation towards privacy the theme incorporates the privacy concerns of the omani community 10 • avoid damaging the social hierarchy orientation toward the ascribed status the theme highlights the importance of preserving social hierarchy and status, formalities, and tribal codes of behaviour in the community 7 • avoid rapturing the social fabric and ties • feeling uncomfortable with modernity / novelty orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage the theme celebrates the elders and their role in observing the adherence of the community to the traditional formalities and tribal code of behaviour 7 cOgent BUsiness & ManageMent 7 Theme 1: Omani cultural orientation toward stability Omani cultural orientation towards stability has been devised based on the concerns and behaviors communicated to the researchers when asked to share their narratives about the community’s perceptions of their careers as entrepreneurs. their responses show that the interviewees’ families and their circle of friends and relatives have opposed their career choice due to the local community’s cautious attitude to change, responsibility, and failure. Feeling uncomfortable with change has been mentioned as the leading cause of low entrepreneurial uptake among Omanis. Omani communities tend to steer clear of initiatives and projects requiring the community to change to accommodate the demands and compromises triggered by a new business venture. Moreover, the interviewed entrepreneurs in the tourist sector reported issues with running a business in this sector primarily due to the fact that they have to deal with locals in tourist areas who are often from closed communities. the local communities have cultural values that are not aligned with those of tourists from different cultures. Due to cultural inappropriateness and lack of cultural competency by foreign tourists, the locals in some regions may show no interest in accommodating or making any concessions to the entrepreneurs who operate in the tourism sector. anxiety towards failure has been named as another inhibitor of entrepreneurial uptake. the interviewed entrepreneurs reported that their families were terrified by their decision to become an entrepreneur instead of looking for a government job after obtaining a bachelor’s degree. a couple of the interviewees, who had dropped out of the university and had been through the trauma caused by their parents’ lack of support and alienation after they learned about their kids’ intention to choose an entrepreneur’s career, couldn’t control the tears when remembering those days. in Omani communities, the common reply to a child’s decision to become an entrepreneur would be similar to the one quoted by one of the interviewees, ‘look at your uncle, he tried to have a business once, and he failed. You do not want to be like him’. Table 3. eo dimensions, omani community concerns with corresponding cultural orientations and eo dimensions strengthened by omani cultural orientations. eo Dimensions omani Community Concerns and anxieties omani Cultural orientations eo Dimensions strengthened by omani Cultural orientations innovativeness (willingness to experiment with promising new ideas; drive for novelty) - cautious attitude to change - feeling uncomfortable with modernity/novelty • orientation towards stability • orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage • gradual innovativeness with visualizations Proactiveness (taking the initiative, seizing opportunities) - feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility - avoid drawing attention to oneself • orientation towards stability • orientation towards privacy • Proactiveness with shared responsibility Risk-taking (uncertainty, responsibility) - feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility - avoid drawing attention to oneself - avoid damaging the social hierarchy - avoid damaging the relationship with the other • orientation towards stability • orientation towards privacy • orientation toward ascribed status • orientation towards relationship • ‘safe’ risk-taking autonomy (independence, decision-making) - avoid damaging the relationship with the other - avoid damaging the social hierarchyavoid rapturing the social fabric and ties - feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility • anxiety towards failure • orientation towards relationship • orientation toward the ascribed status • orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage • orientation towards stability • selective autonomy Competitive aggressiveness (individualistic, seeking opportunities, future-oriented, dynamic) - cautious attitude to change - feeling of being uncomfortable with taking responsibility - avoid damaging the relationship with the other - avoid damaging the social hierarchy - avoid rapturing the social fabric and ties - avoid drawing attention to oneself • orientation towards stability • orientation towards relationship • orientation toward ascribed status • orientation towards the elders and ancestral heritage • orientation towards privacy • Competitive aggressiveness at the industry level 14 V. 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