Learning and emotions

F enzel, Anne C.; Goe z, Thomas Lea ning and emo ions Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any, Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ; New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 67-80. - (Do munde Symposium de Empi ischen Bildungs o schung; 9) Quellenangabe/ Re e ence: F enzel, Anne C.; Goe z, Thomas: Lea ning and emo ions - In: Becke , Michael [H sg.]; Digna h, Cha lo e [H sg.]; Bihle , Lilly-Ma len [H sg.]; Gaspa d, Hanna [H sg.]; McEl any, Nele [H sg.]: Socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen in lea ning. Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! Müns e ; New Yo k : Waxmann 2026, S. 67-80 - URN: u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345076 - DOI: 10.25656/01:34507 h ps://nbn- esol ing.o g/u n:nbn:de:0111-pedocs-345076 h ps://doi.o g/10.25656/01:34507 in Koope a ion mi / in coope a ion wi h: h p://www.waxmann.com Nu zungsbedingungen Te ms o use Dieses Dokumen s eh un e olgende C ea i e Commons-Lizenz: h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.de - Sie dü en das We k bzw. den Inhal un e olgenden Bedingungen e iel äl igen, e b ei en und ö en lich zugänglich machen sowie Abwandlungen und Bea bei ungen des We kes bzw. Inhal es an e igen: Sie müssen den Namen des Au o s/Rech einhabe s in de on ihm es geleg en Weise nennen. Dieses We k bzw. de Inhal da nich ü komme zielle Zwecke e wende we den. Die neu en s andenen We ke bzw. Inhal e dü en nu un e Ve wendung on Lizenzbedingungen wei e gegeben we den, die mi denen dieses Lizenz e ages iden isch ode e gleichba sind. 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F enzel & Thomas Goe z Lea ning and emo ions In his con ibu ion, we se ou o ake ou eade s on a jou ney o be e un‐ de s and he na u e o emo ions, as well as hei an eceden s and lea ning ou ‐ comes. The p esen ed emo ion heo y and exis ing empi ical e idence poin s o close links be ween emo ions and lea ning; hence i seems ha class ooms designed o op imize s uden s’ emo ions should also be conduci e o e ec i e cogni i e de elopmen . Ne e heless, we conclude by ealizing ha i is no i ial o align socio-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen goals in class ooms. Ins ead, he ypical, pe o mance-o ien ed class oom se ings seem o make hose goals ope a e in compe i ion. By emphasizing mas e y-o ien a ion and de aching he oles o “ins uc o ” e sus “examine ”, a be e alignmen o he wo goals does seem achie able. Bu now, in o he jungle o human emo ional expe iences . . . 1. Emo ions in educa ional con ex s: Concep ualiza ion Emo ions unc ion as an “in e ace be ween an o ganism and i s en i onmen ” (Sche e & Moo s, 2019, p. 721), comp ising a ious componen s such as si ‐ ua ional e alua ions, ac ion endencies, physiological esponses, exp essi e be‐ ha io s, and subjec i e eelings. Fo example, he subjec i e eeling o p ide can a ise when an indi idual has achie ed an academic success due o hei pe ‐ sonal abili y o e o . This goes in line wi h a mo i a ion o engage in simila ac i i ies, and is accompanied by physiological changes like inc eased hea a e and body empe a u e, as well as exp essi e beha io s such as smiling, il ing he head back, expanding he ches , and po en ially aising a ms. In con as , he subjec i e eeling o anxie y eme ges in ace o a po en ial academic ailu e, and goes in line wi h a desi e o escape he si ua ion, as well as physiological eac ions like a apid hea a e, swea ing, wide eyes, and c ouched pos u e, and wo ies abou nega i e consequences o he po en ial academic ailu e. Emo ions a e ypically o sho du a ion and di ec ed owa d speci ic objec s, se ing hem apa om moods, which end o be longe -las ing, less ocused on speci ic objec s, and associa ed wi h weake physiological esponses and exp essions (Coppin & Sande , 2021). The ex ensi e ocabula y a ound emo‐ ions illus a es hei di e si y and he a ying unc ions emo ions can ake on. 68 Anne C. F enzel & Thomas Goe z Fo example, we can desc ibe how we eel wi h adjec i es like chee ul, ela ed, con iden , joy ul, p oud, i i a ed, annoyed, es less, ang y, anxious, bo ed, sad, epida ious, so ow ul, wea y, o dull. Fu he mo e, emo ions can be concep ualized along a con inuum om s a e o ai (Laza us, 1994). Emo ional s a es ep esen momen a y esponses a is‐ ing om in e ac ions wi h he en i onmen , whe eas emo ional ai s e lec he endency o indi iduals o expe ience ce ain emo ions mo e equen ly o in ensely o e ime and si ua ions han o he s. By de ini ion, emo ional ai s a e ela i ely s able, as highligh ed in esea ch dis inguishing s a e and ai componen s o achie emen emo ions (Ne e al., 2017). 1.1 Types o emo ions in educa ional se ings Clea ly he bes - esea ched ype o emo ions expe ienced in educa ional con‐ ex s a e achie emen emo ions, which eme ge du ing e alua ions o one’s pe ‐ o mance in ela ion o achie emen s anda ds (Pek un, 2006). One can ei he achie e hose s anda ds – hence, succeed; o no – hence, ail. I is a basic human emo ional esponse o eel posi i e abou success and nega i e abou ailu e. Examples o disc e e achie emen emo ions include es anxie y, shame, elie , bo edom, ange , p ide and enjoymen . Educa ional se ings in ol e ex emely equen and e y salien encoun e s o achie emen s anda ds – s uden s a e cons an ly old wha hey a e supposed o accomplish, and p o ided wi h eed‐ back as o whe he hey achie ed he p oposed s anda ds. Acco dingly, hey cons an ly expe ience successes and ailu es, which ine i ably b ing abou co ‐ esponding posi i e and nega i e achie emen emo ions. Fu he , he e a e also epis emic emo ions, such as su p ise, cu iosi y, and con usion. Epis emic emo ions do no di ec ly pe ain o success and ailu e in ela ion o a desi ed achie emen s anda d, bu s ill in ol e subjec i e judg‐ men s o one’s gaps and changes in knowledge (Pek un, Vogl, e al., 2017). They a ise in con ex s equi ing engagemen wi h no el o non- ou ine asks, such as p oblem-sol ing o esea ch p ojec s, as hey ypically eme ge when being con‐ on ed wi h unexpec ed in o ma ion o cogni i e incong ui y. Con usion and us a ion a e pa icula ly salien epis emic emo ions in educa ional esea ch (Di Leo e al., 2019; Muis e al., 2018). Ano he ca ego y, opic- ela ed emo ions, is igge ed di ec ly by he subjec ma e o lea ning asks. Examples include eelings o sadness when lea ning abou poli ical con lic s, o disgus when engaging wi h ce ain scien i ic ma‐ e ials. Las ly, social emo ions ela e o o he s’ ac ions o achie emen s. These emo ions encompass admi a ion, en y, o sympa hy, becoming especially ele‐ an in collabo a i e lea ning en i onmen s (Jä elä, 2012). Lea ning and emo ions 69 In sum, educa ional se ings, and he ac i i y – and du y – o lea ning in‐ ol es a ich a ay o emo ions. Clea ly, achie emen emo ions a e qui e e‐ quen he e: The pleasu e o success, and pain o ailu e a e pe asi e in educa‐ ional se ings. Howe e , lea ning in e ms o expanding and eo ganizing one’s knowledge base also bea s nuanced epis emic emo ions, lea ning opics can a ouse emo ions in and o hemsel es, and gi en ha educa ional se ings a e ypically o ganized in communi ies o simila ly aged lea ne s, social emo ions also accompany lea ning. 1.2 App aisal an eceden s o achie emen emo ions A key heo y in educa ional psychology is Pek un’s Con ol-Value Theo y (CVT; e.g., Pek un, 2018). This heo y is g ounded in app aisal pe spec i es, sugges ing ha an indi idual’s cogni i e assessmen s o a si ua ion play a c u‐ cial ole in emo ional expe iences (Sche e & Moo s, 2019). CVT in eg a es elemen s om ansac ional heo ies o s ess- ela ed emo ions (Laza us & Folkman, 1984) and a ibu ion heo y conce ning emo ions (G aham & Tay‐ lo , 2014), alongside concep ual o e laps wi h expec ancy- alue heo ies o achie emen mo i a ion (Eccles, 2005; Rosenzweig e al., 2019). Ini ially, CVT concen a ed on achie emen emo ions (see Pek un, 2024, o a e ised e sion ha encompasses mul iple g oups o emo ions). Acco ding o CVT, wo ap‐ p aisals a e pa icula ly in luen ial in elici ing achie emen emo ions: subjec‐ i e con ol o e lea ning and pe o mance ac i i ies and he subjec i e alue o hese ac i i ies and ou comes. Di e en disc e e emo ions o m based on dis inc pa e ns o con ol and alue app aisals; o example, enjoymen a ises when con ol is high and success is an icipa ed, while es anxie y inc eases when con ol is low and po en ial ailu e is a possibili y. Fu he mo e, con ol and alue app aisals in e ac , implying ha he impac o one app aisal on an emo ion can be assumed o depend on he le el o he o he . Fo ins ance, a s uden aking a low-s akes es (li le alue) may ind ha hei pe cei ed con‐ ol (i.e., low con idence in success) has less in luence on es anxie y compa ed o when he es is high-s akes (e.g. c ucial o college en y; hence has a high alue). Ex ensi e empi ical esea ch suppo s he links be ween s uden s’ con ol and alue app aisals and a ange o achie emen emo ions. T adi ional class‐ oom s udies a e summa ized by Pek un and Pe y (2014), while Lode e e al. (2020) add ess echnology-based lea ning en i onmen s. 70 Anne C. F enzel & Thomas Goe z 1.3 Social-cogni i e an eceden s o achie emen emo ions CVT adop s a social-cogni i e pe spec i e, posi ing ha he pe cei ed social en i onmen plays a signi ican ole in shaping s uden s’ con ol and alue ap‐ p aisals, and consequen ly, hei achie emen emo ions. Pek un (2018) iden i‐ ies key aspec s o he social en i onmen , including (1) ace s o ins uc ion, (2) alue induc ion, (3) au onomy suppo , (4) goal s uc u es and expec a ions es ablished by eache s o class ooms, and (5) achie emen eedback and i s consequences. Empi ical e idence demons a es co ela ional and p edic i e links be ween hese en i onmen al ac o s and s uden s’ emo ions, wi h con ol and alue app aisals se ing as media o s. Fo example, Laza ides and Buchholz (2019) ound ha s uden s’ pe cep ions o ins uc ional elemen s like eache sup‐ po , cogni i e ac i a ion, and class oom managemen we e linked o hei emo ions o enjoymen , anxie y, and ange . Fu he , Flunge e al. (2019) conduc ed a ield expe imen con as ing au onomy-suppo i e ins uc ion wi h adi ional eache -cen e ed me hods in physics educa ion, e ealing ha au onomy suppo —cha ac e ized by o e ing choices and in o ma ional language—enhanced posi i e achie emen emo ions while educing nega i e ones, especially among s uden s wi h s onge p io pe o mance. In addi ion, achie emen eedback, o en con eyed as g ades in o mal educa ional se ings, signi ican ly impac s s uden s’ con ol and alue app aisals ega ding hei lea ning ac i i ies and subsequen ly a ec s hei achie emen emo ions (see Goe z e al., 2018, o a e iew on eedback and emo ions). Beyond he class oom, amily dynamics, pee g oups, and b oade mac o- con ex s (such as cul u ally shaped a i udes owa ds educa ion) in luence s u‐ den s’ achie emen emo ions. Fo ins ance, esea ch by Ansong e al. (2017) and Dong e al. (2020) highligh ha pa en s and pee s signi ican ly shape al‐ ues o adolescen s in Ghana and China, a ec ing hei engagemen , enjoymen , and bo edom in school. A a mac o-sys em le el, high-s akes es ing has been consis en ly shown o unde mine child en’s well-being (Cho & Chan, 2020). 2. Rele ance o emo ions o lea ning and pe o mance D awing om basic psychological esea ch on he unc ions o emo ions, i is e iden ha emo ions a e linked wi h lea ning in many di e en ways, and hence a e linked wi h pe o mance ou comes. Speci ically, he connec ion be‐ ween emo ions and pe o mance is media ed by a ious cogni i e, sel - egu‐ la o y, and mo i a ional mechanisms (Pek un, 2018). The e is empi ical e i‐ dence ha nega i e emo ions du ing lea ning—such as ange , anxie y, shame, Lea ning and emo ions 71 bo edom, and hopelessness—a e associa ed wi h ask-i ele an hinking, a endency o use shallow lea ning s a egies (e.g., ehea sal), and less equen use o me acogni i e s a egies (Pek un e al., 2002). Con e sely, enjoymen in lea ning is linked o lowe le els o ask-i ele an hinking, enhanced ocus, and mo e e ec i e sel - egula ion, con ibu ing o deepe and mo e sus ainable lea ning (Ahmed e al., 2013; Obe g iesse & S oege , 2020). Fu he mo e, subs an ial empi ical e idence exis s ega ding he ela ion‐ ships be ween achie emen emo ions and achie emen mo i a ion du ing he lea ning p ocess (see Huang, 2011, o a me a-analysis on he links be ween achie emen goals and emo ions). Emo ions also in luence bo h in insic and ex insic o ms o mo i a ion; o ins ance, posi i e emo ions, pa icula ly en‐ joymen , a e signi ican d i e s o in insic mo i a ion (Isen & Ree e, 2005). In con as , nega i e emo ions like anxie y and ange can lead lea ne s o ocus on he ask’s ad e se aspec s o he consequences o po en ial ailu e, co ela ing posi i ely wi h ex insic mo i a ion o less sel -de e mined ypes o mo i a ion. I is impo an o no e, howe e , ha esea ch on achie emen emo ions has a ely been in eg a ed wi h s udies on in insic e sus ex insic mo i a ion om a sel -de e mina ion heo y pe spec i e (an excep ion is Su e -B andenbe ge e al., 2018). Fu he , nume ous s udies ha e examined di ec ela ionships be ween achie emen emo ions and academic pe o mance. Gene ally, hese links a e posi i e o pleasan emo ions and nega i e o unpleasan emo ions, as e i‐ denced by mul iple me a-analyses including a ious di e en disc e e achie e‐ men emo ions, including enjoymen , ange / us a ion, bo edom, and he mos p ominen ( es ) anxie y (Camacho-Mo les e al., 2021; Tze e al., 2016; on de Embse e al., 2018). Longi udinal s udies ha e shown ha hese co e‐ la ions a e o en ecip ocal, wi h emo ions in luencing academic pe o mance and ice e sa (Fo sblom e al., 2022; Lich en eld e al., 2022; Pek un, Lich en‐ eld, e al., 2017; Pek un e al., 2023). In summa y, he e is compelling e idence ha emo ions signi ican ly in lu‐ ence achie emen , while achie emen ou comes also a ec emo ions. The e is a complex in e play among emo ions, cogni ions, mo i a ion, lea ning beha ‐ io s, and achie emen , which c ea es posi i e and nega i e cycles. 3. Designing lea ning en i onmen s conside ing s uden s’ emo ions Based on he insigh s in o he an eceden s o s uden s’ emo ions, i is possible o de i e implica ions o how lea ning en i onmen s can be designed so ha s uden s expe ience mo e posi i e and less nega i e emo ions. Gi en he s ong connec ions be ween s uden s’ emo ions and hei lea ning and achie emen 72 Anne C. F enzel & Thomas Goe z Figu e 1. P inciples o op imizing s uden s’ con ol and alue app aisals o design emo ionally heal hy lea ning en i onmen s. Abbildung e ügba un e : 10 . 6084 / m9 . igsha e . 30103837 , un e CC license ( h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ ) ou comes, such lea ning en i onmen s should also be conduci e o e ec i e lea ning and op imal achie emen ou comes. The ollowing p inciples ou line ways o achie e his, aligning wi h and expanding upon he “design p inciples o adap i e mo i a ion and emo ion in educa ion” p oposed by Linnenb ink- Ga cia e al. (2016). A isual summa y is depic ed in Figu e 1. 3.1 P omo ing enjoymen o lea ning Fos e ing enjoymen o lea ning should be a p io i y o op imize he emo ional a mosphe e in he class oom. Wi hou eso ing o o e ly en e aining me h‐ ods, eache s can ocus on making opics and lea ning ac i i ies engaging and enjoyable. I is also ad isable o eache s o ocus on hei own enjoymen du ‐ ing eaching, and o emind hemsel es o wha hey hemsel es ind ascina ing abou he lesson con en : The e is consis en e idence ha eache s’ own enjoy‐ men and en husiasm du ing eaching can ansmi o s uden s (F enzel e al., 2018; F enzel e al., 2021; F enzel e al., 2024). O cou se, simply c ea ing a joy‐ ul class oom a mosphe e likely will no su ice o p omo e lea ning. Howe e , s uden s’ willingness o main ain hei a en ion and o exe men al e o will likely be enhanced when he lea ning asks a e enjoyable. Lea ning and emo ions 73 3.2 Suppo ing eelings o compe ence, enhancing au onomy, and de-emphasizing social compa ison S uden s a e mo e likely o eel in con ol o hei lea ning when hey pe cei e hemsel es as compe en . This can be accomplished h ough well-s uc u ed and cogni i ely clea ins uc ion, along wi h op imally challenging asks ha a e a o sligh ly abo e s uden s’ cu en skill le els, acili a ing mas e y expe‐ iences in line wi h Vygo sky’s concep o he zone o p oximal de elopmen (Vygo sky, 1980). Fos e ing au onomy in ol es p o iding oppo uni ies o s uden decision- making and minimizing con olling p ac ices, such as ex insic ewa ds o p e‐ sc ip i e ins uc ions abou sea ing and pa icipa ion (Ree e, 2009). Fu he , while compe i ion may appeal o some s uden s, a ocus on social compa ison, such as games wi h a single winne , c ea es a pe cep ion o success as a limi ed esou ce. Simila ly, eache messages ha emphasize he signi icance o exams and po en ial consequences o ailu e (“ ea appeals”) ypically only encou age engagemen o s uden s who iew hem as challenges, bu unde mine mo i‐ a ion o hose who pe cei e hem as h ea s (Pu wain e al., 2022). F equen summa i e g ading also has ad e se emo ional consequences o lea ne s. Lip‐ ne ich e al. (2021) ha e shown ha p o iding a g ade ins ead o a na a i e commen p omo es lea ne s’ nega i e emo ions, and unde mines posi i e emo‐ ions as well as hei willingness and quali y o e ise hei wo k. 3.3 C ea ing mu ual eelings o ela edness The quali y o he eache -s uden ela ionship signi ican ly in luences s u‐ den s’ engagemen and emo ional s a es. High-quali y ela ionships enhance s uden s’ in e es and educe nega i e emo ions (Goe z e al., 2021; Quin, 2017; Roo da e al., 2011). To p omo e eelings o ela edness, s a egies such as spending nondi ec‐ i e one-on-one ime wi h s uden s (“Banking Time”) can be e ec i e and bene icial (D iscoll e al., 2011; Pian a e al., 2012). Ano he app oach o en‐ hance he quali y o eache -s uden ela ionships is he in e en ion de eloped by Gehlbach e al. (2016), which posi s ha pe cep ions o mu ual simila i y be ween eache s and s uden s (such as endo sing he same ood p e e ences o li e mo os) s eng hen hei bond. 74 Anne C. F enzel & Thomas Goe z 4. Suppo ing s uden s’ emo ion egula ion In addi ion o he delibe a ions p o e ed abo e which ideally lead o inc eased con ol and alue app aisals and consequen ly, o s uden s expe iencing mo e posi i e and less nega i e emo ions in he class oom, i is wo h no ing ha such a hedonis ic app oach – maximizing posi i e, minimizing nega i e emo ional expe iences – also has i s limi s. I lies in he human na u e o no always eel good. A ce ain poin s, nega i e emo ions a e una oidable also in he lea ning and achie emen con ex : Anyone ge s us a ed and s essed when an exam ask seems unsol able, o eels disappoin ed when a pe o mance ou come alls behind one’s expec a ions. The e o e, i is also impo an o suppo s uden s in he egula ion o hei emo ions. To his end, hey should be suppo ed in hei belie ha hei emo ions a e con ollable (Fo d e al., 2018), and in hei acqui‐ si ion o a b oad s a egy epe oi e o be p epa ed o egula e hei emo ions e ec i ely and lexibly (Ro weile e al., 2023; S ockinge e al., 2025). 5. Lea ning and emo ions – Educa ional goals in compe i ion?! The p esen con ibu ion s i es o p o ide insigh in o he cu en s a e o knowledge how emo ions a e linked wi h lea ning and pe o mance. On i s sigh , he conclusion om he e idence e iewed in his chap e seems clea and simple. Emo ions a e s ongly and sys ema ically linked wi h lea ning and consequen ly, wi h achie emen : Pleasan emo ions eme ge om success and p omo e lea ning, and nega i e emo ions eme ge om ailu es and unde mine lea ning. Hence, i seems ha he p omo ion o emo ional and cogni i e de el‐ opmen go hand in hand: Enhanced cogni i e de elopmen esul s in success, which p omo es posi i e emo ions, and ice e sa. Howe e , he ac ual eali y a many schools does no seem o be e y success ul a es ablishing such pos‐ i i e eedback loops be ween cogni i e de elopmen and emo ional p o i . We p opose ha one key aspec ha unde mines he alignmen o social-emo ional and cogni i e de elopmen goals is ha a majo i y o eaching se ings s ill seem o in ol e con on ing la ge and qui e he e ogeneous lea ning g oups wi h uni‐ o m eaching con en and demand le els, and adminis e highly equen sum‐ ma i e g ading, ypically in ol ing social compa ison s anda ds, hence de in‐ ing success in e ms o ou pe o mance wi hin he social compa ison g oup. Social compa ison s anda ds ypically imply ha wi hin a lea ning g oup, a ew ou s anding g ades can be p o ided, while e e yone else ecei es an a e age- o below a e age- eedback. The ew s uden s who ou pe o m hei pee s likely h i e in such en i onmen s, bu all emaining s uden s a ely expe ience he emo ional pleasu e o success. Such displeasu e o no being success ul in e ms