Research, Design and Method in Landscape Architecture I

RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Editor Serap YILMAZ Lyon 2025 RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Editor Serap YILMAZ Lyon 2025 Research, Design and Method in Landscape Architecture I Editor • Prof. Dr. Serap YILMAZ • Orcid: 0000-0002-0088-3769 Cover Design • Motion Graphics Book Layout • Motion Graphics First Published • December 2025, Lyon e-ISBN: 978-2-38236-977-7 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.18039355 copyright © 2025 by Livre de Lyon All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the Publisher. The author or authors of the relevant section are responsible for any copyright infringement that may occur due to the images and graphics used in the book. The editor or publisher does not assume responsibility in this regard. Publisher • Livre de Lyon Address • 37 rue marietton, 69009, Lyon France website • http://www.livredelyon.com e-mail • [email protected] I PREFACE Landscape architecture is a dynamic field of knowledge that addresses the interaction between natural and cultural environments through a multidimensional perspective, evolving at the intersection of research, design, and method. In the contemporary context, the increasing blurring of boundaries between urban and rural areas, the transformation of public spaces, and shifts in conservation approaches necessitate an understanding of landscape not merely as a physical configuration, but as a historical, social, and spatial phenomenon. The book Research, Design and Method in Landscape aims to examine this multilayered structure through both theoretical and practice-oriented perspectives. The chapters included in this volume address a range of fundamental and current topics, including approaches to defining landscape in urban– rural transition areas, design processes developed through academic studio experiences, the reconfiguration of pedestrian-oriented public spaces, and the historical foundations of modern conservation. In addition, analyses of residential landscape design based on user requirements reveal contemporary approaches that foreground temporal continuity and the human–space relationship. Research, Design and Method in Landscape is intended as a reference work that supports a research-based design approach in landscape architecture, linking theoretical discussions with practical applications. The book is presented to readers with the aspiration that it will contribute to interdisciplinary knowledge production and provide a foundation for future academic and professional studies. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Livre de Lyon for their academic support, meticulous editorial approach, and dedicated efforts throughout the publication process. Prof. Dr. Serap YILMAZ III CONTENTS PREFACE I CHAPTER I. APPROACHES TO DEFINING LANDSCAPE IN URBAN– RURAL TRANSITION AREAS 1 DuyguAKYOLKUYUMCUOĞLU&SemaMUMCU CHAPTER II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND SPATIAL 13 INTERPRETATION IN THE DESIGN PROCESS: ÇÖMLEKÇİ LANDSCAPE STUDIO STUDY DuyguAKYOLKUYUMCUOĞLU CHAPTER III. PALIMPSEST AS A DESIGN CONCEPT IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE 23 SerapYILMAZ&NidaKURAKSEZGİN CHAPTER IV. REDESIGNING PUBLIC SPACES: PEDESTRIANFRIENDLY CITIES AND PEDESTRIAN SPACES 39 NilüferKARTAKTAŞ CHAPTER V. AN ANALYSIS OF ACTIVITY AND SPATIAL STRUCTURE IN RESIDENTIAL LANDSCAPE DESIGN BASED ON USER NEEDS 53 SerapYILMAZ&NidaKURAKSEZGİN CHAPTER VI. THE GENESIS OF MODERN CONSERVATION: 67 YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK OğuzhanDİKMEN&SerkanÖZER . . .   7 of agricultural production methods, rural life practices, and urban life. This approach emphasizes that the landscape is not only an objective space but also a socially produced and perceived phenomenon (Carl O. Sauer, 1925; Henri Lefebvre, 1991). HolisticandMulti-ScalePlanningApproaches In the current literature, approaches to defining the landscape in urbanrural transition zones are increasingly addressed within the framework of holistic and multi-scale planning. This approach envisages the simultaneous evaluation of the landscape at regional, urban, and local scales; and the consideration of ecological, spatial, and socio-cultural components together. Accordingly, urban-rural transition zones are defined as strategic landscape areas in terms of sustainable land use, the protection of ecological networks, and the ensuring of spatial continuity (Ian McHarg, 1969). 5. Geodesıgn Within The Framework of Theoretıcal Models In the last twenty years, the sprawl and sprawling resulting from urban growth have led to the view that the situation should be addressed not only from a physical perspective but also from a social one. The most important reason for the emergence of these views is that the human factor is not included in planning and design studies at the urban scale after a while, and the deficiency of this becomes apparent in the unused urban spaces created (Akyol Kuyumcuoğlu, 2023). However, the pressure of urban sprawl on the countryside and the increasing ambiguity of rural-urban transition zones show that the traditional planning approach is unable to meet the needs. The traditional planning approach has provided a top-down, authoritarian regulatory structure, and this mindset has been continuously adopted during the planned urbanism period. This hierarchical planning approach, which sees the central government as the main actor, has begun to disregard the human being, the actual user of the city, after a while, and has adopted a sharp analysis and application network in order to seek urban, ecological, and administrative answers (Yalçın, 2021). Another point that needs to be addressed in the traditional planning approach is how planning studies focusing on sustainable cities, and especially the landscape, which remains undefined in the rural-urban divide, are integrated into this process. Here, the traditional question arises: “How does the planning process define the landscape?” Ecological conservation principles, natural 8   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I structure analysis and synthesis, particularly in rural areas, are structured alongside urban landscape strategic foresight (Ergin, 2010). The landscape, trapped within the relationship between city and nature, cannot go beyond serving as a function assigned to physical space. The landscape can only define the remaining empty spaces outside the building blocks produced by urban planning (Yalçın, 2021). This ambiguity regarding the landscape at the city scale continues in the regions between the growing urban process and the rural-urban zone. Here, as in the city center, the ambiguity is that the concept of landscape changes according to time, management approach, and perspective. The constant occurrence of this undefined change and the hierarchical operation from top to bottom within the traditional planning process lead to the fragmentation and eventual disappearance of the landscape (Öğdül, 2019). The concept of geodesign has always existed, stemming from humanity’s relationship with its environment. Since the earliest civilizations, the selection of settlement locations, the determination of a strategy that actively utilizes geography to protect against natural and wild life, the selection of agricultural sites, or the development of defense plans are all subjects of Geodesign. (All these successful designs are a product of suitable geographical conditions and the ability to work with these conditions, as well as opportunities created from difficult and restrictive situations (Miller, 2011)). At the Geodesign Summit 2010, the common statement was “Geodesign has been done for years” (Aksoy, 2016). According to the definition by Miller et al. (2012), Geodesign is the totality of processes that enable the creation of units in a geographical area. According to Steinitz (2012), one of the creators of the modern Geodesign concept, who briefly defines the concept as “changing geography with design,” the fundamental question of Geodesign is “how can the current (in which we live) geographical situation be transformed into the best possible situation for the future?” While searching for the answer to this question, it is necessary to start with the question of “how should we change the landscape?” within a certain framework and... The implementation of the Geodesign process through change models is necessary (Artz, 2011). The study emphasizes that uncontrolled urban growth increases the ruralurban ambiguity, and that the top-down planning approach, a general planning method, is insufficient to address these problems. Geodesign emerges as a good solution tool by prioritizing the human factor, site-specific social and cultural data, and the process models inherent in the planning process, thereby addressing the rural-urban ambiguity in the urban growth process and incorporating the multifaceted nature of the landscape (Akyol Kuyumcuoğlu, 2023). . . .   9 Figure 1: Conceptual Relationships Described Within The Scope of The Study (Akyol Kuyumcuoğlu,2023) DICUSSION Urban-rural transition zones are increasingly attracting attention in contemporary planning and landscape literature, yet significant uncertainties remain regarding their conceptualization and definition from a landscape perspective. The literature and theoretical approaches examined in this study reveal that urban-rural transition zones are neither entirely urban nor entirely rural; rather, they are hybrid landscapes that simultaneously incorporate characteristics of both spatial structures. This clearly demonstrates the inadequacy of traditional and onedimensional approaches to defining landscape. One of the fundamental issues to be discussed is that landscape in urban-rural transition zones is often considered solely through physical land-use changes. However, theoretical models in the literature emphasize that landscape should be evaluated in conjunction with ecological processes, cultural practices, and social relations. Morphological approaches make spatial form visible, while ecological approaches focus on the continuity of natural systems; and socio-cultural and governance-based approaches reveal the relationship between landscape and social production processes. In this context, defining the landscape in urban-rural transition zones necessitates a multi-layered and interdisciplinary evaluation process. When examining the analytical frameworks offered by theoretical models, it is seen that ecological planning and geodesign approaches, in particular, make significant contributions to understanding the dynamic structure of urban-rural transition zones. These approaches treat the landscape not as a static object, but 10   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I as a constantly transforming system in response to interventions, and open up discussions on the effects of different development scenarios on the landscape. However, the applicability of these models depends on considering the local context, governance structures, and decision-making processes. Otherwise, theoretical models risk remaining at an abstract level. Another important point of discussion is the continuity and integrity of the landscape character in urban-rural transition zones. Urban sprawl, fragmented development, and land-use conflicts cause spatial and ecological discontinuities in these areas. These discontinuities weaken not only natural systems but also cultural landscape values and local identity. Therefore, the process of defining the landscape should go beyond describing the current situation and include future transformation trends and possible scenarios. Finally, it is observed that a common conceptual language regarding urban-rural transition zones has not yet been fully formed in the literature. The fact that different disciplines approach the subject through different priorities and concepts makes the definition of these areas difficult, but it can also be considered an important asset reflecting the multifaceted nature of the landscape. In this context, urban-rural transition zones offer an important ground for discussion in terms of developing landscape theory and strengthening interdisciplinary interaction. CONCLUSION This study examines theoretical approaches and analytical frameworks for defining landscapes in urban-rural transition zones from a literature-based perspective. Without using a sample area, the study aims to reveal how landscapes are conceptualized in these areas and through which theoretical models they are analyzed. The findings show that urban-rural transition zones do not have a singular and homogeneous structure in terms of landscape; rather, they are complex systems where natural, cultural, and social components are intertwined. One of the main conclusions of the study is that defining landscapes in urbanrural transition zones requires an interdisciplinary and holistic approach. Theoretical models such as ecological planning, geodesign, and landscape character assessment offer important tools in the analysis of these areas; however, these models need to be used together and in a context-sensitive manner. Considering the landscape not only through its physical characteristics but also through its perceptual, cultural, and administrative dimensions is critical for the sustainable planning of transition zones. . . .   11 Addressing urban-rural transition zones within the context of landscape also presents significant opportunities for the planning and landscape architecture disciplines. These areas are places where the balance between urban development pressures and the preservation of natural and cultural values is most clearly observed. Therefore, correctly defining the landscape in these areas will not only improve spatial quality but also contribute to the preservation of ecological continuity and cultural landscape values. In conclusion, this study aims to contribute to theoretical discussions on defining the landscape in urban-rural transition zones and to create a solid conceptual foundation for future applied research. Supporting this literaturebased approach with case studies and empirical methods in future research will enable more effective integration of urban-rural transition zones into landscape planning and management processes. REFERENCES Aksoy,T., Çabuk,N.S. (2016) . Geotasarım bağlamında peyzaj tasarımında CBS kullanımı, Conference: 6. Peyzaj Mimarlığı Kongresi,Aralık, Antalya , Bildiri Kitabı. Antrop, M. (2005). Why landscapes of the past are important for the future. Landscape and Urban Planning, 70(1–2), 21–34. Batty, M. (2013). The new science of cities. MIT Press. Cosgrove, D. (1984). Social formation and symbolic landscape. University of Wisconsin Press. Ergin, Ş., (2010). Felsefeden bilime ya da düşünceden eyleme peyzaj ve kent, Dosya, 18, 512. Forman, R. T. T. (1995). Land mosaics: The ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge University Press. Forman, R. T. T., & Godron, M. (1986). Landscape ecology. John Wiley & Sons. Akyol Kuyumcuoğlu, D. (2023). Geodesign yaklaşımı ile peyzaj planlama senaryolarının geliştirilmesi: Trabzon ili örneğinde (Doktora tezi). Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi. Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space (D. Nicholson-Smith, Trans.). Blackwell. McGee, T. G. (1991). The emergence of desakota regions in Asia: Expanding a hypothesis. In N. Ginsburg, B. Koppel, & T. G. McGee (Eds.), 12   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I The extended metropolis: Settlement transition in Asia (pp. 3–25). University of Hawaii Press. McHarg, I. L. (1969). Design with nature. Natural History Press. Meeus, J. H. A., Wijermans, M. P., & Vroom, M. J. (1990). Agricultural landscapes in Europe and their transformation. Landscape and Urban Planning, 18, 289–352. Miller, W.R.(2012). Introducing Geodesign: The Concept. Redlands, CA: Esri. Öğdül, H. (2019). Kırsal alanların değişimi ve kırsal planlama çerçevesinde bir değerlendirme, Mimarist, 66, 14-22. Pacione, M. (2009). Urban geography: A global perspective (3rd ed.). Routledge. Sauer, C. O. (1925). The morphology of landscape. University of California Publications in Geography, 2(2), 19–53. Simon, D. (2008). Urban environments: Issues on the peri-urban fringe. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 33, 167–185. Van den Berg, L., Drewett, R., Klaassen, L. H., Rossi, A., & Vijverberg, C. H. T. (2010). Urban regions in the European Union. Ashgate. Yalçın, B. (2021). Planlı boşluklarda kentsel peyzajı aramak: kentsel kuşatma mı, ekolojik şifreleme mi?, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 31, 3, 1287-1298. Whitehand, J. W. R. (2001). British urban morphology: The Conzenian tradition. Urban Morphology, 5(2), 103–109. 13 CHAPTE R II CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND SPATIAL INTERPRETATION IN THE DESIGN PROCESS: ÇÖMLEKÇİ LANDSCAPE STUDIO STUDY Duygu AKYOL KUYUMCUOĞLU ¹(Asst. Prof.Dr.) Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon E-mail:[email protected] ORCID: 0000-0002-7191-9343 1. Introduction Landscape architecture design studios are fundamental learning environments where theoretical knowledge is transformed into spatial production, and where the designer strikes a balance between analytical thinking and creative interpretation. Widely implemented in the curricula of design disciplines, the design studio is a central learning environment for the development of design thinking (Mumcu et al, 2021).Furthermore, the design studio is an educational environment where students understand, present, and defend their design ideas, and where they are exposed to various perspectives by instructors, acquiring new techniques and skills (Mumcu et al, 2021). In this context, studio work encompasses not only the production of physical space but also a holistic design process that considers social, cultural, ecological, and historical layers together. Especially in urban transformation areas, due to their multi-layered structures and diverse user groups, the decisive role of the conceptual framework in the design process is clearly revealed. This study examines the Çömlekçi urban transformation area in the Ortahisar district of Trabzon, within the scope of the Environmental Design Project VI 14   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I (EDP VI) course in the 7th semester of the Landscape Architecture Department at Karadeniz Technical University. The study explores how the conceptual framework is formed and how this framework is transformed into spatial interpretations through a project developed in the design studio.The study aims to discuss the impact of conceptual thinking on spatial organization, land use decisions, and landscape design elements through a project developed in the design studio. 2. The Importance of Conceptual Framework in Landscape Design Studios To establish the framework of a design problem, it is first necessary to delimit the problem area; for this purpose, fundamental concepts are used to define and structure design locations that contain uncertainties. A strong foundation for design is possible through the well-structured conceptual part of the problem-solving process (Mumcu and Düzenli, 2018). In the design process, the concept is a fundamental tool that determines the designer’s attitude towards the space. In landscape design studios, the concept is considered as an intellectual framework that guides the entire design, developed in line with the existing potentials, problems, and user expectations of the area. The conceptual framework ensures that design decisions are not random but become consistent, legible, and justifiable (Düzenli and Alpak, 2023).In studio work carried out in urban transformation areas, the conceptual approach is not only an aesthetic choice but also a strategic tool that determines how fundamental issues such as social integration, public use, ecological sustainability, and historical continuity will be reflected in the space.(Düzenli and Alpak, 2022). In this context, the concept acquires a dynamic structure that is reproduced at every stage of the design process—analysis, synthesis, spatial organization, and detailing. 3. The Study of the Çömlekçi Area in the Context of the Studio The Çömlekçi neighborhood has established a direct relationship with Trabzon’s identity as a port city in the historical development process, and has gained an important place in the urban memory with its production and tradeoriented functions. Its proximity to the city center, its spatial relationship with the coast, and its historical building stock make it necessary to evaluate the area not only as a physical transformation area but also as a multi-layered urban landscape. However, the unplanned development in the area over time, the . . .   15 physical deterioration of the building stock, the weakening of the social fabric, and the loss of the public space quality have made Çömlekçi the focus of urban transformation interventions (Akyol, 2017; Çakır, 2023). In the design studio conducted within the scope of Environmental Design Project VI (ÇTP VI) in the 7th semester at the Department of Landscape Architecture, Karadeniz Technical University, the second phase of the Çömlekçi urban transformation area was determined as the project area. The studio process began with comprehensive analyses aimed at understanding the current situation of the area. These analyses; The area was examined under headings such as land use, building-open space relationships, location and condition of historical buildings, transportation and circulation systems, topography, green space continuity, and social usage patterns. On-site observations contributed to understanding the daily usage practices of the area. An important component of the analysis process was the evaluation of user profiles. Çömlekçi Neighborhood stands out as an area housing socioeconomically diverse groups and historically associated with social exclusion and security issues. This situation necessitated that the design proposals to be developed within the scope of the studio focus not only on physical improvements but also on the production of public spaces that support social integration. Students were expected to develop inclusive spatial scenarios that consider both the current users of the area and potential urban users.Throughout the studio process, literature reviews were used as an important tool supporting the analysis and design process. Literature reviews on urban transformation, public space, landscape reproduction, and design studio pedagogy allowed students to ground their design decisions in a theoretical framework (Lefebvre, 1991; McHarg, 1969; Antrop, 2005). Accordingly, not only the existing problems of the area but also its potentials were considered as fundamental inputs to the design process. In the studio context of the Çömlekçi transformation area, special emphasis was placed on the process of creating the conceptual framework. Students were asked to synthesize the analysis data and develop an original design concept reflecting the identity of the area. These concepts were shaped around themes such as diversity, integration, continuity, interaction, and revitalization, each highlighting different aspects of spatial organization. The concept generation process was continuously discussed and developed through presentations and critiques in the studio environment. 16   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I This approach ensured that the studio process acquired a pedagogical structure that prioritized thinking, questioning, and reproduction processes, rather than being solely focused on the final product. This studio work, conducted using the Çömlekçi example, aimed to develop students’ skills in addressing complex urban transformation problems within the framework of landscape architecture and transforming these problems into conceptually based spatial proposals. 4. Transition from Conceptual Approach to Spatial Interpretation In the projects developed during the studio process, the conceptual approach has been the main determinant of spatial organization. In the projects developed for the Çömlekçi area, the idea of “diversity,” aiming to bring together different lifestyles and user profiles, has come to the forefront. In this context, the concept of “Sonder” has been used, supporting a holistic approach that aims to build a bridge between the historical identity of the area and new urban uses. “Sonder” expresses complexity and depth. Here, complexity describes the revolution that emerges from the transformation and metamorphosis of the space. In line with the conceptual framework, the project area has been designed as focal areas, interaction areas, and unifying areas. Focal areas are considered as spaces where public activities are concentrated and which define the identity of the area; while interaction areas aim to bring together different user groups and strengthen social relationships. Unifying areas are designed as spatial connectors that provide continuity between historical structures, open space systems, and circulation axes. This spatial arrangement ensures that the concept is no longer an abstract idea, but rather a readable and experiential landscape system. Figure1: Conceptual Approaches 23 CHAPTER III PALIMPSEST AS A DESIGN CONCEPT IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE Serap YILMAZ¹ & Nida KURAK SEZGİN² ¹(Prof. Dr.), Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture., Trabzon/Turkey, E-mail: [email protected], ORCID: 00000002-0088-3769 ²(Res.Asst.), Nida KURAK SEZGİN, Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture., Trabzon/Turkey, E-mail: [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0001-9825-1913 1. Introduction Landscape architecture is a multi-layered design discipline that considers natural processes, cultural heritage and spatial approaches together. Every design developed within this discipline contains a guiding idea. This idea, which is decided by the designer and guides the design process, is expressed as a concept. The concept is a conceptual structure that provides a framework of meaning, a perceptual orientation, and consistency in design decisions. It thus integrates multiple components of the design, such as its formal understanding, function, activities, user experience, and cultural context, around a specific intellectual axis. Booth (1983) defines the concept as a guiding intellectual framework that brings design components together into a meaningful whole. Corner (1999), on the other hand, sees the concept as an integral part of the intellectual dimension of landscape and emphasises that design is not merely about producing form. The concept is also one of the fundamental factors that determine the identity of the place, the users’ experience of the space, and the functional structure of the design. In these respects, the concept is not merely a ‘theme’; it is a principle that guides the design process from start to finish. 24   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I As a strategic form of understanding that guides the act of generating solutions in the concept design process (Lawson, 2005), it shapes the designer’s creation of a mental model that enables them to make sense of the design problem (Yavuz, 2025; Yavuz, 2014; Cross, 2011). This mental model (Cross, 2011; Lawson, 2005): It frames the design problem, guides the designer’s creative problemsolving activity, and limits and directs design options. It places design decisions within a consistent context. It directs the designer’s creative actions. It determines the meaning of the final product and the relationship it will establish with the user. In this context, the concept functions as a ‘decision-making backbone’ that organises both the cognitive and practical aspects of the design process (Lawson, 2005). During the design process, the designer seeks answers to the problems encountered within the scope of the concept they have defined until they reach the final product. This ensures that the designer has a language while conceptualising the design and also provides the user with content about the space. When a successfully articulated concept effectively guides the design, the meaning created is successfully conveyed to users. This meaning communicates with users at different levels and enriches the long-term experience of using the structure (Anderson, 2011). Within the scope of this research, ‘Palimpsest’ has been defined as the concept for the landscape design of an environment with historical value. It is thought that the Palimpsest approach, which does not ignore the past layers of the space but reinterprets them, could be a powerful theoretical tool in landscape design. When the concepts of landscape and palimpsest are considered together, the formal and semantic content of the landscape project has been prepared with the idea that it will enable the designer to produce landscapes that are sensitive to both contemporary needs and spatial memory. In this context, the concept of Palimpsest is first defined, and an example of landscape design is used to illustrate how the concept of Palimpsest provides form and content to the landscape. . . .   25 Figure 1. The effects of the concept in the design process 2. The Concept of Palimpsest Palimpsest derives from the term palímpsēstos, which is formed from the Ancient Greek words palin (again) and psēstos (scraped). Throughout the Middle Ages, old texts on parchment were erased and new texts were written on the same surface. However, the old text was not completely erased; various traces and stains remained on the surface (Bischoff, 1990). This concept, used to describe parchments that have been scraped and rewritten, refers to traces of a past that has been erased but not completely eliminated. In this context, Corboz (1983) transferred it to spatial theory and stated that cities could be defined as ‘constantly rewritten palimpsests’. Thus, while Palimpsest was used to record texts in the Middle Ages, it has now become a metaphor and is used in studies belonging to different disciplines. Palimpsest is the coexistence of the old and the new necessary for an appearance, the old carrying the new and taking on another new meaning. In this respect, palimpsest has a multi-layered structure (Niğdeli and Onaran, 2024). 26   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I From the second half of the 20th century onwards, the concept of palimpsest began to be used in the fields of architecture, urban morphology and geography to explain the legible multi-layered nature of space. Corboz’s definitions in his article were very important in this transformation. Corboz (1983) likens the landscape to a palimpsest surface that is constantly being rewritten and never completed. Grosz (2001) and Huyssen (2003) use palimpsest to explain the relationship between memory and traces in space. This approach emphasises that space is a surface representing the coexistence of processes of remembering and forgetting, cultural traces, and the accumulation of time. The city is a multi-layered structure in both physical and socio-cultural terms. These layers are: Historical layers (spatial traces belonging to different periods) Social layers (changing user groups) Functional layers (use of space for different purposes over time) Economic layers (production–consumption processes) Physical layers (street fabric, building envelope, plan typologies) Cultural layers (meanings, memory values) These are structures that are stacked on top of each other, cannot be completely erased, and often transform each other. Therefore, palimpsest is an important concept for the legibility of urban memory. Huyssen (2003) describes the structure of modern cities, which ‘erase the past while leaving traces,’ using the palimpsest analogy. This approach is particularly relevant: Transformed industrial areas, Memory spaces, Adaptive reuse buildings, Post-war urban fabrics, among other areas. In the context of landscape, a palimpsest refers to the accumulated layers of a place’s physical, cultural, ecological, and sociological history from the past to the present. Corboz (1983) states that landscape is never static; it is constantly being constructed, like a text that is being rewritten. Therefore, landscape is a transforming, changing space (Corboz, 1983). In landscape: Natural processes, Human interventions, . . .   27 Agricultural, industrial and urban functions build upon each other to form layers. Consequently, Palimpsest recognises that landscape is not static, but rather a process that evolves over time and leaves traces. Therefore, design is developed not only based on the current state, but also by reading past layers and integrating them into the design. Historical fabrics, old road traces, vegetation transitions, land use changes and topographic processes are examples of such layers. The concepts of concept and palimpsest are two important theoretical tools that complement each other in the landscape architecture design process. Concept is the intellectual backbone that determines the direction of the design, while palimpsest is a framework that enables the reading and reinterpretation of the multi-layered structure of the space. When these two approaches are considered together, both contextual and innovative spatial solutions can be produced. Within this scope, at the Department of Landscape Architecture at Karadeniz Technical University, a landscape project for an environment of historical value was assigned to students as part of the Environment and Design studio. One of these students, under the guidance of the teaching member giving the course, determined the concept of ‘Palimpsest’ as the concept and constructed the semantic and formal content of the landscape project within this scope. During the design process, the student engages in a comprehensive cognitive and creative process comprising the stages of concept development, analysis and interpretation of the problem area, generation of solutions, and systematic evaluation of these solutions. The following stages summarise the methodological steps of the process: 1.ProblemDefinitionandConceptDevelopment: The first step in the concept development process is to clarify the scope, boundaries, and contextual variables of the design problem (Kuloğlu anda Yavuz, 2015: Alpak and Düzenli, 2021; Düzenli and Alpak, 2020). The ‘fuzzy’ nature of design problems is eliminated by the designer clearly structuring the problem definition (Lawson, 2005). At this stage, user needs and requirements were identified, and the socio-cultural and spatial context was examined. These formed the necessary framework for creating the concept idea. 28   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Figure 2. Visual representation of the working area environmental assessment and concept 2.Informationandinspirationgathering: research activities during the design process play a role in ‘expanding the conceptual field’ (Cross, 2011). At this stage, inspiration sources related to the formal structure of the design were gathered, and examples of spatial analysis using the Palimpsest approach were researched. Thus, an attempt was made to establish a connection between the formal-semantic language of the design and the concept. 3. Evaluationandselection: at this stage, various sketch options were prepared based on the concept and sources of inspiration, and a selection was made from among them. The option most suited to user needs was detailed as the final product. . . .   29 Figure 3. Creating concept-related area usage and activity scenarios 4. Finalproduct: aesthetic and functional consistency was achieved in the selected design in line with the concept. The final product of the design was expressed through functional and formal definitions, visualisations and threedimensional representations. 30   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Figure 4. Plan and activity views of the design 3. Palimpsest As a Conceptual Framework in The Formatıon of a Landscape Project The creation of space is one of the fundamental needs of individuals; landscape architecture is one of the professions that works on creating space for people (Eren et al., 2023; Düzenli et al., 2022). Therefore, they focus on the process of designing and organising space. However, space undergoes transformation over time due to differences in usage. The transformation of space with different user groups and functions, the reading of this transformation by individuals through physical traces, and the perception of space as something new over time along with these traces is explained by the concept of palimpsest space (Niğdeli and Onaran, 2024). In this context, palimpsest readings in design studios can develop students’ ability to analyse the multi-layered historical, social and morphological structure of space. Palimpsest space can function both as a theoretical framework and an analytical tool in the field of design. It enables the designer to evaluate space not as a ‘single-layered’ surface, but as a combination of traces, continuities, and transformations accumulated over time. In this respect, palimpsest is an important concept that deeply influences both the conceptual basis of the design process and the formal-strategic decisionmaking processes. . . .   31 Palimpsest enables the designer to view space not as a static object, but as a production area that is rewritten within a process. Corboz’s (1983) ‘territory as palimpsest’ approach emphasises that space is constantly reshaped by both natural and cultural traces. Therefore, the designer must evaluate an area not only based on its current physical state, but also by considering: Historical traces, Morphological continuities, Lost or partially erased functions, Cultural layers of meaning must be evaluated together. Palimpsest provides a strong conceptual backbone for the design concept. Huyssen (2003), while defining urban space as ‘the layered surface of memory,’ particularly emphasises the designer’s responsibility to reconfigure the relationship between these layers. In this context, the designer asks themselves the following questions: Which traces in this area should be preserved? Which layers in this area should be made visible? How should a relationship be established between new additions and the past? How can inactive layers be made readable and visible again? These questions shape the design process by establishing continuity between the past, the present, and the future. Within this framework, the student adopts Palimpsest as the guiding concept and initially articulates its semantic, formal, and functional dimensions. In landscape architecture, palimpsest refers to the temporal continuity of space, in which past uses, natural processes, and cultural traces are layered and rendered legible through new interventions. In this sense, landscape inherently constitutes the primary narrative ground of the palimpsest. This is because landscape is dynamic by nature: it evolves over time, generates layers, and transforms without complete erasure. 3.1.SemanticContent:Memory,Continuity,andPublicness Thememorycapacityofthelandscape; In the project, the landscape was approached not as a fixed composition but with consideration for change over time. Tree rows, green spaces and spatial organisation were created without 32   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I completely erasing the previous natural or cultural traces in the area. Thus, the aim is to achieve the palimpsest approach’s principle of “transformation without erasure” in landscape design. Continuityofpublicuse:Continuity of open spaces through squares and semi-open spaces: the landscape contributes to public memory; open and semiopen spaces and the landscape aim to create a flexible layer of public use that can be utilised in different ways during different periods. 3.2.FormalContent:Layering,Fragmentation,AndContinuity HorizontalLayering: In the project, the landscape is conceived not as a single surface but as horizontal layers through terraces, level differences, and gradations. This approach transformed the ground surface from a ‘flat backdrop’ into an active participant in the creation of space. Each level was intended to produce surfaces layered on top of each other in a palimpsest logic, offering different spatial readings and usage potentials. Level differences and parallel linear platforms, reminiscent of old traces, created a layered effect with geometric grids suggesting that the space may have transformed over time. This allowed a past pattern to be reinterpreted alongside the new arrangement. The use of broken modern lines alongside the old grid structure was employed to reinforce the feeling of ‘a new layer written on top of the old layer’. Figure 5. Formal content of the design 39 CHAPTER IV REDESIGNING PUBLIC SPACES: PEDESTRIAN-FRIENDLY CITIES AND PEDESTRIAN SPACES Nilüfer KART AKTAŞ (Assoc. Dr.), Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture E-mail: [email protected] ORCID: 0000-0001-5406-899X 1. Introduction Cities are living organisms. Therefore, cities are constantly changing, transforming, and developing over time. In these processes of change, public spaces, which are the living areas of cities and make them more livable and dynamic, have been the most important elements in the realization of the city’s social, economic, and cultural activities. This evolution, from ancient agoras to the squares of modern metropolises, also reveals the spatial reflections of transformations in social lifestyles (Gehl, 2010; Erdönmez ve Çelik, 2016; Kaplan ve Öztürk, 2004). Since their inception, cities have shaped the communities, just as they have been shaped by those communities. The diverse lives of those living within a city, their relationships with one another, and the reflection of these social structures in the urban space are fundamental values that constitute the city and reveal its unique identity. Public spaces such as streets, squares, parks, and children’s playgrounds, where individuals interact, are important for individuals to be active and social together (Goličnik ve Thompson, 2010). However, the rapid increase in car ownership in cities since the second half of the 20th century has led to motor vehicles replacing pedestrians as the primary users of public spaces, negatively affecting the quality, safety, and accessibility of public spaces (Gehl, 2010). The aim of this study is to examine the importance of a pedestrian-focused approach in the redesign of public spaces in contemporary cities. In response to 40   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I the environmental, social, and spatial problems that motor vehicle use brings to urban life, pedestrian-friendly planning principles have become central to sustainable and inclusive urban visions. The study primarily investigates walkable city planning approaches and then examines the fundamental components of making cities pedestrian-friendly. 2. The Importance of Walkability The daily activities of people living in cities, especially metropolitan cities, have transformed into a passive, stable, desk-bound/computer-bound lifestyle, which is the exact opposite of the fast and intense pace of daily life caused by rapid urbanization, urban sprawl, and technological advances. The intense pace of work life often leads to walking activities being postponed, which affects city dwellers both physically and mentally. However, research has shown that many diseases such as obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and heart disease are less common in people who walk regularly. In addition to these physical benefits, regular walking has also been found to contribute to mental and emotional wellbeing. In addition to physical benefits, there are also social, environmental, and economic benefits. These benefits include strengthening social cohesion and interaction, reducing transportation and infrastructure costs, energy consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions, and preventing uncontrolled urban sprawl. In this context, it is important to develop models that support walkability and increase pedestrian spaces through both holistic and fragmented applications in urban planning and design processes. 3. Planning Approaches for Walkable Cities Global and regional problems and crises have necessitated the search for different planning approaches for cities. Rapid urbanization, population density, urban sprawl, and transportation problems, which are among the most important problems facing cities, especially metropolitan cities, are making cities unlivable. Therefore, compact cities, walkable cities, and cities free from the dominance of vehicles offer an important solution for creating livable cities with a high quality of life. This approach plays an important role not only in creating livable cities but also in solving the global climate crisis. In this context, accessible, compact city design approaches have been developed that support relatively high residential density with mixed functions. These approaches envision rebuilding the city so that daily needs can be met . . .   41 within the shortest possible distance, significantly reducing the number of cars through mixed functions, and creating open public spaces. In this context, approaches such as “15-Minute Cities,” “New Urbanism,” and “Smart Cities/Smart Growth” have been developed that promote compact cities and encourage walkability. 3.1.15-MinuteCities This model, developed by Carlos Moreno (2016), is a planning approach that enables access to daily basic needs such as work, education, healthcare, shopping, and recreation within a maximum 15-minute walk or bike ride (Moreno et al., 2021). The concept’s approach can be defined as increasing belonging and centralizing these areas by developing daily urban services. It aims for urban development where city residents can access their basic needs within a maximum 15-minute walking or cycling distance in a compact area, with services close to each other so that everyone can always access everything. (Öztaş, 2021) In addition, it aims to reduce unnecessary travel within the city, provide more public space, encourage life on the streets, and strengthen the sense of community at the neighborhood level. The adoption of these urban models enable to develop more sustainable, livable, and resilient cities that respond to the challenges posed by climate change. However, this requires strong political will, appropriate urban planning, and active community participation (Moreno, 2024). This urban model is based on four fundamental principles. These principles are defined as diversity, proximity, density, and digitalization (Moreno et all, 2021). · Diversity: This encompasses both functional diversity and cultural and human diversity. It aims for cities to consist of inclusive communities where people from different income groups and cultural backgrounds live together, with mixed-use developments combining residential, office, retail, and recreational spaces. · Density: It can be defined as the optimal density that enables the achievement of sustainability goals in economic, social, and environmental areas. It refers to an optimal density at a human scale, where a sufficient number of people live together to ensure the efficient provision of services and infrastructure. Properly planned density prevents urban sprawl and optimizes resource use. 42   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I · Proximity: The accessibility of essential services, workplaces, schools, and green spaces within walking or cycling distance of residential areas forms the basis of this concept. The dimension of proximity, seen both temporally and spatially, not only helps cities reduce the time lost in commuting, but also plays a critical role in reducing the environmental and economic impacts of such activities (Marquet and Miralles-Guasch, 2015). · Digitalization: This dimension plays a key role in enabling the other three dimensions. Smart city technologies increase the efficiency of this model. For example, through digital tools and solutions, it will be possible to improve the cycling experience by emphasizing solutions such as bike sharing and the use of sensors to ensure the safety of cyclists (Url 1, Stamatiadis, 2017). The adoption of mixed-use neighborhoods envisioned by the 15-Minute City model is crucial for ensuring the optimal density and proximity of essential amenities, as well as for developing pedestrian-friendly streets and bicycle lanes. This approach encourages the creation of public infrastructure such as bike lanes and pedestrian paths, which minimize the need for cars to access basic amenities, allowing residents to benefit from these services within their own neighborhoods. The model will ensure the preservation and maintenance of the sanctity of existing public spaces and enable the creation of as many public spaces as possible, allowing local residents to maximize their local public spaces, green spaces, and other public infrastructure. It also supports urban densification by encouraging the construction of compact and well-connected neighborhoods. This shortens distances and optimizes land use, prevents urban sprawl, and protects surrounding natural areas. The 15-minute city model developed by Moreno has gained global recognition under the leadership of Paris Mayor Anne Hidalgo. Examples of this approach are also expressed in different durations of 10, 20, and 30 minutes. 3.2.NewUrbanism In the 1990s, the “New Urbanism Movement” emerged. The New Urbanism movement emerged in North America and around the world in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the aim of fundamentally changing the way cities and towns are built (Kart Aktaş and Yirmibeşoğlu, 2023). New Urbanism aims to solve the problems caused by the sprawl of today’s cities by reinterpreting traditional urban planning principles and adapting them to our era. The New Urbanism Approach defines the qualities that settlements . . .   43 must possess in order to offer their residents a better quality of life. Settlements designed according to the principles of the New Urbanism movement aim to create pedestrian-friendly, walkable, compact settlements that strengthen social bonds, rather than settlements that are impossible to walk between, are large, single-use, and connected only by roads (Demiröz, 2005). In the New Urbanism movement, the characteristics and design qualities that roads, buildings, housing, masses, public spaces, intersections, parking lots, sidewalks, street silhouettes, lighting, green spaces, and landscaping will take on within each area have been defined. New Urbanists define neighborhood units as the basic unit of urban development, accepting settlement, neighborhood, and corridor as the main organizing elements. Accordingly, settlements are defined as urbanized areas where human activities come together in a balanced manner, neighborhoods are areas dominated by a single activity, and corridors are defined as the connectors and dividers of districts and neighborhoods (Dutton, 2000; Katz, 1993). The New Urbanism movement emphasizes freeing settlements from car dominance within their own boundaries. In this regard, it is important to design the circulation systems of settlements in an integrated manner for both vehicle and pedestrian traffic. The pedestrian circulation system varies in some places by cutting off vehicle traffic, in some places by following the same route, and in some places by separating from vehicle traffic. 3.3.SmartGrowth/SmartCities Smart growth is a concept that emerged in the late 1990s and has been proposed as a solution for many communities facing problems due to scattered urbanization over the past fifty years. It is an economic, social, and environmental development model that addresses issues such as urban infrastructure development, neighborhood units, healthy environments, and transportation. According to the American Smart Growth Network (SGN), smart growth is a well-planned development that protects open spaces and agricultural lands, aims to revitalize neighborhoods and the neighborhood scale, and offers affordable housing and diverse transportation alternatives (Smart Growth Network, 2001). The goal of smart growth is to create a settlement that is compact, transitoriented, walkable, bike-friendly, has neighborhood schools, complete streets, and offers mixed-use, multi-functional housing options (Shrivastava and Sharma, 2011). 44   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I The smart city is based on the “smart growth” movement (Bollier, 1998) that emerged with urban planning policies. This movement, which forms the basic framework of the smart city concept, emerged to produce strategic solutions to increasing urban problems worldwide. Both approaches encompass development and conservation strategies to protect public health and the natural environment, and to ensure a more competitive economy and social diversity. Smart growth, an urban growth model developed to address the negative consequences of uncontrolled growth and sprawl resulting from the emptying of city centers, particularly in North America, has emerged as a response to the undesirable effects of “suburban sprawl” according to many planners. Five fundamental objectives of smart growth can be identified (Mitchell, 2004): 1. Revitalizing city centers, 2. Controlling development, 3. Creating and developing transportation options, 4. Protecting natural resources, 5. Creating desirable and equitable neighborhoods. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, smart growth is based on ten fundamental principles. These principles are: · Creating mixed-use areas, · Making building designs compact, · Creating alternatives in housing, · Creating walkable neighborhoods, · Encouraging strong communities with a sense of belonging, · Providing alternative transportation options, · Strengthening and directing development towards existing communities, · Making development decisions predictable, fair, and cost-effective, · Protecting open spaces, agricultural land, natural beauty, and critical environmental areas, · Encouraging community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions (EPA, 2011). Urban planning approaches such as new urbanism, smart growth, green cities, sustainable cities, ecological cities, and digital cities have laid the . . .   45 groundwork for smart city planning strategies. Smart cities are natureand people-focused, technology-intensive cities that encompass all these approaches and invest in a sustainable future with smart growth goals. 4. Pedestrian-Friendly Cities and Basic Principles Pedestrian-friendly cities are those where pedestrians are prioritized in transportation, where pedestrians can move and walk safely and comfortably, and where the city is accessible to everyone. Walkability, one of the determinants of livability in public spaces, facilitates walking by considering factors such as road conditions, land use patterns, safety, and comfort (Ak, 2018). The fundamental principles of pedestrian-friendly cities can be listed as accessibility, safety, comfort, continuity, and functionality. Accessibility: Accessibility is one of the oldest forms of urban transportation. The existence of safe, connected, well-designed, comfortable pedestrian routes that all individuals can use in urban areas improves the quality of urban life and provides equal access to public spaces. Accessibility is a concept with physical, social, psychological, cultural, and economic dimensions. A pedestrian can reach a location within a 600-meter walking distance that takes 10 minutes to meet their daily needs (Hildebrand, 1999). This distance should be considered when accessing walkable open and green spaces. The presence of different types of public spaces (playgrounds, squares, parks, etc.) is a factor that increases walkability (Lambert, 2005). In this context, diversity and uses in public spaces support accessibility. Another criterion that ensures accessibility in public spaces is the street and avenue fabric, i.e., the network system formed by roads. In terms of area usage, roads are classified as gridshaped, parallel-divided, parallel-skewed, spiral-shaped dead-end, and straightturning (Southworth and Own, 1993). The more intersections there are, the higher the accessibility (Özbil, Yeşiltepe, and Argin, 2015). Connectivity is one of the key criteria in determining pedestrian comfort (Lo, 2009). If road networks are highly connected, walkability and accessibility are also high (Southworth, 2005). Accessibility, one of the parameters of spatial quality, is evaluated based on the connectivity of roads and accessibility criteria such as pedestrian, private vehicle, and public transportation services (Uzgören and Erdönmez, 2017). To ensure accessibility for everyone in cities, structural features (such as pedestrian paths, sidewalks, and ramps), material choices, and urban amenities should be designed in a way that does not create barriers for individuals and in 46   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I accordance with technical standards. Public space design that takes into account these criteria supporting accessibility and social interaction provides inclusive environments. Street designs that encourage walking in residential areas are effective in increasing social experiences (Ewing and Clemente, 2013). Therefore, it is crucial to consider individuals as pedestrians and to take into account accessibility in open and green spaces within walking distance. The fundamental rule in designing the built environment should be to meet the needs of users with different characteristics in the same design. The necessary conditions for everyone’s use should be provided on the same route, at the same entrance, and in the same spaces. Universal design comes into play to enable accessibility in public spaces. Since universal design and its principles ensure that spaces are suitable for all individuals, it supports the relationship between public spaces and accessibility. Safety and Comfort: Safety is one of the defining factors of a walkable environment. A safe pedestrian environment allows pedestrians to walk comfortably and reduces the fear of accidents or crime. Furthermore, a walking environment that is both physically and mentally comfortable improves the quality of the pedestrian environment and positively affects pedestrian density (Ünal Çilek, 2020; Bhattacharyya and Mitra, 2013; Rafiemanzelat et al., 2017; Zakaria and Ujang, 2015). The physical characteristics of a road are as important as its connectivity and accessibility in route selection. The paving materials used on pedestrian paths should be selected according to the climate of the working area, pedestrian paths should be designed to be wide enough to accommodate pedestrian traffic and positioned at an appropriate slope, and urban fixtures (trash cans, lighting, bus stops, benches, electrical panels, etc.) ensuring that the plants used are not too tall to obstruct pedestrian passage and that plant pits are appropriately positioned, and performing regular maintenance are all important considerations to ensure that pedestrians of different ages and physical abilities can walk safely and comfortably (Aghaabbasi et al., 2018; Bhattacharyya and Mitra, 2013; Erna et al., 2016; Ünal, 2014; Unal and Uslu, 2018). Pedestrian comfort is enhanced through shaded areas, rest areas, ergonomic seating units, and climate-appropriate arrangements. In addition, the diversity of the urban landscape has a positive effect on temperature and air quality by improving the microclimate. In particular, during the summer months, pedestrians may prefer shaded areas to protect themselves from the adverse . . .   47 effects of sunlight, while in the winter months, they may prefer areas sheltered from cold winter winds. Therefore, in determining the most comfortable route, it is necessary to design pedestrian paths that provide the opportunity to walk in all seasons, in addition to physical and functional characteristics (Rahman et al., 2015). Individuals’ ability to comfortably access public open and green spaces on foot is important both for meeting their recreational needs and for ensuring that the expected social benefits of the green space are realized. This is because the ability of people of different age groups and abilities to safely and comfortably reach their desired destinations on foot is an important indicator of urban quality of life and positively affects both mental and physical health (Rafiemanzelat et al., 2017). Continuity: Continuity expresses that how well the boundary of different parts of urban spaces are defined and how well different parts of public spaces are connected through architectural urban elements (Ghadimkhani, 2011). The uninterrupted nature of pedestrian paths directly determines walkability. Disconnected pedestrian networks not only complicate daily life practices but also restrict social mobility. Continuous routes should be designed to integrate with public transportation stops and public centers. Functionality: Pedestrian-friendly public spaces are areas that can respond to the needs of different user groups and have the potential for multifunctional and flexible use. This quality democratizes the space by making the diversity of social life visible (Lefebvre, 1991). In determining pedestrian routes, aesthetic elements are also important, in addition to safety, function, and accessibility factors (Cubukcu et al., 2015; Rahman et al., 2015). Pedestrians do not always choose the most obvious route to reach their destination; they also choose aesthetically appealing routes. 5. Discussion And Conclusion Rapid urbanization resulting from population growth in cities and the corresponding increase in needs brings with it numerous economic, social, and environmental problems. To solve these problems, it is particularly important to create inclusive environments that allow everyone to use public spaces. In this context, examining the parameters related to social interaction and accessibility, which are sub-components of inclusive design that provides accessible environments for everyone and enables social interaction, is important for the future of cities. 48   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Accessibility means that everyone can reach and use any place and service they want independently and safely. Healthcare facilities, schools, public service buildings, sidewalks, parks, pedestrian crossings, and the transportation systems connecting them may need to be accessible to everyone at any time of the day. Therefore, it is not sufficient for only some of these to be accessible. Public spaces accessible to all city residents can be defined as places where social interactions occur intensely. In this context, public spaces should be comfortable, safe, accessible, and available to everyone, meeting their economic expectations. Recently, as a result of rapid urbanization, accessible areas where individuals can socialize have been decreasing. In this regard, there is a need for design criteria that enable all individuals to be together and provide equal use of space, i.e., support accessibility and social interaction. Design features that provide physical accessibility and social interaction contribute to the integration of society by creating usable spaces for everyone. Accessibility is an important factor for walkability. This is because the principle of accessibility highlights its importance and necessity, as individuals should be able to benefit equally from public spaces, and accessibility is recognized as an important criterion for ensuring social equality (Gharebaghi et al., 2018; Unal and Uslu, 2018; Zuniga-Teran et al., 2019). What is important here is not only the accessibility of people with different education, culture, and income levels, but also that people of different age groups, especially the elderly, people in wheelchairs, or people with low or no vision, can reach their desired destination on their own in the shortest time possible. Therefore, circulation and accessibility are important factors that encourage individuals to walk and influence pedestrians’ route choices. Pedestrian-friendly cities are a fundamental requirement for healthier, safer, socially vibrant, and sustainable cities. The redesign of public spaces requires not only the improvement of the physical environment but also a holistic rethinking of urban life. The cities of the future will be shaped by inclusive and flexible public spaces that put the human scale at the center. In this regard, pedestrian-friendly planning principles will continue to be an important guiding component of both academic studies and practical applications. REFERENCES Aghaabbasi, M., Moeinaddini, M., Zaly Shah, M., Asadi-Shekari, Z., & Arjomand Kermani, M. (2018). Evaluating the capability of walkability audit . . .   55 Comfort: It should include areas away from noise, supported by natural elements, shaded and sunbathing areas, wind control, and microclimatic arrangements. It should create opportunities for socialization for its users with seating areas, semi-open spaces, and common areas. Accessibility: It should include ergonomic and safe design solutions suitable for different age groups and individual circulatory systems. Interaction with nature: Plant-based design should enable the perception of seasonal changes and strengthen the user-nature connection. 2. Needs-Activity-Space Arrangement in Landscape Design In landscape architecture, design is not merely the formal arrangement of open spaces; it is a multi-layered process encompassing user behavior, social relationships, and individual perception. In this context, landscape design requires a holistic approach that focuses on user needs and shapes the activities arising from these needs within a spatial framework. The user-activity-space relationship should be considered one of the fundamental components of landscape design. The functionality and livability of landscape spaces depend on the accurate analysis of user needs and the integration of related activities into the space (Alpak and Düzenli, 2021; Bayramoğlu and Yurdakul, 2019). User needs become visible through activities taking place in the landscape space; such as rest, eating and drinking, socializing, recreation, and cultural events. The proper placement of activities in the space ensures both functional and social effective use of the area. Grouping activities according to intensity, continuity, and user profile increases spatial utilization and consequently improves user comfort. At the same time, properly structuring the relationships between activity areas and ensuring continuity in circulation strengthens spatial integrity. Residential perimeter landscape design encompasses the planning of open spaces directly related to an individual’s daily life habits. These areas are not merely voids surrounding the residential structure; they are livable spaces that meet the physical, social, and psychological needs of users. Therefore, the design process in residential perimeter landscape projects should be approached with a user-centered perspective; user needs, activities stemming from these needs, and the spatial configuration that accommodates these activities should be evaluated within a holistic system. The spatial equivalent of user needs in the residential perimeter is revealed through activities within this environment. Activities 56   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I taking place in open spaces are classified as mandatory (transit, circulation), optional (resting, sitting), and social (gathering, sharing) activities (Gehl, 2011). In planning activity areas in residential perimeter landscapes, it is important to ensure that different activities do not overlap, to zone according to noise and movement levels, and to balance the visual and physical relationships of activity areas with the residential building. The activities included in the residential perimeter landscape should be shaped according to the needs of the individual’s daily life cycle. In the literature, these needs are: Physical comfort, safety, privacy, socialization, and interaction with nature are considered (Marcus & Francis, 1998). In the residential environment, the user utilizes the open space at different times of the day for rest, movement, social interaction, and recreation. In this context, the user’s needs are considered in the design process (Marcus and Francis, 1998; Maslow, 1989); Comfort needs (shade, seating, movement, climate protection), Psychological needs (privacy, visual comfort, silence), Social needs (communication with family members, neighborly relations, hosting guests), and Recreational needs (rest, play, outdoor activities) The relationship between human behavior and the environment directly influences how individuals use space. Therefore, landscape design should take user needs into account; otherwise, designs make it difficult for users to embrace the space, leading to its eventual loss of function and abandonment. Designs that focus on user needs, however, strengthen the sense of spatial belonging, supporting the continuity and sustainability of the area. 3. Spatial Design and Open Space Organization in Landscape Architecture Space is a limited void beyond mathematical dimensions where humans realize their physical and sensory experiences. The true value of space is determined not by its dimensions and aesthetics, but by how effectively it shapes the user’s life (Akkul, 1998). Space, as a social and psychological environment in which people live, is a concept that provides an interactive and sensory experience for the individual, addressing all dimensional relationships from a social perspective (Lefebvre, 1991; Güç et al., 2013). In this context, space is . . .   57 not merely a physical area defined by boundaries, but physical environments that include activities to meet the physical and psychological needs of humans. Designing a space means creating a space that reflects the activities, values, and goals of the individuals who will use it. Spatial formation should be a response to spatial needs (Düzenli et al., 2022; Düzenli and Alpak, 2020; Ünlü and Yıldırım, 2015). Humans expect the space they use to meet their needs (Düzenli and Alpak, 2020; Kuloğlu and Yavuz, 2015). Therefore, it is important for designers to analyze user needs, related activities, and spatial design very well (Yavuz, 2025; Yavuz, 2014). In landscape architecture, spatial design means the conscious arrangement and interrelationship of spaces and physical elements (topography, vegetation, structures, roads, water features, etc.) on an area. Landscape architects consider design as a holistic “landscape texture” consisting of interrelated spaces. Catherine Dee (2004) defines landscape texture as “the integrated spatial structure of all landscapes” and states that this structure consists of basic morphological elements such as spaces, roads, boundaries, transitions, foci, and details. In this approach, form refers to the individual components; texture refers to how these components are organized as a whole. In a landscape, spaces (such as lawns, squares, courtyards, and groves) are defined areas for human activity. These spaces are related to pathways that direct movement and connect areas. Boundaries (walls, elevation differences, fences, shrub groups, shorelines, etc.) define spaces, while transitions are intermediate areas connecting one space to another. Focal points (sculptures, fountains, monumental trees, etc.) draw attention and organize the space. Details (texture, furnishings, lighting, plants, topography) enrich the sensory experience and are important elements that define the boundaries of the space and guide its use. All these elements come together to form the spatial composition of the landscape. As Jack Ahern states, “Landscape architecture is a profession that focuses on the spatial composition of landscapes at many scales” (Ahern, 2005). Therefore, the designer must consider not only the spatial relationships within the area but also its relationships with the environmental context. Spatial design ensures that user needs and activities are integrated into a meaningful whole within the physical environment. Spatial design is developed through site analysis, programming, and conceptual design processes. It aims to establish a logical flow and spatial hierarchy using diagrams, schematics, and spatial analyses (Seyhan and Bayramoğlu, 2023; Eren et al., 2023; Kim and Jang, 2022; Bayramoğlu and Seyhan, 2021). 58   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I In the Environmental Design 2 course, given to second-year students in the Landscape Architecture Department at Karadeniz Technical University, students were asked to design a residential garden. In this context, students were first asked to conduct a literature review on the subject (what are user needs? What activities are carried out in open spaces? How are these activities shaped?), examine design examples of residential gardens, and create a list of activities that could be carried out around a residence. Then, each student determined a scenario for the user of this residential garden and created sketches. One of the sketches was selected; The final products were obtained by determining the appropriate space size for the number of users, the appropriate equipment for the activity, and by creating a spatial design. The design process of the Residential Environment Project, completed in the studio conducted by Serap Yılmaz within the scope of the Environmental Design Project 2 course in the Fall Semester of 2024-2025, was carried out as follows, taking into account the user-centered needs-activity-space design: 1. Defining the user and identifying their needs, 2. Determining activities based on user needs and translating these activities into scenarios, 3. Creating sketches for the formal exploration of spaces to meet user needs and selecting from among them, 4. Transforming these activities into spaces, placing appropriate equipment, and ensuring that the entire process is supported by a consistent spatial organization. This study examines one of the student works from the Environmental Design Project 2 studio. The homeowner is defined as an individual who practices silk carpet weaving using natural dyes obtained from plants grown in their garden, carrying out the production process on a residential scale. This user profile represents a lifestyle that integrates traditional handicraft knowledge with plant production, natural dye production, and weaving techniques, continuing the transmission of cultural heritage through daily life practices. This production process transforms the home garden from merely a recreational open space into a space for production, learning, and cultural continuity. In this context, the user incorporates the multifunctional use of the residential space through their direct relationship with nature, sustainable production approach, and practices based on local knowledge (Figure 1). . . .   59 Figure 1. User needs-activity-space design. These user-oriented sketch options were developed in accordance with the spatial requirements of plant production, root dyeing, and silk carpet weaving activities carried out in the residential garden. During the sketching process, the design of open and semi-open spaces, circulation schemes, and functional zones were explored through different alternatives, based on the production-lifedisplay relationship. The resulting sketch options represent spatial approaches that aim to integrate natural production processes with the space, enable the user to continue their production practice sustainably, and make cultural production visible at the residential scale (Figure 2). 60   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Figure 2. Generating sketch options. . . .   61 Figure 3. Plans and sections of the design. 62   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I The final product was brought up in three dimensions, and renders were taken that detailed the spatial organization. Figure 4. Three-dimensional views of the design. The project focuses on a single residential user; however, social, recreational, and semi-public needs are also strongly addressed. The daily needs of the family (relaxation, eating, sunbathing) and the spaces for users coming for education are clearly separated by elevation differences. This ensures the privacy of the residential users. A readable circulation is provided: entrance, . . .   63 residential, social areas, exhibition, education and production area. This creates continuity between spaces. Due to the location of the residence, the user can both remain isolated from everyone in their private space and establish visual and physical connections with the open areas. Spatial Organization: the circular form creates the backbone of the project, connecting the surrounding functions. Elevation differences and terraces provide visual depth and spatial variety. Plants are used as design elements that separate spaces, provide shade, and create privacy (Figure 5). Figure 5. Spatial organization of the design. 4. Conclusion 1.UserNeeds The project is based on a needs definition centered on the productionbased lifestyle of a single-dwelling user. The user’s ability to engage in plant production, continue the process of obtaining natural root dyes, and uninterruptedly carry out silk carpet weaving practices are highlighted as the basic determinants of spatial organization. However, the user’s desire to have direct contact with nature, the need for privacy, calm and focus-supporting work environments, and the intertwining of daily life and production form the main framework of the design. In the project, it is seen that these needs are met in a balanced way through open and semi-open spaces. 64   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I 2.Activities The activities envisioned in the design are shaped around plant cultivation, root dye preparation, weaving production, outdoor relaxation, and limited-scale exhibition/viewing activities. The distribution of activities in the space has a structure that follows the stages of the production process. While the location of production-oriented activities close to the dwelling provides functional convenience to the user, the placement of relaxation and observation areas in more open and landscape-integrated regions increases spatial diversity. This situation offers a usage scenario that allows the user to both focus on the production process and to rest physically and mentally. 3.SpatialArrangement The spatial arrangement exhibits a multi-layered organization where the structure and landscape are considered as a holistic system. The balanced use of hard and soft surfaces, the stepped topographic arrangements, and the continuity of open spaces make transitions between spaces fluid. Open and semi-open platforms allow for flexible uses to support both production and exhibition functions. The water element and the continuity of the green texture add visual depth to the space while also being considered as an element that supports microclimatic comfort. In this context, the spatial arrangement presents a legible and sustainable environmental design approach that supports the user’s needs and activities. In conclusion, the project establishes a strong relationship between the user’s needs, the activities they carry out, and the spatial arrangement that supports them. This approach, which considers production, living, and resting activities as a whole, offers an example of sustainable and user-oriented landscape design at the residential scale. Design, by grounding its spatial decisions not only in aesthetic considerations but also in a functional and conceptual framework, presents a consistent and coherent whole from an academic perspective. Accordingly, residential landscape design is considered not merely an aesthetic arrangement, but a design approach that enhances user quality of life, supports social interaction, and strengthens environmental continuity. How a space is conceived influences how people behave, perceive the space, and what kinds of experiences they have there. Therefore, designs should include spaces that meet needs. . . .   71 Graph 1. The 10 Largest U.S. National Parks by Surface Area and Their Proportions to State Areas 3. Geographic Location and Natural Features Geographically, Yellowstone National Park is predominantly situated within the state of Wyoming, which encompasses 96% of its total land area, while the remaining sections extend into the neighboring states of Montana (3%) and Idaho (1%) (Figure 2). The park rests upon the Yellowstone Plateau, maintaining an average elevation of 2,400 meters above sea level. This high-altitude tableland is geologically defined by the presence of the Yellowstone Caldera—frequently classified as a “supervolcano”—and is driven by the thermal dynamics of an active mantle hotspot beneath the crust (Christiansen, 2001). Driven by this underlying geological architecture, the park stands as one of the most concentrated geothermal regions on Earth, housing over 10,000 hydrothermal features and roughly half of the world’s known active geysers (USGS, 2024). This subterranean energy manifests on the surface through iconic formations such as Old Faithful, alongside a diverse array of hot springs, mudpots, and fumaroles (Figure 3). Far from being a static landscape, the region is marked by profound dynamism; it experiences continuous crustal deformation (doming) and generates between 1,000 and 3,000 seismic events per year— activity that is meticulously tracked by the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO) (USGS, 2023). Additionally, the park’s positioning on the Continental 72   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Divide, coupled with the high-altitude expanse of Yellowstone Lake at 2,357 meters, establishes the area as a critical hydrological hub in North America (Yard, 1925). Administratively, the park boundaries serve as the nucleus of the expansive Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), a vast region covering some 72,000 square kilometers (72 million decares). The GYE is widely regarded as one of the few remaining large-scale, intact ecosystems within the temperate zone (NPS, 2024; Worboys et al., 2015). Encircled by mountain ranges, the central volcanic plateau gives rise to a complex habitat mosaic that transitions from alpine tundras to subalpine forests, a diversity that underpins the region’s exceptional bio-ecological richness. Figure 2. Location of Yellowstone National Park and its representation within the States (Map: A. Toivola, Wildlife Conservation Society; Source: Cross et al., 2012). 4. Cultural and Historical Significance The cultural landscape of Yellowstone is rooted in a history that long predates the park’s formal establishment in 1872. Archaeological evidence confirms that humans have inhabited the region for over 11,000 years, a fact that challenges the modern construct of the park as a “pristine wilderness” untouched by human hands (MacDonald, 2018; Spence, 1999). Indeed, the park encompasses ancestral territories and traditional cultural grounds for more than 27 contemporary Native American tribes, including the Shoshone, Bannock, Crow, and Blackfeet (Nabokov & Loendorf, 2004). A prime example of this deep historical connection is Obsidian Cliff, designated as a National . . .   73 Historic Landmark. This site has been documented as a major industrial and cultural hub where high-quality volcanic glass was quarried and subsequently integrated into vast transcontinental trade networks during the prehistoric era (Davis et al., 1995). In terms of modern history, Yellowstone’s significance is anchored in its designation as the world’s first national park on March 1, 1872, mandated “for the benefit and enjoyment of the people” (Haines, 1977; Keiter, 2020). This legislative act represented a watershed moment, crystallizing the concept of shielding natural and cultural resources from commercial exploitation in favor of public stewardship—a philosophy that sparked the global conservation movement now known as the “Yellowstone Model” (Gissibl et al., 2012). The park’s profound global influence was formally acknowledged in 1978 with its inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List. It is worth noting, however, that this recognition was granted under “natural heritage” criteria—celebrating its exceptional geological formations, diverse ecosystems, and natural processes— rather than its rich cultural dimensions (UNESCO, 1978; Worboys et al., 2015). 5. Resource Values of Yellowstone National Park Spanning an area of roughly 8,983 km² (2.2 million acres), Yellowstone National Park operates as a complex, dynamic system that ensures the continuity of geological and ecological processes, a role that extends well beyond its original historical function of conservation (NPS, 2024; Haines, 1977). The park’s current configuration involves intricate ecosystems driven by persistent geothermal activity, all governed by a comprehensive administrative framework responsible for stewardship of this vast landscape (Fournier, 1989). Often cited in scientific discourse as a “living laboratory,” Yellowstone allows for the holistic assessment of its physical, ecological, cultural, and managerial components through the lens of ongoing research and operational data monitoring (Boyce, 1998; Gissibl et al., 2012). The fundamental resource values that secured the park’s protected status— and are formally recognized as having “Outstanding Universal Value”— include several key elements: its unparalleled geothermal features, which host approximately 500 active geysers and more than half of the world’s known thermal phenomena (USGS, 2024; Yard, 1925); the massive supervolcano and caldera system that dominates the regional topography and ranks among North America’s largest active volcanic complexes (Christiansen, 2001; USGS, 2023); 74   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I distinctive hydrological assets such as the visually striking Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and Yellowstone Lake, which serves a pivotal function on the Continental Divide (USGS, 2023; Yard, 1925); a rich biodiversity that supports the continent’s largest populations of free-roaming megafauna (NPS, 2024; Haines, 1977); and the world’s most extensive petrified forests, preserved in situ by Eocene-era volcanic ash (Yard, 1925; NPS, 2024). Although Yellowstone National Park encompasses a broad spectrum of natural diversity, the fundamental resource values that define its essential character are outlined below: Old Faithful Geyser: Widely regarded as a premier example of global hydrothermal activity, Old Faithful functions as a cone geyser driven by the rhythmic release of accumulated geothermal pressure. Its eruptions, which occur at average intervals of 90 minutes and can surge past 50 meters in height, are triggered when superheated water deep within the subterranean conduit system undergoes a rapid phase change, flashing into steam as it nears the surface (Hurwitz & Manga, 2017) (Figure 3). Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone: Carved over millennia by the relentless force of the Yellowstone River cutting through rhyolitic lava flows, the canyon is renowned for its vivid palette of yellows and oranges—hues derived from iron minerals oxidized via hydrothermal alteration . Spanning roughly 39 kilometers, this geological marvel serves as a prime case study for observing how river erosion and volcanic processes interact to shape valley morphology (Christiansen, 2001) (Figure 3). Madison Region: Located at the confluence where the Gibbon and Firehole rivers unite to create the Madison River, this basin supports a rich biodiversity anchored by its abundant water sources and sweeping meadows. It stands out as a critical ecological zone, particularly in autumn, offering a prime setting to observe the rutting behaviors and migratory pathways of Cervus canadensis (elk) herds (Garrott et al., 2009). . . .   75 Figure 3. Views of some fundamental resource values located in Yellowstone National Park. Mammoth Hot Springs: Distinct from other thermal areas, this region is defined by its ever-evolving travertine terraces, created as subterranean hot water dissolves limestone beds below and redeposits the mineral content upon reaching the surface (Figure 3). The striking visual texture of these geomorphological formations—ranging from white to shades of brown and orange—is largely biological in origin, resulting from the presence of thermophilic microorganisms that thrive in the heat (Fouke et al., 2000). Mud Volcano Area: This area, where highly acidic hydrothermal waters have decomposed the surrounding rocks into a clayey structure, is defined by mud pots and fumaroles (gas vents). The intense sulfuric acid smell and bubbling mud formations in the area are tangible signs of chemical reactions and gas emissions just below the earth’s crust (Nordstrom et al., 2009). Norris Geyser Basin: As the oldest, hottest, and most seismically volatile hydrothermal basin in the park, Norris harbors a distinct geothermal ecosystem sculpted by acidic waters. Home to Steamboat Geyser—the world’s tallest active geyser—this region functions as a highly dynamic research environment where fluctuations in subterranean temperatures can trigger immediate shifts in surface activity (Lowenstern et al., 2005) (Figure 4). 76   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I West Thumb Geyser Basin: Positioned along the coastline of Yellowstone Lake, this basin represents a geological anomaly, functioning as a nested caldera formed within the perimeter of a larger volcanic depression. The presence of hydrothermal vents emerging simultaneously along the shoreline and on the lakebed establishes a singular study site where the fields of limnology and volcanology converge (Morgan et al., 2007) (Figure 4). Yellowstone Lake: Ranking as the largest high-elevation freshwater body in North America, the lake is distinguished by a geologically volatile floor marked by hydrothermal vents and active fault lines. Beyond its geology, it anchors the aquatic ecosystem by providing a crucial stronghold for the endemic population of Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii bouvieri) (Gresswell, 2011) Fishing Bridge: Constructed in 1937 and valued for its historical architecture, this span crosses the Yellowstone River at the lake’s outlet—a prime spawning ground for cutthroat trout. While it historically supported recreational angling, the site has evolved into a strictly managed conservation zone dedicated to monitoring the foraging behaviors of the Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) (Reinhart & Mattson, 1990). Lower-Upper Falls: Situated deep within the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, these cataracts mark two prominent geological knickpoints where the river plunges over resistant rhyolite layers, generating tremendous hydraulic power. The 94-meter drop of the Lower Falls offers a particularly clear illustration of headward erosion and the ongoing deepening of the valley (Pierce, 1979). . . .   77 Figure 4. Examples of characteristic geysers and hydrothermal formations located in Yellowstone National Park. The interplay between these defining resource values and the physical landscape fundamentally drives the region’s ecological, economic, and managerial dynamics. This abiotic foundation has fostered one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems in the temperate zone. The park encompasses a habitat mosaic that transitions from alpine tundras to subalpine coniferous forests, and from sweeping grasslands to wetlands. Such environmental heterogeneity supports a vast biological community, including approximately 1,350 vascular plant species, 67 mammals, over 300 bird species, and 16 fish species. Notably, the local flora includes three endemic species found nowhere else on Earth: Agrostis rossiae, Abronia ammophila, and Eriogonum umbellatum var. cladophorum (NPS, 2024) (Figure 5). Furthermore, forests dominated by lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) occupy roughly 80% of the park, serving as a linchpin for fire regimes, carbon cycling, and habitat connectivity (Despain, 1990; Romme, 1982). 78   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I Figure 5. Some Endemic Species Unique to Yellowstone National Park A watershed moment for the region’s ecological dynamics occurred in 1995 with the reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus). Executed through the “Yellowstone Wolf Project,” this initiative did more than end a 70 year absence; it effectively restored predator-prey interactions and catalyzed widespread trophic cascades that rippled from vegetation growth to bird communities (Ripple & Beschta, 2012; Smith et al., 2003). Currently, the park supports thriving, selfsustaining populations of iconic megafauna, including the United States’ largest herd of genetically pure, free-ranging bison (Bison bison), alongside grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis) and cougars (Puma concolor) (Halbert et al., 2012; White et al., 2015) (Figure 6). Such ecological wholeness reinforces Yellowstone’s status as a functional “living laboratory,” where natural diversity exists in tandem with the uninterrupted continuity of ecosystem processes (Turner et al., 2003). . . .   79 Figure 6. Some Wildlife Species Found in Yellowstone National Park 6. Park Management and Conservation Policies The operational philosophy of the National Park Service (NPS) is anchored in the “dual mandate,” a guiding principle that seeks to strike a delicate balance between conserving natural resources for posterity and ensuring their accessibility for present-day enjoyment (Sellars, 1997). This ethos forms the bedrock of governance at Yellowstone National Park. Administratively, the park functions under a hierarchical structure led by a Superintendent and a deputy, who oversee specialized divisions responsible for resource protection, visitor services, infrastructure maintenance, and the regulation of commercial concessions (Worboys et al., 2015). Supported by a workforce exceeding 1,300 employees and volunteers, and operating with an annual budget surpassing 70 million USD, this organizational model provides a robust, interdisciplinary framework capable of safeguarding the park’s natural and cultural heritage while managing complex visitor dynamics (NPS, 2024). Funding for this substantial budget is derived from a diverse portfolio of revenue streams. While the cornerstone of financing remains the annual appropriations approved by the U.S. Congress, visitor fees—collected under 80   RESEARCH, DESIGN AND METHOD IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE I the Federal Lands Recreation Enhancement Act (FLREA)—have emerged as an increasingly critical component. This legislation empowers the park to retain 80% of entrance and camping fees on-site, directing these funds specifically toward infrastructure upkeep, facility enhancements, and deferred maintenance projects (Vincent, 2019; Dilsaver, 2016). A third vital financial pillar involves contributions from official philanthropic partners, such as the non-profit foundation Yellowstone Forever. These donations typically underwrite specialized wildlife research or educational initiatives that fall outside the scope of standard federal funding (NPS, 2023). In terms of allocation, expenditures are distributed primarily across infrastructure operations (including road maintenance and snow removal), resource management (such as geothermal monitoring and wildlife ecology), and essential visitor services like law enforcement and emergency response. Collectively, these governance mechanisms and financing strategies suggest that Yellowstone has transcended its status as a mere protected area. Instead, it has evolved into a holistic management model that integrates ecological integrity with economic sustainability and institutional resilience (Gissibl et al., 2012; Worboys et al., 2015). 6.1.TourismandVisitorProfile Ranking consistently among the most heavily visited national parks in the United States, Yellowstone is defined by a visitation pattern that is both highvolume and intensely seasonal. A review of data from the past decade (2015– 2024) indicates a clear upward trend, with annual attendance surpassing the 4 million mark for the first time in 2015 and peaking at a record 4.86 million in 2021 (NPS, 2024). However, this timeframe was not without volatility; it encompasses notable anomalies driven by external disruptions, specifically the pandemic-related restrictions of 2020 and the closures necessitated by the historic flood disaster of 2022 (NPS, 2024; USGS, 2022) (Graph 2). . . .   87 ensuring the park’s future requires a diversified financial model that couples visitor revenue with strong state funding. Moreover, bolstering income through philanthropic partnerships, such as those with Yellowstone Forever, is essential to maintaining the delicate equilibrium between conservation mandates and public usage. 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