The Applicability of Contemporary, Classical Motivational Theories and Managerial Methods in Non-Western Countries

Mdhlalose, Dickson Scotch Article — Published Version The Applicability of Contemporary, Classical Motivational Theories and Managerial Methods in Non-Western Countries International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Suggested Citation: Mdhlalose, Dickson Scotch (2024) : The Applicability of Contemporary, Classical Motivational Theories and Managerial Methods in Non-Western Countries, International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics, ISSN 2383-2126, Behzad Hassannezhad Kashani, Mashhad, Iran, Vol. 11, Iss. 5, pp. 611-638, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/333438 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. Terms of use: Documents in EconStor may be saved and copied for your personal and scholarly purposes. You are not to copy documents for public or commercial purposes, to exhibit the documents publicly, to make them publicly available on the internet, or to distribute or otherwise use the documents in public. If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com ©2024 The Author(s) This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) 611 Research Note The Applicability of Contemporary, Classical Motivational Theories and Managerial Methods in Non-Western Countries Dickson Scotch Mdhlalose 1 Department of Information and Communication Technology, National Electronic Media Institute of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa Received 13 December 2023 Revised 30 January 2024 Accepted 13 February 2024 Abstract This study aims to comprehend the suitability of both traditional and modern motivational theories and managerial methods in non-Western nation’s former colonies of the West like African countries. This study employed an exploratory research strategy to deepen our comprehension of the subject. This study only used third-party sources for its data. The application of motivational theories and managerial techniques may be limited by cultural contexts. Social norms have shaped the formation and maintenance of organizations within society that have a particular structure and way of functioning. Western motivational theories do not work in non-Western nations because indigenous people are rooted in their own culture and find it difficult to accept and let go of a foreign culture. This study contributes to the body of knowledge by analysing the applicability of motivational theories and managerial methods in non-Western countries. According to this study, local and international organizations specifically Western multinational organizations manage and motivate their workforce in non-Western nations by fusing management techniques with Western notions of motivation. Keywords: Employees, Managerial Methods, Motivational Theories, NonWestern Countries, Organization. 1 Corresponding author’s Email: [email protected] International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 612 Introduction Acharya and Buzan (2017) asked why no non-Western philosophy of international relations exists. This question remains in the African continent and other non-Western countries. Throughout history, motivation has helped people persevere amid difficult times and has been linked to improvements in the quality of life, prosperity, luck, and contentment (Iguisi, 2009:141). To be motivated is to be persuaded to do something. Within the framework of an organization, it refers to the practice of influencing employees to behave in a way that advances certain organizational objectives (Gupta, 2021:1597). Few scholars have studied African cultures however it is still not enough as Africa is a huge continent with a variety of cultures that have never been studied before. Until today Africa and most non-Western countries do not have their motivation theories and managerial methods. Most scholarly work that has been carried out about motivation theories and managerial methods almost all of them study motivation and management in Africa using Western context. Thus, more research is required to study African cultures about motivation and management approaches in organizations operating in the African continent. Motivational theories and managerial methods are not a new topic since it has attracted a variety of scholars in the past, scholars as Alrawahi, Sellgren, Al-Touby, Alwahaibi and Brommels (2020); Badubi (2017); Marczak and Yawson (2021); Parab (2019); Sitorus, Putri, Hidayat and Rostina (2021); Tovmasyan and Minasyan (2020); Turabik and Baskan (2015). Contemporary more skilled employees from developing countries like South Africa, Egypt, India, and Brazil are seeking employment opportunities in the Western world more than ever. At the same time due to globalization more Western multinational organizations in the Western world operate in non-Western countries. This study seeks to understand the applicability of contemporary and classical motivational theories and managerial methods in non-Western countries more specifically former colonies like African countries. Several motivational models could be required when organizations expand internationally to connect procedures, guidelines, and processes to motivate employees (Garen, 2011:7). Increasing employee happiness in the fast-paced workplace of today is difficult, according to Letele and Massyn (2018). Cultural disparity and several newly developed administrative issues are the main causes of this, according to Erciyes (2019). Iguisi (1993) asserted that without understanding the historical and cultural backdrop, it is impossible to comprehend a single aspect, such as motivation inside an organization. Without considering the prevalent indigenous social norms, untamed Western management methods are unlikely to be the best choice for implementation in Nigeria and throughout Africa (Iguisi, 2009). An increasing quantity of academic literature calls for a change in the way that management theory applications and research methods are currently applied throughout Africa. This is because these approaches overlook Africans' highly personal and conventional daily worlds, in addition to the obvious unique features associated with the African socio-circumstantial aspect (Kuroakegha & Amakiri, 2019). With that being said this study asks is that are classical motivational theories and managerial methods in non-Western countries are still relevant. Four elements influence the rewards offered to cross-cultural employees in multinational organizations: the importance of the task, the hierarchy of requirements, the International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 613 internal and external forces' contradiction, and the system of rewards and punishments. It is discovered that there are differences in the features and workings of efficient incentives for employees from various cultural backgrounds. In the real world, administrators of multinational organizations are required to be adept at identifying the traits and requirements that characterize cross-cultural employees and creating reward systems that suit them. This will make it simpler to accomplish goals and fully pique employees' excitement for their work, which will enhance the effectiveness of the organization (Zhao & Pan, 2017). No set method or definitive guidance for employee motivation is offered by motivational theories. Nevertheless, the theories suggest that because employee motivation involves interacting with complicated human behaviour, it is a highly complicated issue. For the reason that cultural context adds another layer of complexity to the increasingly difficult problem of the notions of motivation in an organisation, the theories may not hold up in some nations (Kimotho, 2019). This is because colonial rule, profiteering, and destruction throughout history have undermined and undervalued these components of the world (United Nations, 2019). Iguisi and Hofstede (1993) emphasized that while we expect that cultural norms in a nation would stabilise within loops of feedback, they will also shift because of external influences. A structure of social conventions, made up of the mutually beneficial value systems that govern most people in the country, is located at the centre. Numerous ecological elements that are, elements influencing the physical environment are the source of their origins. Social norms have influenced the creation and upkeep of organizations within society that have a certain makeup and mode of operation. Family units, political structures, educational institutions, and laws are a few of these. Once established, these organizations serve to perpetuate the natural circumstances and social norms that gave rise to them. Such a structure is unlikely to alter much in a culture that is mostly locked off. Organizations may evolve, but this is seldom an indication that society's values will shift as well. In cases when society values remain the same, the enduring effects of an overwhelming set of values gradually acclimate to the new organizations if their framework and operations once more conform to the standards of society. The major causes for alteration are external, such as influences of nature (the environment evolution, harbour sedimentation) or human forces (commerce, invasion, scientific discoveries). Africa's management approach is predominantly Western-oriented, emphasizing colonial dictatorial and authoritarian methods and processes of making choices (Muriithi, 2017:11; Whyte & Auala, 2018). For a period of two generations, the majority of Africa was ruled by colonists (Heldring, 2013). According to Hofstede (1980), Western management ideas reflect the cultural context that existed when they emerged, meaning that Western culture and management are inextricably linked. Western management theory's supremacy gave rise to the ideas that " one size is suitable for all," "an administrator who performs well in a specific nation is also going to do well in another," and "efficacious Western management practices can be implemented everywhere," (Jariya, 2012:65). The problem identified in this study is that cultural contexts may limit the applicability of Western motivational theories and managerial methods in nations that are not Western as there are diverse civilizations in Africa and including other nonWestern countries. Employee motivation is one of the key human resource management issues that have new significance in the current world (Grynko, Krupskyi, Koshevyi & International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 614 Maximchuk, 2017). Kimotho (2019) states that scientific study is necessary to establish and verify theories of motivation that are suitable to African culture and conditions, as there is currently a lack of understanding regarding the application of motivational theories across the continent (Iguisi, 2009). Research Method Developing research design is another name for the exploratory research design. This study used exploratory research design because creating and investigating an issue that requires a thorough or more concentrated inquiry is the primary goal of employing such a research strategy (Mexon & Kumar, 2020:20). To make sense of the issue under investigation, exploratory research aims to get a foundational understanding of the subject (Cooper & Schindler, 2008:704). If you are unaware of extensively about a problem, topic, or occurrence and wish to find out further, exploratory research might be helpful (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2019). Finding and analysing secondary sources is often part of a preliminary method of searching (Cooper & Schindler, 2014:94). Exploratory research expands how others have approached and/or resolved issues like your organizational conundrum or managerial query to broaden your knowledge of the leadership challenges (Cooper & Schindler, 2014:94). As conducting exploratory research, it is essential to have a willingness to experiment and be prepared to shift directions as necessary (Saunders et al., 2019). The investigation at hand employed solely secondary sources for its data. A wide variety of both electronic and printed textbooks, reference resources, encyclopaedias, scholarly publications, and dissertations were used to compile the information. Reanalysing secondary data may yield new perspectives and instruction and it requires fewer steps to gather and analyze, leading to a more unbiased review (Saunders et al., 2019). Prominent Western Motivational Theories This study is affiliated with various theories that seek to understand the employee’s behaviour in the work environment. Thus, several theories describe what motivates people in a business and how they are driven (Nel, Werner, Haasbroek, Poisat, Sono & Schultz, 2008:337). Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth) theory (Alderfer, 1972); Equity and Justice (Adams, 1965); Expectancy (Vroom, 1964); Goal setting (Locke & Latham, 1990); The Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976); Herzberg’s two-factor theory (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959); McClelland’s achievement motivation theory (McClelland, 1961); McGregor theory X and theory Y (McGregor, 1960); Motives and wants (Maslow, 1943); Porter and Lawler model (Porter and Lawler, 1968), and Reinforcement (Skinner, 1953) are the theories listed by Nel et al. (2008:337); Kiley (2018:137); and Lee and Raschke (2016:164). However, motivational theories may be divided into two groups: content theories and process theories (Nel et al., 2008:337). The American ideas about motivation were created in an era of strong economic expansion and were founded on countrywide ethos in the United States of America during the late 19th and early 20th century (Xanthakis, 2019). They thus represent the cultural milieu of that country. In the modern world, more recent ideas are thought to be more relevant than those that are older (Letele & Massyn, 2018). International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 615 Content Theories The content theory of motivation emphasizes the psychological factors that motivate and influence human behaviour (Nel et al., 2008:337). Alderfer’s ERG Theory Alderfer’s ERG theory proposes that people have three sets of needs (see Figure 1):  Existence needs: having to do with the fundamental requirements for a person's survival in the world.  Relatedness needs: This category of wants has to do with the need for and pursuit of meaningful connections with other people.  Growth needs: A person's "growth requirements" are tied to his or her desire to make a meaningful impact in the world. Figure 1. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Source: Alderfer (1972) Employees will strive for ERG simultaneous satisfaction of all wants based on Alder's thesis, which states that needs function simultaneously and connect. Still, more than one need can serve as a motivation at the same time, and the dissatisfaction of attempting to address a higher-ranking need might cause a lowerranking need to deteriorate (Sulastri, 2021). It is not necessary to finish ERG Needs before attempting to satisfy the requirements of the remaining tiers. Alderfer's theory suggested that each need may be addressed concurrently. In addition to taking care of your fundamental requirements, such as getting food, you may also focus on your creative International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 616 projects. Sometimes a need could be excessive for an individual to handle. In such a case, the individual would retreat to satisfy a desire that was simpler to satisfy (Render, 2019). Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory According to Herzberg's (1954) two-factor theory, there are two groups of elements hygiene factors and motivation factors that impact motivation and work satisfaction. Hygiene elements (also known as maintenance factors) are not directly responsible for increasing employee motivation, but they might lead to discontent if they are not sufficiently satisfied. So, it is impossible to please an employee who is already unsatisfied, see Figure 2. Herzberg (1954) added that managers should focus on hygienic concerns before adding motivators. The type and substance of the task itself are strong determinants of the nature and content of the motivators (also known as growth factors). Figure 2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Source: Herzberg (2005) Increasing pay is merely a short-term solution to the problem, according to Herzberg (2005). A further increment is required to "recharge their energies" whenever they yet again lose motivation. In other words, the best approach to encourage people is to figure out what drives them or to "build a turbine in an employee" to keep themselves charged. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, according to Golshan, Kaswuri, Aghashahi, Amin and Ismail (2011), falls short of explaining the differences between mental and physical dimensions, motivators, and hygiene factors. It does not succeed in expressing the levels of contentment and discontent as an indicator rather than utilizing figures. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory is criticized by Badubi (2017) for assuming that every person would respond precisely in the same manner under a given circumstance. International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 617 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow postulated in 1954 that human beings had an insatiable need to have more stuff. Wanting more is a universal human trait, yet the specifics of that yearning vary from person to person and from possession to possession. One need is met, and then another arises. That’s where personal factors like a sense of meaning, control, and development come into play. Motivating top-performing employees who currently have their fundamental needs met via meeting their higher wants is more successful than just giving them additional money, which is also not highly connected with better pleasure (Glaveski, 2021). According to Maslow (1954), this means that people's actions are always motivated by a desire to meet some combination of their needs. Hence, the gratification of a need can never serve as a reward to act. See Figure 3 for Maslow's classification of human requirements. Human demands in contemporary workplaces do not have to reflect the theory's hierarchical structure (Pulasinghage, 2010:202). Figure 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Total Rewards Source: Collins (2009) You can see the similarities and differences between Alderfer's ERG theory, Maslow's hierarchy of requirements, and Herzberg's two-factor theory in Table 1. The ERG hypothesis of Alderfer's fundamentals to survival is relatedness requirements are analogous to Maslow's physiological and safety needs. This corresponds to Maslow's esteem and self-actualization needs, as well as those of the affiliation/social and growth sub-hierarchies. Two-Factor Theory, as developed by Herzberg motivators analogous to Maslow's self-worth and actualization. Hygiene aspects are analogous to Maslow's social/belongingness demands and esteem needs. Maslow's approach is very simplistic and just considers the needs of humans. The link between conduct and need is not one of simple cause and effect. The theory must take into account additional motivators like as perception, experience, and expectations. Every employee has different needs. Several individuals are content with their physiological International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 618 requirements and job stability alone. Not every employee category may benefit equally from Maslow's hierarchy of needs pattern. In contemporary times, Maslow's 'need hierarchy' theory is no longer applicable since people have a multitude of wants that must be met, some of which might conflict with his hierarchy. Although Maslow's hypothesis is generally acknowledged, there is not much actual data to back it up. Most of it is speculative and unproven. His works lean more toward philosophy than science (Trivedi & Mehta, 2019). McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory McClelland’s achievement motivation theory considers three needs, namely a need for affiliation (nAff), a need for power (nPow) and a need for achievement (nAch) (McClelland, 1962). People with a strong need for affiliation will aim their behaviour at fostering interpersonal relations, people with a strong need for power try to influence the behaviour of others, and people with a high need for achievement are often the top performers in an organization, see Figure 4. Figure 4. McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory Source: McClelland (1962) McClelland argues that humans often prioritize many needs at once, while these priorities may change over time. High-nAch individuals often exhibit the following traits (Nel et al., 2008), making them prime candidates for leadership roles:  They aim for high, realistic goals.  Consistent and timely responses are necessary.  Risks are evaluated carefully and taken only when necessary. International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 625 and treated. The single factor of reinforcement which is essentially incorporated into discrete and repeating units is used to explain human conduct and its causes. The idea is that repetition is the sole characteristic of conduct that matters. It simplifies the process of quantifying behaviours, but it ignores other characteristics like behaviour length or shape. In numerous situations, this might mean losing important information. Analysis using the Antecedent-Response model outcome is a misleadingly straightforward linear connection. Not all relations follow a straight course. Lack of particular explanation models for complicated issues (all the various diseases). Rather, he provides a single overarching model to account for all potential diseases, or separate models for every behaviour. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory A reward system is intimately tied to the expectation theory of motivation (Erasmus, Strydom & Rudansky-Kloppers, 2017:368) and this theory embraces that employees are only motivated to operate in each manner if they feel the intended goal will be achieved, (Nel et al., 2008:343), see Figure 10. It is necessary to study the influence of the reward system on employee attitudes and conduct (Erasmus et al., 2017:368). The effort exerted Performance First-level Second-level (Motivational force) outcomes outcomes Figure 10. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Source: Vroom (1964) According to Vroom's (1964) expectancy theory, employees are driven to act to achieve a goal if they believe in its value. An employee will apply great effort if he/she believes that there is a reasonable probability or chance that the effort will result in the achievement of an organisational goal and that the achievement of the organisational goal Expectancy-perceived probability that effort will lead to performance and first level outcomes Valence – anticipated satisfaction of attaining a goal Units produced Sales generated Number of queries solved Number of invoices processed Recognition Bonus Acceptance Promotion International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 626 will serve as a means for the individual to achieve his/her personal goals. Conferring to the expectation hypothesis, employees are only motivated when they see a favourable association between effort and job performance, and performance and rewards (Phillips & Gully, 2012). Financial and non-financial aspects through equity theory and Vroom’s expectancy theory have a positive/negative impact on employee creativity and innovation, employee performance, employee motivation, and employee engagement (the relationship). Fang (2023) argues that in many situations, expectation theory may be used with good results. On the other hand, expectation theory is a poor strategy for motivating employees within organizations. Employees might not be motivated by instrumentality, expectancies, or ideals. When employees require beyond just compensation and benefits, expectation theory becomes less applicable. Expectancy theory is particularly stringent in that it only motivates employees to perform better when each of the three conditions has been fulfilled at the same time. Managerial Methods Managerial methods help to bring the best in employees’ performance by using two approaches which are as follows (Kiley, 2018): Coordinating and Inspiring Performance Employees must work in a setting that makes it simpler for them to accomplish their jobs, provided by management (Kiley, 2018:146). McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y Each leader possesses a unique "cosmology" or philosophy about how to motivate employees, which inherently mirrors how they feel about people in general. McGregor believed that leaders' core beliefs significantly impacted how businesses are run. Here, managers' perceptions of human behaviour are crucial. As per McGregor, such hypotheses may be divided into Theory X and Theory Y, as shown in Table 2 below (McGregor, 1960). Table 2. Theory X versus Theory Y Theory X Theory Y Managers believe the following:  Employees are lazy.  Employees avoid work and responsibility where possible.  Employees cannot be trusted.  Employees need to be closely supervised.  Employees need to be forced to work. Managers believe the following:  Employees are ambitious.  Employees enjoy work and want responsibility.  They get satisfaction from doing a good job.  Employees can be trusted to work on their own. Source: Kiley (2018:148) International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 627 According to Table 2, McGregor's theories X and Y identified two mutually incompatible kinds of assumptions that leaders have towards their employees. These presumptions lead leaders to establish objectives for the employees and use performance management strategies to maintain employee motivation (Galani & Galanakis, 2022:788). Werner (2020:424) stresses the need to acknowledge the absence of one optimal motivational theory, and that instead, a variety of theories may be useful when utilized together to better understand human motivation in the workplace. Thus, tight, strict monitoring, well-defined tasks, and the prospect of punishment or increased compensation as incentives are necessary for a Theory X management style. When a manager operates on these presumptions, they will impose authoritarian controls, which might cause employees to become distrustful and resentful (Kiley, 2018). Singh (2019) states that Theory Y style managers were only manipulating persuasively. Despite adopting strategies such as participatory management, changing jobs, job growth, and different initiatives that sprang perhaps partially from McGregor's efforts to more effectively correspond to job responsibilities to fundamental human motivational needs, supervisors continued to prioritize productivity metrics over indicators of employees’ healthy lifestyles. Essentially. Theory Y is a condescending plan designed to make employees more productive, and if employees do not profit financially from their greater output, they've just been tricked into putting in more effort for the same amount of money. Effect Research on Western motivational theories on non-Western countries Most studies on classical motivational theories and managerial methods done in nonWestern countries did not consider the cultural differences that these motivational theories were created based on cultural values, norms and standards. Only a few studies studied classical motivational theories and managerial methods in non-Western countries considering the local cultures, norms, values and standards, and the findings of these studies are discussed hereunder. Jariya's (2012) study demonstrated how a range of general management techniques, such as planning, organizing, regulating management, and taking strategic decisions, are influenced by Western culture. Van der Wal's (2015) study found that it can occasionally be difficult to understand motivational and organizational dynamics in non-Western environments by using theoretical and methodological techniques having a Western influence. Evaluating Maslow's motivational theory's suitability and relevance beyond the regions it was developed, examined, and implemented, like Africa, before its apparent global acceptance. Tapuwa, Mubaya, van Reisen and Gertjan van Stam (2016) found that many African environments, both historical and contemporary, do not lend themselves to the Maslow hypothesis. This calls into doubt Maslow's model's inclusiveness and discredits the idea that it can be applied to everyone. The results of Iguisi's (2014) study imply that it is questionable and dubious if Western management methods and theories can effectively motivate African employees from large power distance and collectivistic countries. The demands and ambitions of the people of Africa have not been satisfied by the implantation of Western theories of management and approaches. According to the study, African managers may find it difficult to use International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 628 both conventional and contemporary human resource methods that might increase the efficiency of human resources in their organizations because of aspects of their cultural values. Investigate using Herzberg's Two Factor Theory for Romania, making any required adjustments to fit the country's cultural setting. The primary finding of this study is that the Two Factor Theory as proposed by Herzberg and his associates is inappropriate in Romania's cultural setting. The underlying assumptions of this theory, nevertheless, are sound: intrinsic work aspects are motivators operating inside the satisfaction domain, and the determinants of job fulfilment are often distinct from those producing discontent. Still, the idea needs to be modified to fit the cultural setting in Romania to be accepted as true (Matei & Abrudan, 2016). There are several significant differences between the environments and conditions in the West and Africa. Regretfully, a lot of the ideas that African managers implement in their organizations were developed in the West, within Western circumstances, without sensitivity research to see how well-suited they are to different kinds of environments. In general, these ideas do not depend on surroundings or circumstances. As a result, applying them to African organizations would be akin to misapplying them, with the result that supervisors in Africa frequently find that the concepts are ineffective, creating the perception that concepts are ineffective as a whole. However, theories can also function well if they are developed and applied in ways that are dependent on the circumstances. It appears that the reason why Western theories do not work in African organizations and several nations that are developing is that managers in these regions misuse sophisticated Western management ideas by employing them universally without considering the specific circumstances (Mom, 2018). AlAmrani (2020) study discovered that the theories of Maslow, Herzberg, and Vroom offer a foundation for revealing and comprehending motivational elements and their source in the Omani workforce. Considering their inception in the Western world around the mid-1900s, it is improbable that they can be universally applied to contemporary Omani culture. This is prevented by the unique aspects of Omani culture and tradition as well as the previously mentioned multi-national makeup of the workforce. While the second type stereotypes incentives towards monetary compensation, the previous version represents a past ethnic or system of hierarchy. Findings To this day, there are no non-Western classical motivational theories and managerial methods that exist. Organizations and foreign multinational organizations operating in non-Western countries use classical motivational theories and managerial methods. Understanding motivational and cultural factors in non-Western cultures may at times be challenging when employing Western-influenced theory and practical approaches. The introduction of Western management theories and methods has not met the needs and aspirations of the African people including people in other non-Western countries. Schwartz's (2012) observations from 82 nations demonstrate the cross-cultural validity of the hypothesis. The results show that people's value priorities varied significantly. Interestingly, nonetheless, most social groups' average value preferences show a similar International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 629 hierarchical pattern. The ecosystems and situations in the West and Africa differ significantly. Unfortunately, many of the concepts that African managers use in their organizations were created in the West, under Western conditions, and without careful consideration of how appropriate the concepts are to other contexts. Orkuugh's (2023) study argued that the cultural norms of the community upon which an organization operates have a significant impact on the application or functionality of management and motivational concepts. Principles of management and motivation do not exist in an environment without a culture. Many of the concepts that African managers use in their organizations were created in the West, in Western conditions, and without careful consideration of how well-suited the concepts are to other contexts. These concepts are generally independent of context or situation. Consequently, it would be equivalent to misapplying them to African organizations, leading to supervisors on that continent often concluding that the ideas are unsuccessful, thus fostering the notion that concepts are worthless overall. Western theories are ineffective in African organisations and several emerging nations because managers there apply advanced Western management concepts generally without taking into account the unique conditions. Hussain, ul Haque and Baloch (2019) stated that while concentrating on the effectiveness of tasks, classical theories place considerable value on administrative techniques, scientific methodologies, and administrative frameworks for management practices. The neo-classical school of thinking, contrary, examined human needs, relationships, behavioural characteristics, and the reasons underlying effectiveness. Finally, by taking into account structures, contingent approaches, organizational humanity, and management science as key concepts to function in an everchanging environment, the contemporary management school discovered that there is "no single appropriate technique for every circumstance." Recommendations This study was limited to secondary data that was available online. This study was limited to studies focusing on the applicability of contemporary, classical motivational theories and managerial methods in non-Western countries. The study was limited to the latest primary and secondary sources that were available online. Findings from the background to the problem serve as suggestions for recommendations. African and nonWestern countries with the help of local governments should invest in studying local African and other non-Western cultures to understand what motivates non-Western employees. Cultural differences in non-Western countries make it difficult for Western motivational theories to motivate locals as cultural differences differ. Any philosophical adaptation ought to acknowledge the unique lifestyle and values of Africans and modify its frameworks accordingly (Kuroakegha & Amakiri, 2019). Foreign organizations should acknowledge foreign cultures by studying these cultures and understanding these cultural norms by doing so they will know what can motivate the locals therefore they can easily align their total rewards to those cultures in foreign non-Western countries. Recent developments brought equivalent management theory towards the fore, emphasizing cross-cultural research and cultural sub-variations, among them those that International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 630 occur "across borders among countries or cultural classifications of countries and also in various organizational settings" (Sridhar, 2017). For foreign organizations and local organizations in non-Western countries through learning local cultures managers should be positive about employees from non-Western cultures as this is crucial for creating a conducive environment that will allow management to promote diversity in the workplace. It could be necessary to abandon Western-style management techniques in Africa and adopt African-style methods, like Ubuntu (Whyte & Auala, 2018). Conclusion Considering every person has distinct fundamental requirements, determining basic facts may be difficult. Another issue is the disloyalty of employees against the organization. It is difficult to know what the employees' inner thoughts are (Gupta, 2021). Cultural contexts may limit the applicability of motivational theories and managerial methods. This is supported by research by Tetteh, Mensah, Opata and Agyapong (2021), which discovered that cultural values influence the impact of employee rewards such as interactions, leadership, demanding work, and accomplishment. Employees who have moderate autonomous values in their culture are strongly driven by high partnerships, whereas those having a high degree of power distance cultural norms have great motivation by high management. Social norms have influenced the creation and upkeep of organizations within society that have a certain makeup and mode of operation. Western motivational theories in non-Western countries will fail as indigenous people are connected to the standards of their culture and it will be difficult for them to accept a foreign culture to influence and make them abandon theirs. This is so because culture shapes what propels and maintains behaviour, which in turn affects people's incentive to engage in it, both overtly and covertly (Wathoni et al., 2019). In non-Western countries, employees will continue to be demotivated due to the lack of interest and studies in studying and understanding local cultures as this will help multinational organizations to align themselves with the indigenous people. Instead, most foreign organizations when they come to Africa and other non-Western countries to do business bring their Western cultures, motivational theories managerial methods and their way of thinking and doing things and try to impose them on the locals in a form of dominance due to globalisation and having power over others. Incongruent to the above finding Austin (2010) the framework and organizations intended to turn African economies into producers of essential products received backing from European corporations and colonial governments, especially in southern Africa, which contributed to the persistence of the traditional economic justification for labour slavery. When cultural disparities are disregarded in a business, it may have detrimental effects that cause employees to become estranged from one another (Tutar, Altinoz & Cakiroglu, 2014). With so many cultures in Africa and other non-Western countries, it will be difficult to find a solution for each culture. References Adams, J. S., & Freedman, S. (1976) Equity Theory Revisited: Comments and Annotated Bibliography. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 4390. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60058-1 International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 631 Alderfer, G. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth: Human needs in organizational settings. Glencoeo: Free Press. AlAmrani, K. A. (2020). Applicability of the Motivation Theories of Maslow, Herzberg and Vroom to Contemporary Business Organizations in Oman. International Journal of Economics, Business and Management Studies, 7(2), 202-213. Alrawahi, S., Sellgren, S. F., Al-Touby, S. S. J., Alwahaibi, N., & Brommels, M. (2020). The application of Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation to job satisfaction in clinical laboratories in Omani hospitals. Heliyon, 6(9), e04829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04829 Acharya, A., & Buzan, B. (2017). Why is there no Non-Western International Relations Theory? Ten years on. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 17(3), 341-370. https://doi.org/10.1093/irap/lcx006 Austin, G. (2010). African Economic Development and Colonial Legacies. Revue internationale de politique de développement, 1(1), 11-32. https://doi.org/10.4000/poldev.78 Badubi, R. M. (2017). Theories of Motivation and Their Application in Organizations: a Risk Analysis. International Journal of Innovation and Economic Development, 3(3), 44-51. https://doi.org/10.18775/ijied.1849-75517020.2015.33.2004 Bhasin, H. (2023). A Guide to Job Characteristics Model by Hackman and Oldham. https://www.marketing91.com/job-characteristics-model/ Botha, C. (2020). Remuneration and Reward. In P. Nel, & A. Werner (Eds.), Human Resource Management (11th ed., pp. 207-246). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Bunger, D., & Tremble, R. R. (2004). Pay for Performance and Pay Satisfaction. Journal of Compensation and Benefits, 29-33. https://www.academia.edu Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. (2016). Rapid evidence assessment of the research literature on the effect of goal setting on workplace performance. www.cipd.co.uk/knowledge/journals Coldwell, D. A. L., & Perumal, S. (2007). Perceptions of the Measurability, Importance and Effects of Work Equity on Job Satisfaction and Work Motivation: An Exploratory Study of the Utility of Equity Theory. Alternation, 14(1), (2007) 197-217. Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2008). Business Research Methods. 10th ed. NY. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 632 Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2014). Business Research Methods. 12th ed. NY. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Erasmus, B., Strydom, J., & Rudansky-Kloppers, S. (2017). Introduction to business management. 10th Ed. Oxford University Press: Cape Town. Erciyes, E. (2019). A New Theoretical Framework for Multicultural Workforce Motivation in the Context of International Organizations. SAGE Open, 9(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019864199 Fang, J. (2023). Application and Limitations of the Expectancy Theory in Organizations. Advances in Economics Management and Political Sciences, 54(1), 7-12. https://doi.org/10.54254/2754-1169/54/20230868 Galani, A., & Galanakis, M. (2022). Organizational Psychology on the Rise - McGregor’s X and Y Theory: A Systematic Literature Review. Psychology, 13, 782-789. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2022.135051 Garen, B. (2011). Motivation: Chinese theoretical perspectives. Journal of Behavioural Studies in Business, 1-10. Glaveski, S. (2021). The Real Impact of Incentives on Performance at Work. https://glaveski.medium.com/the-real-impact-of-incentives-on-performance-atwork-f08ce97b10e9 Golshan, N. M., Kaswuri A. H., Aghashahi B., Amin M., & Ismail W. K. (2011). Effects of Motivational Factors on Job Satisfaction: An Empirical Study on Malaysian Gen-Y Administrative and Diplomatic Officers, 3rd International Conference on Advanced Management Science, Singapore. Grynko, T., Krupskyi, O., Koshevyi, M., & Maximchuk, O. (2017). Modern Concepts of Financial and Non-Financial Motivation of Service Industries Staff. Journal of Advanced Research in Law and Economics, 4(26): 1100-1112. https://doi:10.14505/jarle.v8.4(26).08 Gupta, A. K. (2021). Motivation Theories and their Application. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 10(3), 1597-1600. http://doi:10.21275/SR21323110051 Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, 16(2), 250–279. Heldring, L. (2013). Colonialism and development in Africa. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/colonialism-and-development-africa Herzberg, F. (1954). An Analysis of Morale Survey Comments. Personnel Psychology, 7(2), 267-275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1954.tb01600.x International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 633 Herzberg, F. (2005). Motivation-hygiene theory. Organizational behaviour one: Essential theories of motivation and leadership, eds JB Miner, ME Sharpe Inc, New York, 61-74. Herzberg, F. I., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley. Hofmans, J. (2012). Individual differences in equity models. Psicológica, 33, 473482. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in workrelated values, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Hussain, N., ul Haque, A., & Baloch, A. (2019). Management Theories: The Contribution of Contemporary Management Theorists in Tackling Contemporary Management Challenges. Journal of Yasar University, 14, 156169. Iguisi O., & Hofstede, G. (1993). Industrial Management in an African Culture. IRIC University of Limburg Press, Maastricht. Iguisi, O. (2009). Motivation-related values across cultures. African Journal of Business Management, 3(4), 141-150. http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM Iguisi, O. (2014). African Values for the Practice of Human Resource Management. Beykent University Journal of Social Sciences – BUJSS, 7(1), 56-77. Irshad, A. (2016). Impact of Extrinsic Rewards on Employees’ Performance. Journal of Global Economics, 4(3), 1-4. https://doi:10.4172/2375-4389.1000203 Jariya, A. M. I. (2012). Western cultural values and its implications on management practices. South East Asian Journal of Contemporary Business, Economics and Law, 1, 61-70. Kiley, J. (2018). Motivating. In J. W. Strydom (Eds). Principles of Business Management. (4th ed., pp. 136-155.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Kimotho, S. G. (2019). Cultural Implications of Western motivational Theories on Organizations from other Cultures. Kuroakegha, B. B., & Amakiri, D. S. (2019). Contextualizing Classical and Contemporary Management Theories in African Society. Information and Knowledge Management, 9(7), 34-38. https://doi:10.7176/IKM Labrador, F. J. (2004). Skinner and the Rise of Behaviour Modification and Behaviour Therapy. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 7(2), 178-187. International Journal of Management, Accounting and Economics Volume 11, Issue 5, May 2024 ISSN 2383-2126 (Online) DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11351766 www.ijmae.com 634 Lee, M. T., & Raschke, R. L. (2016). Understanding Employee Motivation and Organizational Performance: Arguments for a Set-Theoretic Approach. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge, 1,162-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jik.2016.01.004 Letele, M. J., & Massyn, L. (2018). Revisiting the applicability of classical and contemporary theories on employee satisfaction in today’s work environment: a theoretical perspective. In: Theron, E., & Theart, L., eds. Conference proceedings. 30th Annual Conference of the Southern African Institute of Management Scientists (SAIMS 2018), Maitland, South Africa. Cape Town; Southern African Institute of Management Scientists. Pp.1-1116. Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Marczak, E. L., & Yawson, R. (2021). Understanding the Theories and Interventions of Motivation in Organization Development. In, Responsible Management: Opportunities and Challenges. Proceedings of 58th Annual Conference of the Eastern Academy of Management. Virtual, May 19-21. SAGE Advance. https://doi.org/10.31124/advance.14610291.v1 Matei, M. C., & Abrudan, M. (2016). Adapting Herzberg’s two factor theory to the cultural context of Romania. Procedia - Social and Behavioural Sciences, 221, 95-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.094 Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers. McGregor, D. (1960). Theory X and Theory Y. Organization Theory, 358, 5. McClelland, D. C. (1961). The Achieving Society. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/14359-000 McClelland, W. G. (1962). The role of the supermarket in the distribution of agricultural products. Journal of Agricultural Economics, 15(2), 232-251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-9552.1962.tb01712.x Mexon, J., & Kumar, A. A. (2020). Business Research Methods. India: Skyfox Publishing Group. Miller, K. (2022). A Clear Explanation of Porter and Lawler's expectancy theory. https://crowjack.com/blog/strategy/motivational-theories/porter-and-lawlerstheory Mom, A. R. (2018). Why do Management Theories Fail? Reasons and Solutions: A Perspective of African Context. International Journal of Economics and Management Sciences, 07(03). https://doi.org/10.4172/2162-6359.1000520