Predictors of self-employment behavior among business graduates

Zaman, Umer; Zahid, Hasan; Aktan, Murat; Raza, Saqlain; Sidiki, Shehla Najib Article Predictors of self-employment behavior among business graduates Cogent Business & Management Provided in Cooperation with: Taylor & Francis Group Suggested Citation: Zaman, Umer; Zahid, Hasan; Aktan, Murat; Raza, Saqlain; Sidiki, Shehla Najib (2021) : Predictors of self-employment behavior among business graduates, Cogent Business & Management, ISSN 2331-1975, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon, Vol. 8, Iss. 1, pp. 1-17, https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 This Version is available at: https://hdl.handle.net/10419/245087 Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen: Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden. Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen. 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If the documents have been made available under an Open Content Licence (especially Creative Commons Licences), you may exercise further usage rights as specified in the indicated licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=oabm20 Cogent Business & Management ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/oabm20 Predictors of self-employment behavior among business graduates Umer Zaman, Hasan Zahid, Murat Aktan, Saqlain Raza & Shehla Najib Sidiki | To cite this article: Umer Zaman, Hasan Zahid, Murat Aktan, Saqlain Raza & Shehla Najib Sidiki | (2021) Predictors of self-employment behavior among business graduates, Cogent Business & Management, 8:1, 1947760, DOI: 10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 © 2021 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license. Published online: 02 Aug 2021. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 609 View related articles View Crossmark data MANAGEMENT | RESEARCH ARTICLE Predictors of self-employment behavior among business graduates Umer Zaman 1 , Hasan Zahid 2 *, Murat Aktan 3 , Saqlain Raza 4 and Shehla Najib Sidiki 4 Abstract: Self-employment skills (also known as entrepreneurship) play a vital role in the economic development of a country, thus should be given enough attention while designing business education programs. The purpose of this study is to investigate the predictors of self-employment behavior amongst business students in Pakistan. In this regard, the impact of entrepreneurial education, business incubation programs, students’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and social entrepreneurial attitude on students’ entrepreneurial intention and behavior was examined. Also, the moderating role of psychological empowerment on the relationship between self-employment intention and self-employment behavior was analyzed. A total of 542 valid responses were collected through a self-administrative questionnaire from business students in the public universities in Pakistan. The data were analyzed through partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) by using smart PLS 3.0 software. The findings show that entrepreneurial education, business incubation programs, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and social entrepreneurial attitude significantly and positively influence self-employment intention which in turn positively predicts self-employment behavior. Whilst, the moderating role of psychological empowerment between self-employment intention and behavior was not confirmed. Based on the findings, theoretical and practical implications have been discussed to help the policymakers, government institutions, and universities to Hasan Zahid ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr. Hasan Zahid is currently working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Business Administration, Iqra University, Pakistan. He earned his Ph.D. degree of Marketing in Public Administration from School of Government, University Utara Malaysia. He has been teaching various courses of Marketing on the study plan of masters and undergraduates. At the moment, he is supervising research students. Prior to joining the academia, he has been associated with HR corporations and have extensive experience as Business Development Manager and Recruitment Manager in United Arab Emirates. He was engaged with small businesses (SMEs) as a consultant in order to solve or develop business models in United Arab Emirates and Malaysia. PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT Becoming self-employed is goal for many wantto-be entrepreneurs, but knowing exactly what business to start and being able to afford the startup costs can be a barrier. The relationship between universities and business incubators (BIs) is necessary as universities are the source of knowledge, research, resources and today’s innovation-driven centers. The affiliation or management of a BI program inside a university represents a great advantage for the entrepreneurs, as these institutions can provide links to the industry, society and government entities. The UBIs can develop ability of innovation, critical thinking, business analytics skills and find out new ways to do businesses among the students. These start-ups not only give an opportunity for the local market but the international market can also take this opportunity. The post business projections and cost-benefits analysis skills can help the entrepreneurs to initiate the new ideas properly with less risk. Zaman et al., Cogent Business & Management (2021), 8: 1947760 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 Page 1 of 17 Received: 19 January 2021 Accepted: 11 June 2021 *Corresponding author: Hasan Zahid, Department of Business Administration, Iqra University Karachi, Pakistan E-mail: [email protected] Reviewing editor: Teresa Villace, Business. Marketing Area, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, SPAIN Additional information is available at the end of the article © 2021 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 license. develop and implement educational strategies to increase students’ selfemployment behavior. Subjects: Education - Social Sciences; Educational Psychology; Business, Management and Accounting; Educational Research; Sustainability Education, Training & Leadership; Keywords: Business incubation programs; self-employment intention; entrepreneurial education; entrepreneurial self-efficacy; social entrepreneurial attitude 1. Introduction Mounting shreds of evidence have shown that entrepreneurial activities can contribute to several factors including nationwide production capacity, economic growth, innovation, the prosperity of societies, and the creation of new jobs in the local market (Debus et al., 2017; Saberi & Hamdan, 2019). Entrepreneurial-based small and medium firms that are also called microenterprises contributed to the creation of jobs that are considered as rapidly fast-growing firms “i.e. high growth firms or gazelles” (Li et al., 2020). According to the recent report of the W. B. G. E. P (2020) although these fast-growing microenterprises accounted for 3% to 20% of the industries “including manufacturing and services”, they have generated more than 50% of new jobs in the services sector (2020, 2020). It is evident across the world economies that entrepreneurship stimulates the economic growth in emerging economies including many countries in Latin America (Bosma et al., 2018; Ehrlich et al., 2017; Hamdani, 2006; Singh & Maurya, 2020; Urbano et al., 2019; Willis et al., 2020) and Africa [8–9]. To that end, entrepreneurship offers a long-lasting solution to the persistent unemployment problem that triggers other problems such as resource wastage, reduction in incomes, and shrinking economies, etc. Although various governments have implemented ambitious policies to tackle the unemployment problem and foster entrepreneurship, there are still miles to go to reduce the youth unemployment rate even in the developed nations (Lewis et al., 2019). According to the M. C. R (2019), with 140 million people below the age of 30, Pakistan is considered as one of the youngest countries in the developing world or fastest-growing economies in Asia ((M. C. R, 2019), 2019). Thus, entrepreneurship potential can be deemed high for Pakistan although it ranks 122 out of 137 countries (the “second-lowest figure in the Asia Pacific region”) in the report of the Global Entrepreneurship Development Institute, G. T. G. E. A. D (2020) (Institute), 2020). Further, according to Pakistan Labour Force Survey (2018), the ratio of unemployed university graduates is increasing substantially as compared to other unemployed individuals having primary, tertiary and secondary education. Flowingly, this existing study sheds light on the antecedents of self-employment behavior among public university business graduates in the Punjab province of Pakistan. More explicitly, the present study elaborates on the impact of “entrepreneurship education, business incubation programs, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and social entrepreneurship” on the self-employment intentions which in turn predicts self-employment behavior. The present study has multiple contributions to the self-employment literature. First and foremost, it responds to the recent calls by further examining the antecedents of self-employment intention and behavior (Caines et al., 2019; Kusemererwa et al., 2020; Rostamkalaei et al., 2019; Stephan et al., 2020). Also, it incorporated several dimensions of university-related business incubation programs (i.e. support, skill development, seed capital, synergy, and service) and investigated their impact on self-employment intention, thus replying to Sahban (2016) who stated that few empirical studies have been investigated the effectiveness of incubation programs offered by universities. The university-related business incubation programs aim to assist and help the students to start new businesses and create new jobs in the market. Moreover, this study offers a pioneer attempt to unveil the relationship between entrepreneurial education, business incubation programs, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and social entrepreneurial attitude and selfemployment intention of business graduates. Recent studies have also highlighted the need to examine various factors that could strengthen or weaken the relationship between selfZaman et al., Cogent Business & Management (2021), 8: 1947760 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 Page 2 of 17 employment intention and self-employment behavior (Darmanto & Yuliari, 2018; Tiwari et al., 2017). Addressing these concerns, this study analyses the role of psychological empowerment (PE) as an important moderator between self-employment intention and self-employment behavior. PE is defined as “the perception that one can perform their tasks competently, has the autonomy to decide how to do her job, and her behavior makes a difference” (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). Individuals with high PE can easily adjust to the demands of their uncertain environments (Firth et al., 2014) and have higher levels of control over their jobs or environment (Erdogan et al., 2018). Therefore, it is expected that people with high PE levels have higher tendencies to engage in selfemployment behavior and as a consequence PE moderates the relationship between selfemployment intention and behavior. To sum up, this study investigates these aforementioned relationships in Pakistan that has a high potential for entrepreneurship and is a representative of the entrepreneurial climate in less developed nations. 2. Literature review and research hypotheses 2.1. Theoretical background The present study has provided the theoretical lens suited to understand entrepreneurial behavior by the support of three theories (The knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship, Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and Shapero Entrepreneurial Event (SEE) Theory) among the business graduates. The knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship was presented by (Audretsch & Keilbach, 2005). They postulate that entrepreneurial knowledge has the capacity to sharpen the self-employment views and has the tendency to increase the number of start-ups. In addition, the knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship predicts that working experience of any individual and education in universities or other institutes related to entrepreneurship can motivate individuals to start their own businesses. Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) is developed by Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) and derived from the social cognitive theory (SCT). The framework of SCCT provides more understanding of those processes through which the individuals make that choice related to the occupational pursuits. In the Shapero Entrepreneurial Event (SEE) Theory, SHAPERO and Sokol (1982) took a glimpse of the life path changes and its influence on individuals’ desirability and feasibility perception while establishing new businesses leads towards the formation of entrepreneurial behavior. In the line of the current study, the fill the gap, various antecedents of self-employment behavior i.e. entrepreneurial education, university business incubation programs, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, social entrepreneurial attitude, self-employment intention was investigated. In addition, to moderating role of psychological empowerment has also been investigated among the relationship of self-employment intention and self-employment behavior. 2.2. Entrepreneurship education and self-employment intention According to Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) which was developed by Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1994) individuals make their choices related to the occupational pursuits based on their personal experiences, educational background, and learning experiences. Therefore, various cognitive factors (situational or personal variables) have a significant potential to directly or indirectly influence the individual’s entrepreneurial intention (Krueger at al. 2000). This confirms with the Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship which postulates that entrepreneurial knowledge hones individuals’ self-employment skills, thus increases the number of start-ups initiatives [14]. In other words, entrepreneurship education provided by universities or other institutes could motivate individuals to start their own businesses and practically utilize their knowledge. Ogundipe et al. (2012) and Van der Zwan et al. (2013) reported that entrepreneurship education has a strong influence on self-employment intention, which aligns with Akpan and Etor (2013) who recognized entrepreneurship education as a powerful strategy to motivate graduate students to become entrepreneurs. So, the first hypothesis is developed based on the above theoretical discussions. Zaman et al., Cogent Business & Management (2021), 8: 1947760 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 Page 3 of 17 H1: Entrepreneurship education significantly and positively related to self-employment intention among the business graduates’ students in Pakistan. 2.3. Business incubation program and self-employment intention Business incubation programs are one of the latest concepts to have emerged in the modern business world, which aim to nurture start-ups and support existing small businesses (Sahban, 2016). Based on the Shapero Entrepreneurial Event theory, individuals’ intentions, attitudes, and feelings “towards self-employment is a function of their distinctive social environment (e.g., families, educational and professional influences). In this regard, business incubation programs provided by universities play a vital role to develop a suitable ground for university students to follow their entrepreneurial drives (Cheah & Cheah, 2005). The foremost aim of the universityrelated incubations programs is to encourage new students to launch new start-ups businesses rather than to seek jobs in the outside job market (Sahban, 2016). Prior research have postulated the importance of business incubation programs in entrepreneurial learning and idea generation processes (Al-Mubaraki & Busler, 2013; Joseph et al., 2007; Zasiadly, 2012). Also, students having exposure to business incubation programs were found to have higher intentions towards selfemployment compared to other studentsOtuya et al. (2013). Chrismadha et al. (2006) noted that business incubation programs also help newly founded small enterprises to compete in the local as well as international markets. From the above critical discussions, the following hypothesis is formulated to investigate the impact of the business incubation program on self-employment intention in Pakistan. H2:Business incubation programs significantly and positively related to self-employment intention among the business graduates in Pakistan. 2.4. Entrepreneurial self-efficacy and self-employment intention Entrepreneurial Self-efficacy is defined as “cognitive evaluation of an individual’s capabilities to perform specific tasks of entrepreneurship” [13]. Numerous prior researchers have reported a significant and positive influence of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurship intention [13, 37, 38]. According to Indarti and Rostiani (2008), self-efficacy has a significant effect on the strength of entrepreneurship intention among the students. Also, Saeed et al. (2013) have reported the positive effect of self-efficacy on entrepreneurial intention which in turn triggers entrepreneurial action. Therefore, the higher the self-efficacy that the individuals possess in the initial stage of their entrepreneurial career, the higher will be their entrepreneurship intention. Consequently, as mentioned by Chen et al. (1998) entrepreneurial self-efficacy has a positive impact on the development of new ventures. Based on the literature, the following third hypothesis is proposed for the research; H3:Entrepreneurial self-efficacy is significantly and positively related to self-employment intention among the business graduates in Pakistan. 2.5. Social entrepreneurship attitude and self-employment intention According to Hofstede and Bond (1984), the word society is the arrangement of shared values among the individuals within the society. Geletkanycz (1997) defined societal culture as “the basic referencing frame or logic by which the society views the environment, associations, and their relations to each other”. Therefore as stated by Fukuyama (2001) the society and its values significantly influence economic activities as well as molding and shaping of institutional effectiveness. Likewise, an individual’s state of mind is affected by the predominant societal values, which could then determine the entrepreneurial attitude and intention of the individual. Therefore based on the intensity of the relationship that an individual has with his cultural surroundings, entrepreneurial attitude and intention may also exist at varying degrees (Ali, 2014). Mitra (2019) Zaman et al., Cogent Business & Management (2021), 8: 1947760 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 Page 4 of 17 posited a positive relationship between an individual’s entrepreneurial attitude and entrepreneurial intention. Therefore, although belonging to the same society, individuals having an entrepreneurial mindset and attitude are more likely to develop stronger self-employment intentions (Ali, 2014). Idris (2017) depicted that societal culture influences individuals’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship, which leads to entrepreneurial intention (Moriano et al., 2012). Hence, the following hypothesis is formulated to investigate the influence of social entrepreneurship attitude and selfemployment intention among the business graduates. H4:Social entrepreneurial attitude is significantly and positively related to self-employment intention among the business graduates of universities in Pakistan. 2.6. Self-employment intention and self-employment actual behavior Ajzen (1991) defined intention as “an individual’s willingness to perform a certain behavior and the number of times that a person tries to perform a definite behavior”. According to Zahid and Haji Din (2019) & Akbar et al. (2019) “humans are considered as rational actors who plan to attain specific goals and intentionally perform to reach these goals. Hence, behavioral intention can produce the actual behavior”. According to Taylor and Todd (1995), behavioral intention is the best predictor of actual behavior in various sectors including health, technology, and many other domains. Also, numerous prior researchers revealed the presence of a high correlation between the behavioral intention and actual behavior (Bélanger & Carter, 2008; Turner et al., 2010). Drawing up the previous literature the following hypothesis is formulated; H5:Self-employment intention significantly and positively influences the self-employment behavior among the business graduates of universities in Pakistan 2.7. Moderating role of psychological empowerment Psychological empowerment is defined as “increased intrinsic task motivation manifested in a set of four cognitions (competence, impact, meaning, and self-determination), reflecting an individual’s active orientation to his or her work role” (Deci et al., 1989). Numerous prior researchers used psychological behavior as moderator on different endogenous variables like on organizational commitment (Avolio et al., 2004), satisfaction (Barroso Castro et al., 2008), work place aggression (Hepworth & Towler, 2004) and motivation (Epitropaki & Martin, 2013). Though, there is a paucity of empirical studies on investigating the causal relationship (psychological empowerment as moderator) with respect to entrepreneurial behavior (Afsar et al., 2017). Particularly, moderator can be incorporated in the conceptual framework by the following reasons, 1) contradictory results (positive or negative relationship) among the relationship of exogenous variable (X) and endogenous variable (Y), 2) inconsistent results (significant and insignificant relationship) 3) weak results among X and Y (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Additionally, the prior researches have been reported inconsistent findings among the relationship of intention and actual behavior (Akbar et al., 2019; Alam et al., 2020; Lim et al., 2016; Okazaki & Renda dos Santos, 2012; Wati & Koo, 2012, January). These inconsistent findings among the relationship of intention and actual behavior have given the opportunity to the researchers to re-test that weak, inconsistent or contradictory relationship. From the abovementioned discussions, the present study investigated the moderating effect of psychological empowerment among the relationship of self-employment intention and selfemployment behavior of the business graduates of public universities. Relying on the literature the following hypothesis is formulated; H6: Psychological empowerment moderate between the relationship of self-employment intention and self-employment behavior. Zaman et al., Cogent Business & Management (2021), 8: 1947760 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 Page 5 of 17 3. Research methodology This study adopted a quantitative hypothetic-deductive approach to verify the hypothesized relations in the proposed structural model. A field survey was conducted where a temporally segregated research design was employed and the data were collected at two different periods from the same students. This temporal separation of independent, moderator, and dependent variables helps to avoid problems arising from cross-sectional and single-source designs where all the variables are collected at the same time. Data were collected from the management sciences students at all the public universities in the province of Punjab, Pakistan. According to Higher Education Commission in Pakistan, 126 public universities are operating all over Pakistan. The first reason to choose public universities in Punjab is that nearly half of all public universities in Pakistan are located in Punjab. Secondly, the population of Punjab is 110 million, which makes it the most populous province of Punjab. In data collection, only universities having management science departments (27 universities) were reached, and due to the universities’ internal policies, the name of the universities included in this study are kept confidential. Common method bias (CMB) has serious concerns in primary data. In order to mitigate CMB we applied multiple methodological remedies. First, we explain the purpose of present study to the respondents and ensure them about confidentiality that data will use research purpose only. Second, we guide the respondents about the response id or alias (fake name) in subsequent survey (time 2). Third, we applied multi-wave design, where in At time 1(T1), we distributed 1050 paper-pencilbased survey questionnaire of entrepreneurial education, business incubation programs, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, social entrepreneurial attitude and self-employment behavior among the management sciences students of 27 public sector universities. Therefore, we have assigned unique code against the original names of the universities (University1, Universtiy2, University3 . . . . . . and University27). At T1 we received 750. After the four weeks’ interval, at time 2 (T2) we distributed the 750 paper-pencil-based survey questionnaire of self-employment intentions and psychological empowerment among the same respondents of aforementioned universities. And at T2 we received 542 completely filled surveys with the response rate of 52%. Fourth, we added psychological empowerment as moderator. The inclusion of a moderator reduces the chances of CMB from single-source data (Brockner, Siegel, Daly, Tyler, & Martin, 1997; Simons & Peterson, 2000). Fifth, we perform conformity factor analysis (CFA) of study variables. CFA results reveals that full-factor model have better goodness of fit then other models (χ2 = 398.66, p < 0.001; TLI = 0.67; CFI = 0.73; RMSEA = 0.14). Respondents consisted of 374 (69%) males and 168 (31%) females. Most of the respondents (75%) belonged to the 18–24 years’ age group. The majority of the respondents 450 (83%) are the students of bachelor degree. A total of 314 respondents are married (58%). Maximum respondents belong to urban area 434 (80%). 3.1. Measures We adopted or adapted measures from previous studies according to the operational definition of the variables. The construct of business incubation programs have five dimensions “i.e. service, support, skill development, seed capital and synergy”, which was measured by 16 reflective items adopted from (Sahban, 2016). Meanwhile, the construct of entrepreneurship education was measured with four indicators adopted from a prior study (Serah, 2014). In addition, five indicators used to measure the construct of entrepreneurial self-efficacy were adopted from (Sahban, 2016). Likewise, five items were used to measure the construct of societal entrepreneurship. In addition, the items for the construct entrepreneurial attitude were adopted from the study of (Ali, 2014). The items to measure the constructs of self-employment behavior and psychological empowerment were adapted from Afsar et al. (2017). 4. Results and analysis Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is considered second-generation multivariate analysis technique and has gained enormous popularity among the social sciences researcher around the globe (H.Zahid & Haji Din, B. 2019; Zaman et al. 2021; Ali et al. 2019). SEM is the combination of path modeling, factor analysis, and multiple regression and has the ability to test a theoretical Zaman et al., Cogent Business & Management (2021), 8: 1947760 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 Page 6 of 17 supported causal model (Chin, 1998). In the line of the present study, the selection of PLS-SEM by using smart PLS software was based on the following reasons. 4.1. Assessment of measurement model In partial least square (PLS), the inspection of items loadings on the latent constructs assessed the reliability of the constructs (Hulland, 1999). For the assessment of the measurement model, reliability and validity are verified by the researcher. The reliability is measured through composite reliability and validity is measured by convergent and discriminant validity. The internal consistency (e.g., composite reliability), convergent validity (e.g., average variance extracted) and discriminant validity (e.g., cross-loadings and HTMT criterion and Fornelllarcker criterion) of the instruments are assessed in the measurement model. In composite reliability of the constructs, all the factor loadings for reflective constructs should be greater than the cutoff value of 0.5 as recommended by (Joseph et al., 2007). In addition, the cut off value of the composite reliability is 0.7 (J. F. Hair et al., 2011). In (Table 3) all the constructs of the present study show a high level of internal consistency reliability. For the assessment of convergent validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) was determined. The value of AVE greater than 0.5 shows the latent variable explained more than half of the variance of its indicators shown in (Table 3). To assess the discriminant validity, two measures were involved. First is the cross-loading of the items that should be greater than 0.5 and values greater than 0.7 are considered as ideal (J. F. Hair et al., 2011). Secondly, the Fornell-Larcker criterion “that more variance is shared by a latent construct with its own indicators than with another latent construct in the structural model” (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) (see in Table 2). According to 2007(Hair et al. 2014), “the squared root of the AVE (represented by the values in the diagonal) calculated should be greater than each of the construct correlations (represented by the values in the off-diagonal)” (see in Table 1). 4.2. Assessment of structural model Once the measurement model goodness was established then the assessment of the structural model was performed (see in Figure 1) (Chin, 2010). Firstly, the predictive power of the structural model was determined by evaluating the Coefficient of the determinant (R 2 ) of each of the endogenous variable and significance level of the path coefficient was also determined (Chin, 2010; Joe F Hair Jr, Sarstedt, Hopkins, & Kuppelwieser, 2014). According to Cohen (1992), the rule of thumb of R2 values is 0.26 as substantial, 0.13 as moderate and 0.02 as weak for the endogenous latent constructs (see in Table 3). Secondly, the predictor construct was assessed by using the effect size of Cohen (f 2 ). Therefore, the f 2 values are considered as 0.35 as large, 0.15 as Table 1. Values of composite Reliability (CR) & Average Variance Extracted (AVE) Composite Reliability (CR) Average Variance Extracted (AVE) Business Incubation Programs 0.789 0.864 Entrepreneurial Education 0.858 0.669 Entrepreneurial Self-efficacy 0.838 0.567 Psychological Empowerment 0.806 0.512 Seed Capital 0.841 0.639 Self-Employment Intention 0.884 0.607 Self-Employment Behavior 0.821 0.606 Service 0.824 0.540 Skill Development 0.819 0.602 Social Entrepreneurial Attitude 0.888 0.725 Support 0.827 0.547 Synergy 0.765 0.620 Zaman et al., Cogent Business & Management (2021), 8: 1947760 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2021.1947760 Page 7 of 17 Household Products in Pakistan. Sustainability. 2019; 11(5):1462. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11051462 Al-Mubaraki, H. M., & Busler, M. (2013). The effect of business incubation in developing countries. European Journal of Business and Innovation Research, 1(1), 19–25. 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