Did the quality of digital communication skills in education improve after the pandemic? Evidence from HEIs

Ci a ion: U banek, A.; Losa, A.; Wieczo ek-Kosmala, M.; Hla áˇcek, K.; Lokaj, A. Did he Quali y o Digi al Communica ion Skills in Educa ion Imp o e a e he Pandemic? E idence om HEIs. Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ su151511878 Academic Edi o : Hao-Chiang Koong Lin Recei ed: 21 June 2023 Re ised: 30 July 2023 Accep ed: 31 July 2023 Published: 2 Augus 2023 Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). sus ainabili y A icle Did he Quali y o Digi al Communica ion Skills in Educa ion Imp o e a e he Pandemic? E idence om HEIs Anna U banek 1,* , Anna Losa 2, Monika Wieczo ek-Kosmala 3, Ka el Hla áˇcek 4and Aleš Lokaj 4 1Facul y o Economics, Uni e si y o Economics in Ka owice, 40-287 Ka owice, Poland 2Facul y o In o ma ics and Communica ion, Uni e si y o Economics in Ka owice, 40-287 Ka owice, Poland; [email p o ec ed] 3Facul y o Spa ial Economy and Regions in T ansi ion, Uni e si y o Economics in Ka owice, 40-287 Ka owice, Poland; [email p o ec ed] 4Facul y o Economics, VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 702 200 Os a a, Czech Republic; [email p o ec ed] (K.H.); [email p o ec ed] (A.L.) *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : In he global ansi ion, digi al echnologies a e pe cei ed as impo an d i e s o change. Con empo a y IT echnologies help o enhance he p oduc i i y and e iciency o nume ous sys ems on he way o achie ing sus ainable de elopmen goals. Wide use o digi al communica ion ools in HEIs (highe educa ion ins i u ions) can educe inequali ies and inc ease inclusi eness o e ia y educa ion. In his pape , we p esen he esul s o explo a o y esea ch aimed a assessing whe he COVID-19 has imp o ed digi al communica ion skills in highe educa ion. We e ised he quali y o digi al di ec and indi ec communica ion skills be ween s uden s and eache s (bo h ways), by e e ing o he le el o sa is ac ion o bo h sides o digi al communica ion ( eache s and s uden s). The esul s indica e ha he e is a s a is ically signi ican imp o emen in he quali y o digi al communica ion skills, in pa icula , i we compa e he posi ion o bo h s uden s and eache s a e he pandemic, ela i e o he p e-COVID-19 pandemic pe iod. Ou in es iga ion con i ms ha COVID-19 was a shock ha enhanced he imp o emen o digi al communica ion skills in highe educa ion, and he pandemic expe ience had a posi i e impac on he mo e e icien use o digi al educa ion echnologies. Keywo ds: digi aliza ion in educa ion; digi al communica ion skills; educa ion o sus ainabili y; HEIs; COVID-19 1. In oduc ion Educa ion has been se e ely a ec ed by he COVID-19 pandemic h oughou he wo ld. The c isis caused by COVID-19 was an impo an s ess es o he educa ion sys em wi h a h ea o massi e loss o human capi al de elopmen and long- e m economic and social implica ions [ 1 ]. Howe e , as any o he c isis, i has c ea ed new educa ional oppo uni ies and changed he ways o hinking, also in he a ea o he ole o online educa ion in os e ing sus ainable de elopmen . I has p omo ed he digi aliza ion o he educa ion sys em and ini ia ed he deba es ega ding he po en ial o online lea ning, educa ional inequali ies, and he e ec i eness o online communica ion and eaching me hods [2]. Digi aliza ion p o ides emo e access o an in eg a ed ne wo k o ins i u ions, use s, se ices, and esou ces and is pe cei ed as a signi ican d i e o sus ainabili y. In o ma- ion and communica ions echnologies (ICTs) imp o e he p oduc i i y and e iciency o socioeconomic sys ems and lead o g ea e esou ce e iciency, gene a ing unique oppo u- ni ies o add ess challenges associa ed wi h sus ainable de elopmen goals (SDGs) [ 3 , 4 ]. Among he 17 SDGs o he Uni ed Na ions [ 5 ], he e a e 4 di ec ly ela ed o digi aliza ion in educa ion: quali y educa ion (SDG 4), educed inequali ies (SDG 10), sus ainable ci ies Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/su151511878 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/sus ainabili y Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 2 o 22 and communi ies (SDG 11), and esponsible consump ion and p oduc ion (SDG 12). Online educa ion eplaces many ace- o- ace ac i i ies; his helps o achie e esou ce e iciency and was e educ ion by educing he need o acili ies, buildings and o he in as uc- u e (SDG 12). The s udy conduc ed by Ve s eijlen e al. [ 6 ] on HEIs shows ha online educa ion (when a leas 80% o educa ion p ocesses is digi al) also g ea ly dec eases he ca bon impac o s uden and eache a el (SDG 11). Fu he mo e, digi al communica ion can educe inequali ies (SDG 10), especially in he a ea o spa ial accessibili y (e.g., u al a eas), inc easing inclusi eness o educa ion and many public se ices [ 7 , 8 ]. On he o he hand, he COVID-19 pandemic also showed ha online lea ning can enhance eaching inno a ions wi h he use o new echnology in as uc u es, imp o e digi al compe encies o bo h s uden s and eache s, o imp o e lea ning condi ions a home [ 9 ], suppo ing educa ion quali y (SDG 4). The con ibu ions o digi al ans o ma ion (DT) and he ela ed digi al ans o ma ion in educa ion (DTE) hemsel es a e ega ded ele an ac o s suppo ing he SDGs, in line wi h he 2030 agenda [ 10 ]. In pa icula , he use o in o ma ion and communica ion ech- nologies (ICT) a e ega ded as impo an ac o s in accele a ing p og ess and suppo ing he achie emen o SDGs add essing quali y o educa ion and inclusi e knowledge. In ac , his issue aised esea ch a en ion in p e-COVID-19 pandemic pe iod, in he con ex o echnological eadiness [ 11 ]. The COVID-19 expe ience o ced uni e si ies o shi o his new end in educa ion in a e y sho pe iod o ime. No su p isingly, as e ised by Bond e a . [ 12 ] in hei me a-analysis o published wo ks, sho ly a e he pandemic ou b eak, he e we e nume ous s udies (o en quali a i e o on small samples) e lec ing echnological eadiness, pedagogical cons ain s, o social limi a ions o emo e educa ion. In his s eam o he li e a u e, howe e , he p oblem o digi al communica ion skills was no add essed. Ou wo k adds o his e iden esea ch gap by add essing he digi al communica ion skills o eache s and s uden s in he digi al eaching en i onmen . In his ega d, ou wo k con ibu es o he inc ease in online communica ion compe ences ha a e c i ical o e icien digi al communica ion in highe educa ion. The main pu pose o ou wo k is o explo e whe he he quali y o eache s’ and s uden s’ digi al communica ion skills has imp o ed due o he expe ience o he COVID- 19 pandemic. In ou empi ical in es iga ions, we compa e he esul s o h ee uni e si ies loca ed in h ee coun ies: Poland, Czechia, and Slo akia. The selec ion coun y se ing was d i en by se e al obse a ions. Fi s , hese h ee coun ies ep esen cen al Eu ope and sha e cul u al, economic, and social simila i ies, which esul om hei his o y and geog aphical p oximi y [ 13 ]. Since hei accession o he Eu opean Union in 2004, he policy e o ms o highe educa ion we e a ge ed a implemen ing he s anda ds o he Bologna P ocess, which b ing cohe ence o highe educa ion sys em ac oss Eu opean Union [ 14 ]. In his aspec , he h ee coun ies subjec o ou empi ical explo a ion emain homogenous. A he same ime, despi e many simila i ies sha ed by Poland, Czechia, and Slo akia, he e a e some in e es ing di e ences in he use o digi al educa ion, lea ing Poland behind, especially in he pos -COVID-19 pandemic pe iod. Acco ding o Eu os a [ 15 ], he pe cen age o indi iduals who a end online cou ses o use o digi al educa ional ma e ials in he pos -COVID-19 pandemic pe iod eached me ely 14%, while in Slo akia and Czechia, his indica o was abo e he EU a e age o 25%. Thus, ou sample selec ion p o ides an insigh o coun ies ha a e no homogenous as a as he impac s o pandemic on he enhancemen o digi al educa ion a e conside ed. Ou in es iga ion was designed as an explo a o y wo k o add ess h ee esea ch ques ions ha add ess he sa is ac ion o digi al communica ion skills a HEIs. Ou in en ion was o de ec he po en ial imp o emen in digi al communica ion skills by compa ing he p e- and pos -COVID-19 pandemic pe iods. Mo eo e , we we e in e es ed in acking he imp o emen in communica ion skills o wo majo s akeholde s o digi al educa ion, namely eache s and s uden s, as well as he suppo i e ole o echnology. Taking he abo e in o conside a ion, we o mula ed ou esea ch ques ions as ollows: Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 3 o 22 • RQ1: Has s uden sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o eache digi al communica ion skills imp o ed? • RQ2: Has eache sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o s uden digi al communica ion skills imp o ed? • RQ3: Has he sa is ac ion o s uden s and eache s wi h he so wa e pla o m used o online lec u es imp o ed? Fo he pu poses o ou explo a o y s udy, we designed a su ey. To d aw conclusions on he imp o emen in quali y o digi al communica ion skills, we asked ou esponden s o conside he si ua ion be o e pandemic (p e-C19), a he beginning o pandemic ou b eak (beg-C19), and a e he pandemic (pos -C19). By compa ing pos -COVID-19 pandemic esponses wi h hose o o me pe iods (p e-C19 and beg-C19), we we e able o add ess he di e ences ha appea ed be ween hese h ee poin s in ime. The su ey was a ge ed a s uden s and eache s sepa a ely, allowing us o compa e he pe cep ions o hese wo g oups wi h ega d o he digi al communica ion p ocess. The emainde o his pape is o ganized as ollows: In Sec ion 2, we ou line he heo e ical amewo k o digi al communica ion in educa ion, wi h iden i ica ion o majo p oblems aced by he pa icipan s o he digi al communica ion p ocess. In Sec ion 3, we explain he design o ou explo a o y empi ical esea ch by explaining he sample selec ion, su ey design, and me hods we used. In Sec ion 4, we p esen and discuss he esul s. Sec ion 5concludes. 2. Digi al Communica ion Skills in he Highe Educa ion P ocess Ma ke p ac ice and scien i ic esea ch show ha g adually, o many yea s, he ole o emo e lea ning in he educa ional ma ke has inc eased [ 16 – 18 ]. Undoub edly, one o he easons behind his was he p ocess o digi al ans o ma ion (DT) and he ela ed digi al ans o ma ion in educa ion (DTE). The DTE i sel emains c i ical in e icien suppo o sus ainable de elopmen goals as a as quali y o educa ion and inclusi eness a e conside ed [ 10 ]. In pa icula , he use o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies (ICTs) is ega ded as an impo an ac o o accele a ing p og ess [ 11 ]. No su p isingly, he i s wo ks o conside he challenges o he COVID-19 pandemic we e e y conce ned abou echnological eadiness o emo e educa ion. Howe e , less a en ion was paid o he eadiness o he pa icipan s o he p ocess o educa ion, in line wi h he heo y o communica ion and i s quali y, and i s speci ics in he digi al en i onmen . O e all, ou s udy e lec s H. Lasswell’s [ 19 ] model o communica ion, known as he “5W” model and p esen ed in Figu e 1[ 20 , 21 ]. The “5W” model emphasizes he wo impo an aspec s o in e pe sonal communica ion: he linea i y o communica ion and i s unc ionali y. The communica ion p ocess has i e main elemen s: sende , ecei e , message, channel, and e ec (“WHO says WHAT o WHOM in WHICH channel wi h WHAT e ec ”). Subsequen wo k on he heo y o he communica ion p ocess ex ended he s uc u e o Lasswell’s model o include elemen s such as communica ion noise and eedback, which a e also impo an o de e mining e ec i eness o communica ion [ 22 , 23 ]. In line wi h Lasswell’s model, communica ion is de ined as he ac o communica ing be ween indi iduals o exchange ideas and sha e in o ma ion using app op ia e channels and ools. Sus ainabili y 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 23 • RQ1: Has s uden sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o eache digi al communica ion skills imp o ed? • RQ2: Has eache sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o s uden digi al communica ion skills imp o ed? • RQ3: Has he sa is ac ion o s uden s and eache s wi h he so wa e pla o m used o online lec u es imp o ed? Fo he pu poses o ou explo a o y s udy, we designed a su ey. To d aw conclu- sions on he imp o emen in quali y o digi al communica ion skills, we asked ou e- sponden s o conside he si ua ion be o e pandemic (p e-C19), a he beginning o pan- demic ou b eak (beg-C19), and a e he pandemic (pos -C19). By compa ing pos - COVID-19 pandemic esponses wi h hose o o me pe iods (p e-C19 and beg-C19), we we e able o add ess he di e ences ha appea ed be ween hese h ee poin s in ime. The su ey was a ge ed a s uden s and eache s sepa a ely, allowing us o compa e he pe - cep ions o hese wo g oups wi h ega d o he digi al communica ion p ocess. The emainde o his pape is o ganized as ollows: In he second sec ion, we ou line he heo e ical amewo k o digi al communica ion in educa ion, wi h iden i ica ion o majo p oblems aced by he pa icipan s o he digi al communica ion p ocess. In he hi d sec ion, we explain he design o ou explo a o y empi ical esea ch by explaining he sample selec ion, su ey design, and me hods we used. In he ou h sec ion, we p e- sen and discuss he esul s. Sec ion i e concludes. 2. Digi al Communica ion Skills in he Highe Educa ion P ocess Ma ke p ac ice and scien i ic esea ch show ha g adually, o many yea s, he ole o emo e lea ning in he educa ional ma ke has inc eased [16–18]. Undoub edly, one o he easons behind his was he p ocess o digi al ans o ma ion (DT) and he ela ed digi al ans o ma ion in educa ion (DTE). The DTE i sel emains c i ical in e icien sup- po o sus ainable de elopmen goals as a as quali y o educa ion and inclusi eness a e conside ed [10]. In pa icula , he use o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies (ICTs) is ega ded as an impo an ac o o accele a ing p og ess [11]. No su p isingly, he i s wo ks o conside he challenges o he COVID-19 pandemic we e e y conce ned abou echnological eadiness o emo e educa ion. Howe e , less a en ion was paid o he eadiness o he pa icipan s o he p ocess o educa ion, in line wi h he heo y o communica ion and i s quali y, and i s speci ics in he digi al en i onmen . O e all, ou s udy e lec s H. Lasswell’s [19] model o communica ion, known as he “5W” model and p esen ed in Figu e 1 [20,21]. The “5W” model emphasizes he wo im- po an aspec s o in e pe sonal communica ion: he linea i y o communica ion and i s unc ionali y. The communica ion p ocess has i e main elemen s: sende , ecei e , mes- sage, channel, and e ec (“WHO says WHAT o WHOM in WHICH channel wi h WHAT e ec ”). Subsequen wo k on he heo y o he communica ion p ocess ex ended he s uc- u e o Lasswell’s model o include elemen s such as communica ion noise and eedback, which a e also impo an o de e mining e ec i eness o communica ion [22,23]. In line wi h Lasswell’s model, communica ion is de ined as he ac o communica ing be ween indi iduals o exchange ideas and sha e in o ma ion using app op ia e channels and ools. Figu e 1. H.D. Lasswell’s “5W” model o he communica ion p ocess. Sou ce: own s udy. Figu e 1. H.D. Lasswell’s “5W” model o he communica ion p ocess. Sou ce: own s udy. Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 4 o 22 As poin ed ou by Wengxiu [ 24 ], in he p ocess o media communica ion, he “5W” elemen s a e e ol ing, no only in e ms o echnological de elopmen impac ing he channel o communica ion, bu also in complexi y o he emaining elemen s. Acco dingly, he p ocess o digi al communica ion is also mo e complex, and i educa ion is conside ed, he p ope communica ion skills o eache s (sende s) and s uden s ( ecipien s) a e essen ial. The COVID-19 pandemic led bo h eache s and s uden s o de elop he abili y o eac quickly o changes happening a ound hem and o adap he ools and me hods o educa ion and lea ning o changing condi ions. Ne e heless, he e is some p e- and pos -COVID-19 pandemic e idence ha sheds ligh on majo p oblems ha migh in luence e icien digi al communica ion in he p ocess o highe educa ion. I we conside s uden s as he ecipien s o communica ion in he p ocess o educa ion, o many s uden s, pa icipa ion in emo e classes was di icul , and he glass sc een ba ie did no allow o ull pa icipa ion and he exchange o ideas. Lack o con ac wi h eache s and lack o li e in e ac ion wi h colleagues a ec ed sel - egula ion and added o lea ning di icul ies du ing online s udy [ 25 ]. S uden s pa icipa ing in emo e lea ning we e also exposed o psychological issues, such as a sense o isola ion, di icul y in ocusing on he sc een o a long ime, o lack o a sense o suppo . In addi ion, massi e in o ma ion and wo k o e load we e also epo ed as ele an dis u bances in he p ocess o online eaching a he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic [ 12 , 26 ]. Some s udies also con i med he lack o mo i a ion o wo k in online classes, which in u n esul ed in highe d opou a es. This endency was obse ed be o e he COVID-19 pandemic ( o ins ance, Angelino e al. [ 27 ] p o ed 10–20% highe a i ion a es o online classes in compa ison o in-house classes). Rega ding he COVID-19 pandemic’s e ec s, simila p oblems wi h mo i a ion we e obse ed by He ás-Gómez e al. [ 10 ]. O e all, s uden s’ p oblems wi h lack o clea eedback om eache s, incomp ehensibili y, imp ecise ins uc ions o assignmen s, and lack o echnical p epa a ion o lea ne s we e con i med by se e al wo ks a be o e he COVID-19 pandemic’s ou b eak [ 28 , 29 ], inspi ed by ea ly a emp s o implemen digi al educa ion. I we conside eache s as he sende s o communica ion, simila conclusions can be d awn. Fi s o all, eache s we e also obse ed o ha e di icul ies, including si ua ions whe e s uden s u n o came as and pe o m a ious ac i i ies un ela ed o he subjec du ing he lec u e. The inabili y o eache s o use hei body language, ges u es, and acial exp essions, which in he eal wo ld build ela ionships, is also an obs acle o e ec i e online eaching. I is up o eache s o ind a way o each ou o s uden s o encou age hem o keep hei a en ion on he cou se and pa icipa e in asks. A key aspec o he lea ning p ocess is communica ion and mo i a ion, and in a dis ance lea ning en i onmen , he impo ance o p ope communica ion be ween all pa ies in he p ocess seems e en mo e impo an han in a uni e si y class oom en i onmen [18,30,31]. F om he pe spec i e o he p ocess o educa ion, communica ion in online educa ion may implemen ei he synch onous o asynch onous online modes (as dis inguished by Khan [ 32 ]). Khan [ 32 ] conside ed synch onous lea ning as consis ing o wo c ucial ele- men s: in e ac ions o e he in e ne (s uden s’ in e ac ions wi h a u o ) and eal- ime digi al communica ion. Asynch onous eaching is de ined as eaching no limi ed by he ime, place, o cons ain s o a class oom [ 33 ]. Wi h e e ence o his dis inc ion, in Figu e 2, we p esen he wo main ypes o digi al communica ion ha a e in place in he digi al educa ion p ocess [ 34 , 35 ]. Synch onous communica ion is based on con e sa ions, and a he same ime, i ep esen s a di ec and in e ac i e communica ion s yle. Examples a e online lessons and lec u es (in eal ime) pe o med wi h he suppo o isual echniques. The e a e also wo ypes o asynch onous communica ion, which ep esen indi ec and passi e communica ion. These could be ei he he co espondence-based communica ion (e.g., emails o discussion o a) o digi al media and online esou ces (e.g., he ex s p o- ided o suppo he lea ning p ocess). Rega dless o ype, digi al communica ion needs adequa e echnical suppo o be e icien . The e o e, digi al communica ion pla o ms Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 5 o 22 emain a ele an echnical aspec o e icien digi al educa ion in channeling in o ma ion om sende o ecipien . Sus ainabili y 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 23 emain a ele an echnical aspec o e icien digi al educa ion in channeling in o ma ion om sende o ecipien . Figu e 2. Types o communica ion in digi al educa ion. Sou ce: own s udy. Each lea ning si ua ion equi es he adap a ion o app op ia e communica ion s yles and echniques ha imp o e audience engagemen and enable he achie emen o lea n- ing objec i es [36]. Con a y o appea ances, in synch onous online communica ion, he c i ical issue is no only he choice o ools and pla o ms o he in e ac i i y o he p e- pa ed p esen a ion. Mos impo an is he eache ’s a i ude (as he sende o communica- ion) owa d he s uden s ( ecipien s o communica ion) and a eache ’s abili y o main ain hei s uden s’ a en ion. These aspec s a e c i ical o he quali y o digi al communica ion skills in he educa ion p ocess. When designing ou explo a o y su ey, we e e enced he ypes o digi al communica ion p esen ed in Figu e 2 and he ele ance o communica ion pla o ms, which is explained in he ollowing sec ion. 3. Resea ch Design and Me hod 3.1. Su ey Design To add ess he p oblem o digi al communica ion skills in he p ocess o digi al edu- ca ion a HEIs, we used he unique oppo uni y c ea ed by he COVID-19 pandemic. A ha ime, HEIs had o shi om he adi ional (on-si e) lea ning p ocess o online lec u es in a ela i ely sho pe iod o ime. This was a challenging expe ience and is e y in o ma- i e in he con ex o how a ex e nal o ces can d i e imp o emen in he educa ion p o- cess. Ou su ey was designed and conduc ed as pa o an educa ional p ojec aimed a imp o ing digi al educa ion in HEIs. As pa o he diagnosis o he exis ing si ua ion, we an his explo a o y su ey o lea n abou he digi al communica ion skills o bo h sides o he p ocess o communica ion, eache s and s uden s, as well as abou he ole o digi al communica ion channels used o suppo his p ocess (in line wi h he model ou lined in Figu e 2). In Table 1, we p esen he h ee main cons uc s o ou su ey. These cons uc s we e designed in line wi h he h ee esea ch ques ions we asked, wi h e e ence o he com- pa ison o p e- and pos -COVID-19 pandemic pe iods: • RQ1: Has s uden sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o eache s’ digi al communica ion skills inc eased? Figu e 2. Types o communica ion in digi al educa ion. Sou ce: own s udy. Each lea ning si ua ion equi es he adap a ion o app op ia e communica ion s yles and echniques ha imp o e audience engagemen and enable he achie emen o lea ning objec i es [ 36 ]. Con a y o appea ances, in synch onous online communica ion, he c i ical issue is no only he choice o ools and pla o ms o he in e ac i i y o he p epa ed p esen a ion. Mos impo an is he eache ’s a i ude (as he sende o communica ion) owa d he s uden s ( ecipien s o communica ion) and a eache ’s abili y o main ain hei s uden s’ a en ion. These aspec s a e c i ical o he quali y o digi al communica ion skills in he educa ion p ocess. When designing ou explo a o y su ey, we e e enced he ypes o digi al communica ion p esen ed in Figu e 2and he ele ance o communica ion pla o ms, which is explained in he ollowing sec ion. 3. Resea ch Design and Me hod 3.1. Su ey Design To add ess he p oblem o digi al communica ion skills in he p ocess o digi al edu- ca ion a HEIs, we used he unique oppo uni y c ea ed by he COVID-19 pandemic. A ha ime, HEIs had o shi om he adi ional (on-si e) lea ning p ocess o online lec u es in a ela i ely sho pe iod o ime. This was a challenging expe ience and is e y in o - ma i e in he con ex o how a ex e nal o ces can d i e imp o emen in he educa ion p ocess. Ou su ey was designed and conduc ed as pa o an educa ional p ojec aimed a imp o ing digi al educa ion in HEIs. As pa o he diagnosis o he exis ing si ua ion, we an his explo a o y su ey o lea n abou he digi al communica ion skills o bo h sides o he p ocess o communica ion, eache s and s uden s, as well as abou he ole o digi al communica ion channels used o suppo his p ocess (in line wi h he model ou lined in Figu e 2). In Table 1, we p esen he h ee main cons uc s o ou su ey. These cons uc s we e designed in line wi h he h ee esea ch ques ions we asked, wi h e e ence o he compa ison o p e- and pos -COVID-19 pandemic pe iods: • RQ1: Has s uden sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o eache s’ digi al communica ion skills inc eased? • RQ2: Has eache sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o s uden s’ digi al communica ion skills inc eased? Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 6 o 22 • RQ3: Has s uden and eache sa is ac ion wi h he so wa e pla o m used o online lec u es inc eased? Table 1. The cons uc s o he explo a o y su ey. Cons uc s Pa icipan s in he Digi al Communica ion P ocess Types o digi al communica ion Di ec (synch onous) RQ1: S uden s RQ2: Teache s Sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h eache s Sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h s uden s Indi ec (asynch onous) Sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o indi ec digi al communica ion wi h eache s Sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o indi ec digi al communica ion wi h s uden s Communica ion channels RQ3: Sa is ac ion o he so wa e pla o ms used o online lec u es Sou ce: own s udy. To answe he i s esea ch ques ion, we asked s uden s abou he quali y o eache s’ digi al communica ion skills and add essed bo h di ec (synch onous) and indi ec (asyn- ch onous) communica ion. In a simila ein, we add essed he second esea ch ques ion by asking eache s abou he quali y o s uden s’ digi al communica ion skills. Finally, we asked bo h g oups o he communica ion p ocess ( eache s and s uden s) abou hei sa is ac ion le el wi h he digi al pla o ms used o suppo he communica ion p ocess in online eaching. The eache s and s uden s’ asse ions we e p o ided on a 5-poin Like scale, anging om 1 (no sa is ied a all) o 5 ( e y sa is ied). Wi h his me hodical app oach, we we e able o compa e he le el o sa is ac ion wi h he quali y o digi al communica ion and he lea ning pla o ms used in he communica ion p ocess o e ime. The asse ions p o ided by he esponden s (s uden s and eache s) co e ed h ee ime pe iods o allow o compa isons o sa is ac ion le els be o e, du ing, and sho ly a e he COVID-19 pandemic. Mo e speci ically, we asked each esponden o p o ide hei le el o sa is ac ion wi h digi al communica ion skills and pla o ms used du ing di e en pe iods: • Face- o- ace eaching, when digi al educa ion was used ela i ely occasionally; his pe iod is e e enced in he in e p e a ion o esul s as he p e-COVID-19 pandemic pe iod (p e-C19); • A he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic (beg-C19), when he uni e si ies had o u gen ly shi o dis ance lea ning, al hough o en no ully p epa ed; • A e he COVID-19 pandemic ou b eak (pos -C19), when online eaching was p e a- len and uni e si ies we e acing consecu i e wa es o lockdowns, depending on he scale o he COVID-19 pandemic. We in oduced his di e en ia ion o enable he assessmen o he imp o emen in digi al communica ion skills as an e ec o he challenges d i en by he COVID-19 pan- demic. The p e-COVID-19 pandemic pe iod (p e-C19) p o ides a kind o e e ence poin ha enables us o e alua e eadiness o digi al educa ion in HEIs. Then, he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic (beg-C19) compa ed o p e-COVID-19 pandemic (p e-C19) is in o ma i e in he con ex o he e ec s o c isis managemen and he quali y o ools and solu ions implemen ed by uni e si ies a ha ime. In hese wo aspec s, ou esponden s p o ided some backwa d-looking es ima es, d i en by hei pe sonal pe cep ions o he quali y o digi al communica ion skills and he so wa e used. The hi d pe iod o e ence (which we call he pos -COVID-19 pandemic si ua ion, deno ed as pos -C19) p o ided us wi h es ima es o he quali y o digi al communica ion skills and so wa e used a e he uni e si ies had es ablished hei p ocedu es in his ega d. We hypo hesize ha he u gency o he pandemic enhanced he apid inc ease in quali y o digi al communica ion skills o bo h s uden s and eache s. The pla o ms used a e suppo i e in his p ocess, al hough HEIs end o s ick o o me ly (p e-C19) used solu ions. Thus, in e ms o he suppo i e ole o so wa e, he di ec ion o change is no so ob ious. Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 7 o 22 3.2. Sample Selec ion The p ocess o sample selec ion was wo-dimensional. Fi s , we selec ed coun ies and uni e si ies wi h he aim o p o iding a ela i ely homogeneous su ey en i onmen bu o e ing esul s a an in e na ional le el. We selec ed h ee coun ies om cen al and eas e n Eu ope ha sha e cul u al, economic, and social simila i ies, esul ing om hei his o y and geog aphical p oximi y: Czechia, Poland, and Slo akia [ 13 ]. The highe educa ion sys em in hese h ee coun ies is also homogenous, due o hei adop ion o he Bologna P ocedu es, equi ed by all EU membe s a es. A he same ime, hese h ee coun ies o e an in e es ing se ing o esea ching digi al educa ion due o di e ences ha could shed some ligh on he ad ancemen o online lea ning p ocess. Fo hese pu poses, we ook some igu es ha p o ide o e all insigh in o he scale o online lea ning om he p e-COVID-19 pandemic pe iod (2019) in o conside a ion, in compa ison o igu es obse ed in 2022, epo ed in he Eu os a da abases [ 15 ]. In Table 2, we p o ide he Eu os a da a on he pe cen age o indi iduals aking online cou ses (o any subjec ) o using online lea ning ma e ials o he h ee coun ies o in e es , and he a e age o he EU27 coun ies. Table 2. Indi iduals aking online cou ses (o any subjec ) o using online lea ning ma e ials (pe - cen age o indi iduals). Time/ 2019 (%) 2020 (%) 2021 (%) 2022 (%) Change Coun y/G oup 2022/2019 (p.p.) EU27 18.35 23.34 27.52 25.57 7.22 Czechia 13.29 15.82 21.97 22.36 9.07 Poland 11.62 15.15 19.17 14.95 3.33 Slo akia 13.33 18.96 29.9 27.27 13.94 Sou ce: Eu os a da abase (2023). Slo akia and Czechia ha e sligh ly highe a es o people aking online cou ses o using lea ning ma e ials han Poland in each pe iod o e e ence. The di e ences a e pa icula ly high o 2022, which is a pos -COVID-19 pandemic pe iod and hus could be in o ma i e in he con ex o long- e m impac s and ends. I we compa e he changes o e ime, compa ing 2022 o 2019 (as he p e-COVID-19 pandemic pe iod), i can be seen ha Poland has he lowes dynamics o change, while he a e o Czechia and Slo akia exceeded he a e age o he EU27. In Poland, i can be obse ed ha he e was only an in 2021 (o 19.17%), which was ob iously di ec ly d i en by he COVID-19 pandemic’s impac s. S ill, howe e , he a io is isibly lowe in compa ison o Czechia (wi h 21.97%) and Slo akia (wi h 29.9%). The igu es epo ed in Table 2sugges ha he h ee coun ies o in e es a e no homogenous i he eadiness o digi al educa ion is conside ed. This obse a ion jus i ies u he compa ison o c oss-coun y di e ences, which we pe o m in ou empi ical analysis. In he con ex o demog aphic ea u es o ou sample, wi h ou su ey, we app oached esponden s ( eache s and s uden s) om one ield o educa ion, namely specializa ion- con o ming social sciences (business- and economics-o ien ed s udy p og ams in pa icula ). The e o e, ou su ey was dis ibu ed among eache s and s uden s o VSB-TUO, Facul y o Economics (Czechia); Uni e si y o Economics in Ka owice (UEKAT, Poland); and TUKE, Facul y o Economics (Slo akia). The uni ied ield o s udy is ele an , as i de e mines he p edominan me hods o eaching and s udying (gi en he speci ics o he ield o s udy). In his ega d, we ensu ed ela i e homogenei y o he sample. Ano he ele an demog aphic ea u e we con olled o was s uden s’ expe ience o he hec ic implemen a ion o COVID-19 solu ions a hei HEIs and hei o me expe ience o adi ional in-house uni e si y educa ion. To ensu e his, we selec ed he ime o su ey dis ibu ion as well as he a ge g oup o esponden s p ecisely. Ou su ey was dis ibu ed Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 8 o 22 online among esponden s a he beginning o 2022. A ha ime, all h ee uni e si ies and acul ies o in e es we e al eady pa icipa ing in he p ocess o o ganized online eaching. In esponse o he i s wa e o he pandemic, aced in he summe semes e o he academic yea 2020/2021, online eaching was implemen ed a all su eyed uni e si ies, bu wi hou any speci ic ins uc ions o eache s ega ding he o ganiza ion o lec u es, me hods o communica ion, o suppo i e digi al pla o ms. Howe e , s a ing om he eaching pe iod in Oc obe 2021 (win e semes e o he academic yea 2021/2022), online eaching had been o mally o ganized, wi h ins uc ions on he pla o ms used, he documen a ion o online ac i i ies, adjus men s o eaching and lea ning me hods including s uden s’ assessmen p ocedu es. Thus, in Janua y/Feb ua y 2022 (which was he end o he win e semes e 2021/2022), bo h eache s and s uden s had achie ed some expe ience and a sense o ou ine in he p ocess o online eaching. To con ol he demog aphic ea u e e lec ing s uden s’ expe ience, in he g oup o s uden s, he su ey was dis ibu ed a andom o all s uden s o he hi d yea o bachelo le el o he second yea o mas e le el. The mo i a ion behind he selec ion o his a ge g oup was o ensu e ha he s uden esponden s had expe ience in bo h p e-COVID-19 pandemic (on-si e) educa ion, as well as he pains o he i s lock down and he ela ed equi emen o dis ance lea ning implemen a ion. While dis ibu ing he su ey, we ollowed he sa u a ion app oach o each a esponse a e o c.a. 30%. Mo e speci ically, we dis ibu ed he su ey among a wide , andomly selec ed g oup o s uden s ha i ed ou en y sample selec ion c i e ia. Then, we comple ed he collec ion o esponses once he numbe o comple e su ey esponses had eached c.a. 30% o he po en ial numbe o s uden s ha i ed ou demog aphic c i e ion co e ing he p e- and pos -COVID-19 pandemic expe ience (i was c.a. 1000 s uden s o he Uni e si y o Economics in Ka owice, c.a. 1000 s uden s o VSB-TUO, and 800 s uden s o TUKE). In he g oup o educa o s, he in i a ion was dis ibu ed o all eache s who p o ided lec u es in he win e semes e o he academic yea 2021/2022 in he s udy p og ams con o ming o ou en y c i e ia (social sciences, business- and economics-o ien ed). The esponse a e we ob ained was c.a. 25% o Poland (112 ou o c.a. 350 academic s a membe s), ca. 30% o TUKE (27 ou o c.a. 90 academic s a membe s o he Facul y o Economics), and c.a. 36% o VSB-TUO (55 ou o c.a. 150 academic s a membe s o he Facul y o Economics). In Figu e 3, we p o ide he dis ibu ion o ou sample a he coun y le el. In he su ey, we ob ained 848 esponses om s uden s (Panel A), wi h ela i ely compa able con ibu ions om Polish (39%) and Czech (33%) s uden s. Howe e , in he g oup o eache s, he oice o he UEKAT (PL) is p e alen , as ou o 194 esponden s, he e we e 58% (112) om his Uni e si y, ollowed by 28% om Czechia and 14% om Slo akia. Sus ainabili y 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 23 Figu e 3. Sample dis ibu ion by coun y. Sou ce: own s udy. 3.3. Me hods In he da a analysis p ocess, we con i med he eliabili y (in e nal consis ency) o ou su ey wi h C onbach’s alpha. The esul s a e epo ed in Appendix A Table A1 sepa a ely o he su eys o s uden s and eache s, bo h in gene al and coun y le el dimensions. The esul s indica e good and e y good eliabili y (wi h α > 0.8). To p o ide an insigh o he a e age dis ibu ion o anks o sa is ac ion p o ided by he esponden s, we g aphically p esen he mean alues o hese anks, o each ques ion asked, a coun y le el. Howe e , we con i m he s a is ical signi icance o he obse ed ends by applying nonpa ame ic es s. The eason behind he selec ion o nonpa ame ic me hods is mo i a ed by a common p oblem in he su ey-based s udies, which is ha o da a no no mally dis ibu ed (we con i med his by applying Kolmogo o –Smi no and Shapi o–Wilk es s). In line wi h nonpa ame ic app oach, we applied he Wilcoxon signed ank es o pai ed da a o compa e ou obse a ions (le el o sa is ac ion) o pai s o he pe iods o in e es , namely pos -C19 ela i e o ei he beg-C19 o pos -C19 [37]. As we no ed some in e es ing he e ogenei y be ween he coun ies o in e es in e ms o digi al educa ion, we addi ionally pe o m coun y-le el compa isons. Fo his pu pose, we apply a nonpa - ame ic ANOVA wi h K uskal–Wallis es o e i y he s a is ical signi icance o simila i- ies and di e ences obse ed be ween he coun ies (as g oups o obse a ions). The compu a ions we e pe o med wi h he PS Imago P o 7.0 (SPSS) so wa e. 4. Resul s and Discussion 4.1. S uden s’ Pe spec i e on Teache s’ Digi al Communica ion Skills 4.1.1. Di ec Communica ion Skills The i s p oblem explo ed in ou su ey was how sa is ied s uden s a e wi h each- e s’ communica ion skills i di ec communica ion is conside ed. In Figu e 4, we illus a e he mean alues o he sa is ac ion anks ob ained o each coun y ( he dis ibu ion o esponses is p esen ed in Appendix B Table A2). Fo Poland and Czechia, we obse ed an upwa d end, which indica es ha he e was an inc ease in s uden sa is ac ion om di- ec and in e ac i e communica ion wi h eache s. I sugges s ha in UEKAT and VSB- TUO eache s we e able o adap o he need o communica e digi ally wi h s uden s and ha he pandemic led o pe manen posi i e e ec s wi hin. The esul s om TUKE also show inc eased s uden sa is ac ion i we compa e he pos -COVID-19 pandemic si ua ion (pos -C19) wi h he p e-COVID-19 pandemic (p e-C19) o he beginning o he pandemic (beg-C19). PL 333 39% SK 221 26% CZ 294 35% Panel A. S uden s (N = 848) PL 112 58% SK 27 14% CZ 55 28% Panel B. Teache s (N = 194) Figu e 3. Sample dis ibu ion by coun y. Sou ce: own s udy. Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 9 o 22 3.3. Me hods In he da a analysis p ocess, we con i med he eliabili y (in e nal consis ency) o ou su ey wi h C onbach’s alpha. The esul s a e epo ed in Appendix ATable A1 sepa a ely o he su eys o s uden s and eache s, bo h in gene al and coun y le el dimensions. The esul s indica e good and e y good eliabili y (wi h α> 0.8). To p o ide an insigh o he a e age dis ibu ion o anks o sa is ac ion p o ided by he esponden s, we g aphically p esen he mean alues o hese anks, o each ques ion asked, a coun y le el. Howe e , we con i m he s a is ical signi icance o he obse ed ends by applying nonpa ame ic es s. The eason behind he selec ion o nonpa ame ic me hods is mo i a ed by a common p oblem in he su ey-based s udies, which is ha o da a no no mally dis ibu ed (we con i med his by applying Kolmogo o –Smi no and Shapi o–Wilk es s). In line wi h nonpa ame ic app oach, we applied he Wilcoxon signed ank es o pai ed da a o compa e ou obse a ions (le el o sa is ac ion) o pai s o he pe iods o in e es , namely pos -C19 ela i e o ei he beg-C19 o pos -C19 [ 37 ]. As we no ed some in e es ing he e ogenei y be ween he coun ies o in e es in e ms o digi al educa ion, we addi ionally pe o m coun y-le el compa isons. Fo his pu pose, we apply a nonpa a- me ic ANOVA wi h K uskal–Wallis es o e i y he s a is ical signi icance o simila i ies and di e ences obse ed be ween he coun ies (as g oups o obse a ions). The compu a ions we e pe o med wi h he PS Imago P o 7.0 (SPSS) so wa e. 4. Resul s and Discussion 4.1. S uden s’ Pe spec i e on Teache s’ Digi al Communica ion Skills 4.1.1. Di ec Communica ion Skills The i s p oblem explo ed in ou su ey was how sa is ied s uden s a e wi h eache s’ communica ion skills i di ec communica ion is conside ed. In Figu e 4, we illus a e he mean alues o he sa is ac ion anks ob ained o each coun y ( he dis ibu ion o esponses is p esen ed in Appendix BTable A2). Fo Poland and Czechia, we obse ed an upwa d end, which indica es ha he e was an inc ease in s uden sa is ac ion om di ec and in e ac i e communica ion wi h eache s. I sugges s ha in UEKAT and VSB- TUO eache s we e able o adap o he need o communica e digi ally wi h s uden s and ha he pandemic led o pe manen posi i e e ec s wi hin. The esul s om TUKE also show inc eased s uden sa is ac ion i we compa e he pos -COVID-19 pandemic si ua ion (pos -C19) wi h he p e-COVID-19 pandemic (p e-C19) o he beginning o he pandemic (beg-C19). Sus ainabili y 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 o 23 To con i m he s a is ical signi icance o he di e ences obse ed be ween he pai s o pe iods o in e es , we pe o med Wilcoxon signed ank es a he coun y le el. The esul s o he Wilcoxon es (p esen ed in Table 3) con i m ha he si ua ion a e he COVID-19 pandemic (pos -C19), compa ed o he si ua ion be o e i (p e-C19), imp o ed a a s a is ically signi ican le el (sig. a 0.1%) in each uni e si y. Simila ly, he si ua ion a e he COVID-19 pandemic (pos -C19), compa ed o he si ua ion a i s beginning (beg- C19), imp o ed a a s a is ically signi ican le el (sig. a 0.1%). This s ongly suppo s he iew ha in he uni e si ies su eyed, he COVID-19 pandemic posi i ely in luenced he quali y o eache s’ communica ion skills wi h s uden s i di ec and in e ac i e synch o- nous communica ion is conside ed. Figu e 4. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h eache s?—mean alues o he assigned sa is ac ion anks. Sou ce: own s udy. Table 3. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h eache s?—Signi i- cance o he di e ences in means by coun y. Means Di e enced in Means Medians Wilcoxon Signed Rank Tes (Z-S a is ic) P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 Pos -C19 s. P e-C19 Pos -C19 s. Beg-C19 P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 Pos -C19 s. P e-C19 Pos -C19 s. Beg-C19 PL 3.5075 3.8052 4.3009 0.7934 0.4957 4 4 4 −9.114 *** −7.884 *** SK 3.6697 3.6500 3.9773 0.3076 0.3273 4 4 4 −3.720 *** −5.016 *** CZ 3.3447 3.7877 4.0071 0.6624 0.2194 3 4 4 −8.765 *** −3.875 *** No es: S a is ically signi ican a *** α = 0.001. Sou ce: own s udy. We also pe o med he K uskal–Wallis es o compa e whe he he di e ences we obse ed be ween he coun ies o in e es a e s a is ically signi ican wi h ega d o he le el o sa is ac ion o s uden s wi h di ec and in e ac i e communica ion wi h eache s. The esul s a e epo ed in Table 4. Table 4. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h eache s?—Com- pa ison be ween he coun ies. P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 K uskal–Wallis s a is ics 0.004 ** 0.062 ^ 0.000 *** Pos -hoc es s: CZ–PL 0.061 * 0.033 * 0.000 *** CZ–SK 0.000 *** 0.640 0.875 PL–SK 0.378 0.071 ^ 0.000 *** No es: S a is ically signi ican a *** α = 0.001; ** α = 0.01; * α = 0.05; ^ α = 0.1. Sou ce: own s udy. 3.5075 3.6697 3.3447 3.8052 3.6500 3.7877 4.3009 3.9773 4.0071 PL SK CZ P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 Figu e 4. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h eache s?—Mean alues o he assigned sa is ac ion anks. Sou ce: own s udy. To con i m he s a is ical signi icance o he di e ences obse ed be ween he pai s o pe iods o in e es , we pe o med Wilcoxon signed ank es a he coun y le el. The esul s o he Wilcoxon es (p esen ed in Table 3) con i m ha he si ua ion a e he Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 16 o 22 sa is ac ion wi h digi al communica ion skills be ween sende s and ecipien s o messages in he p ocess o digi al educa ion. In his espec , ou s udy p o ides some new insigh s. I we conside he echnological aspec s o he p ocess o communica ion, ou s udy indica es inc eased s uden sa is ac ion wi h he pla o ms used o suppo digi al educa ion, i he p e- and pos -COVID-19 pandemic pe iods a e compa ed. These esul s a e aligned wi h he majo i y o p e ious s udies, e en hose whe e he gene al expe ience o digi al educa ion was nega i e (like, o example, Dalipi e al. [ 42 ] o Niemi and Kousa [ 41 ]). The inc ease in s uden and eache sa is ac ion om he pla o ms used con i ms ha egula use o ICT ools leads o amilia i y and ou ine, ewe p oblems, and hus a highe unc ionali y a ing. Howe e , i also shows ha he ea u es, unc ionali y, quali y, and pe o mance o a ailable on- he-ma ke ICT ools and pla o ms used o eaching and lea ning pu poses we e qui e high and well p epa ed o his unexpec ed digi al ansi ion (Dalipi e al. [42]; Hasan and Khan [40]; Iglesias-P adas e al. [39]). Ou s udy has se e al limi a ions. Fi s , i co e s only h ee uni e si ies om h ee coun ies. We paid a en ion o ensu ing homogenei y ega ding sociodemog aphic ea- u es o he esponden s (coun ies/ ields o s udy/p io expe ience in educa ion). S ill, howe e , he coun y o ien a ion limi s he gene alizabili y o ou indings, in pa icula i he oice o he academic eache s is conside ed. Despi e hese limi a ions, ou s udy o e s some insigh s in o he esea ch on digi al communica ion in educa ion om dynamically de eloping eas e n Eu opean coun ies (Poland, Czechia, and Slo akia). In his ega d, i supplemen s he exis ing heo e ical ou pu ha mainly comes om wes e n Eu opean coun ies, o example, he Ne he lands [ 6 ], Sweden [ 42 ], Po ugal [ 38 ], Finland [ 41 ], o Spain [ 39 ]. Ano he limi a ion o ou s udy is ha i is based on a compa ison o he subjec i e assessmen s o he esponden s. We acked sa is ac ion wi h digi al commu- nica ion skills in educa ion and he pla o ms used o suppo his p ocess by acking di e ences in decla ed sa is ac ion le el o each esponden o he h ee pe iods o in e es . This app oach is help ul in moni o ing o e all ends, al hough is based on a subjec i e e alua ion o he sa is ac ion o each esponden . Thus, conclusions a a gene alized le el mus be d awn ca e ully. In pa icula , he sa is ac ion a coun y le el migh depend on some ac o s ha a e in e linked o cul u al o social ac o s. We belie e his aspec eme ges as an in e es ing and ele an a ea o u he in es iga ion. In a simila dimension, ou s udy is limi ed by no co e ing o he po en ial ac o s ha could be in luen ial on he e iciency o digi al communica ion in educa ion, such as echnical/in as uc u al and o ganiza ional ac o s, as well as indi idual p opensi y o o amilia i y wi h he use o ITC ools o eadiness o inno a ion in he educa ion p ocess. The le el o access o he in e ne and some economic and in as uc u al condi ions o he in es iga ed coun ies and o he wes e n Eu opean coun ies is ega ded as simila . Howe e , he e a e s udies ha p o ide e idence o coun ies such as Bangladesh [ 44 ], India [ 40 ], o he Philippines [ 45 ] epo ing ha he quali y o digi al educa ion was highly in luenced by poo in as uc u e, in e ne accessibili y, lack o de ices, and a o dabili y o echnology. Among o ganiza ional ac o s, p io wo ks ha e con i med he ele ance o he size o he class, cou se con en design ( ela ion be ween synch onous and asynch onous eaching), o he choice o digi al ools and pla o m used in he educa ion p ocess [ 39 , 46 , 47 ]. Fu he inqui ies shall be made o ecognize how hese ac o s in luence pa icipan (he e: eache s and s uden s) sa is ac ion wi h digi al communica ion skills. Also, u he s udies shall inqui e ega ding eache digi al communica ion skills in he in e link be ween hei expe ience, eadiness o inno a e wi h a ious ITC ools, o new digi al eaching me hods. The esul s o ou su ey p o ide some ele an policy implica ions. In pu suance o sus ainable de elopmen , digi al educa ion echnologies will ine i ably e ol e and hei use in HEI en i onmen will be mo e common [ 48 ]. In ac , he h ee uni e si ies we su eyed ha e al eady decided o shi pa o hei educa ional p og ams o being deli e ed online only (in esponse o s uden s’ expec a ions, bu also due o cos educ ion easons). Thus, o he suppo o mo e e icien communica ion in he p ocess o digi al educa ion, cons an aining is essen ial. This aining shall co e bo h he use o new ITC ools, as well as Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 17 o 22 he mas e ing o eache s’ digi al communica ion skills. In pa icula , eache s need some suppo in de eloping hei compe ences in enhancing s uden s’ a en ion and mo i a ion in he p ocess o digi al educa ion. F om a policy-o ien ed pe spec i e, ou s udy also highligh s he need o modi ica ion o quali y and assu ance p ocedu es a HEIs i digi al o hyb id lea ning is in place. The digi al en i onmen equi es a di e en app oach om eache s (as he sende s o he communica es), o ensu e s uden s’ mo i a ion and pa icipa ion in online educa ion. Thus, ecogni ion and inclusion o eache s’ digi al communica ion skills in quali y and assu ance p ocedu es is ele an . Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, A.U., A.L. (Anna Losa) and M.W.-K.; me hodology, K.H. and A.L. (Aleš Lokaj); so wa e, K.H.; alida ion, K.H. and M.W.-K.; o mal analysis K.H., A.L. (Aleš Lokaj) and M.W.-K.; in es iga ion, K.H., A.L. (Aleš Lokaj) and M.W.-K.; esou ces, A.U. and A.L. (Anna Losa); da a cu a ion, K.H.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, A.U., A.L. (Anna Losa) and M.W.-K.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.U., A.L. (Anna Losa), M.W.-K. and K.H.; isualiza ion, A.U. and M.W.-K.; supe ision, A.U.; p ojec adminis a ion, K.H. and A.L. (Aleš Lokaj); unding acquisi ion, K.H. and A.L. (Aleš Lokaj). All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip . Funding: This s udy is based on he esul s o a su ey ha was pa o he p ojec DANTE (Digi al A ea o Ne wo king Teache s and Educa o s, P ojec No. 2020-1-CZ01-KA226-HE-094368) co- unded by he E asmus + P og amme o he Eu opean Union. In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in his s udy. Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable upon eques om he co esponding au ho . The da a a e no publicly a ailable due o da a eposi o y policies adop ed a uni e si y le el. Howe e , in Appendix B, agg ega ed su ey esponses a coun y le el a e p esen ed o each pe iod o in e es . Acknowledgmen s: The au ho s hank TUKE pa ne s o hei help in he su ey dis ibu ion p o- cess. The au ho s g a e ully acknowledge he insigh ul commen s p o ided by he ou anonymous e iewe s o his pape . Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es . Appendix A Table A1. The esul s o C onbach’s alpha. Teache s S uden s PL 0.812 0.808 SK 0.803 0.848 CZ 0.868 0.823 Whole sample 0.803 0.826 Appendix B Table A2. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h educa o s?—Dis ibu ion o s uden s’ esponses by coun y. P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 F equency % F equency % F equency % PL De ini ely no 14 4.2 21 6.3 11 3.3 No 40 12.0 25 7.5 14 4.2 Neu al 86 25.8 87 26.1 61 18.3 Yes 98 29.4 100 30.0 127 38.1 De ini ely yes 63 18.9 80 24.0 110 33.0 No opinion 32 9.6 20 6.0 10 3.0 In o al, 333 100.0 333 100.0 333 100.0 Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 18 o 22 Table A2. Con . P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 F equency % F equency % F equency % SLO De ini ely no 5 2.3 13 5.9 5 2.3 No 15 6.8 24 10.9 13 5.9 Neu al 74 33.5 44 19.9 31 14.0 Yes 81 36.7 85 38.5 104 47.1 De ini ely yes 46 20.8 54 24.4 67 30.3 No opinion 0 2.0 1 0.5 1 0.5 In o al 221 100.0 221 100.0 221 100.0 CZ De ini ely no 16 5.4 7 2.4 6 2.0 No 42 14.3 21 7.1 5 1.7 Neu al 110 37.4 76 25.9 58 19.7 Yes 75 25.5 111 37.8 125 42.5 De ini ely yes 50 17.0 77 26.2 88 29.9 No opinion 1 .3 2 0.7 12 4.1 In o al 294 100.0 294 100.0 294 100.0 Table A3. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o indi ec digi al communica ion wi h eache s?— Dis ibu ion o s uden s’ esponses by coun y. P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 F equency % F equency % F equency % PL De ini ely no 14 4.2 21 6.3 11 3.3 No 40 12.0 25 7.5 14 4.2 Neu al 86 25.8 87 26.1 61 18.3 Yes 98 29.4 100 30.0 127 38.1 De ini ely yes 63 18.9 80 24.0 110 33.0 No opinion 32 9.6 20 6.0 10 3.0 In o al 333 100.0 333 100.0 333 100.0 SLO De ini ely no 4 1.8 16 7.2 8 3.6 No 28 12.7 27 12.2 24 10.9 Neu al 46 20.8 49 22.2 41 18.6 Yes 84 38.0 95 43.0 95 43.0 De ini ely yes 31 14.0 32 14.5 50 22.6 No opinion 28 12.7 2 0.9 3 1.4 In o al 221 100.0 221 100.0 221 100.0 CZ De ini ely no 7 2.4 8 2.7 5 1.7 No 40 13.6 48 16.3 33 11.2 Neu al 95 32.3 91 31.0 94 32.0 Yes 92 31.3 107 36.4 111 37.8 De ini ely yes 26 8.8 30 10.2 36 12.2 No opinion 34 11.6 10 3.4 15 5.1 In o al 294 100.0 294 100.0 294 100.0 Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 19 o 22 Table A4. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o di ec digi al communica ion wi h s uden s?— Dis ibu ion o eache s’ esponses by coun y. P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 F equency % F equency % F equency % PL De ini ely no 4 3.6 13 11.6 10 8.9 No 3 2.7 14 12.5 9 8.0 Neu al 50 44.6 32 28.6 23 20.5 Yes 19 17.0 29 25.9 25 22.3 De ini ely yes 36 32.1 24 21.4 45 40.2 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al 112 100.0 112 100.0 112 100.0 SK De ini ely no 3 11.1 1 3.7 No 2 7.4 5 18.5 8 29.6 Neu al 8 29.6 9 33.3 3 11.1 Yes 14 51.9 4 14.8 7 25.9 De ini ely yes 3 11.1 6 22.2 8 29.6 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al 27 100.0 27 100.0 27 100.0 CZ De ini ely no 2 3.6 6 10.9 1 1.8 No 4 7.3 6 10.9 7 12.7 Neu al 19 34.5 14 25.5 14 25.5 Yes 21 38.2 22 40.0 22 40.0 De ini ely yes 9 16.4 7 12.7 11 20.0 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al 55 100.0 55 100.0 55 100.0 Table A5. A e you sa is ied wi h he quali y o indi ec digi al communica ion wi h s uden s?— Dis ibu ion o eache s esponses by coun y. P e-C19 Beg-C19 Pos -C19 F equency % F equency % F equency % PL De ini ely no 7 6.3 14 12.5 11 9.8 No 7 6.3 17 15.2 10 8.9 Neu al 55 49.1 37 33.0 34 30.4 Yes 24 21.4 26 23.2 29 25.9 De ini ely yes 19 17.0 18 16.1 28 25.0 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al 112 100.0 112 100.0 112 100.0 SK De ini ely no 1 3.7 1 3.7 1 3.7 No 2 7.4 3 11.1 1 3.7 Neu al 11 40.7 8 29.6 6 22.2 Yes 9 33.3 11 40.7 12 44.4 De ini ely yes 4 14.8 4 14.8 7 25.9 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al 27 100.0 27 100.0 27 100.0 CZ De ini ely no 1 1.8 4 7.3 2 3.6 No 5 9.1 7 12.7 3 5.5 Neu al 20 36.4 20 36.4 23 41.8 Yes 19 34.5 16 29.1 20 36.4 De ini ely yes 10 18.2 8 14.5 7 12.7 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al 55 100.0 55 100.0 55 100.0 Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 20 o 22 Table A6. How sa is ied a e you wi h he so wa e pla o ms used o on-line lec u es?—Dis ibu ion o s uden s’ esponses by coun y. Beg-C19 Pos -C19 F equency % F equency % PL De ini ely no 15 4.5 4 1.2 No 13 3.9 6 1.8 Neu al 32 9.6 30 9.0 Yes 90 27.0 91 27.3 De ini ely yes 157 47.1 195 58.6 No opinion 26 7.8 7 2.1 In o al 333 100.0 333 100.0 SK De ini ely no 14 6.3 3 1.4 No 24 10.9 7 3.2 Neu al 38 17.2 30 13.6 Yes 101 45.7 127 57.5 De ini ely yes 41 18.6 53 24.0 No opinion 3 1.4 1 0.5 In o al, 221 100.0 221 100.0 CZ De ini ely no 10 3.4 5 1.7 No 15 5.1 4 1.4 Neu al 52 17.7 34 11.6 Yes 128 43.5 132 44.9 De ini ely yes 89 30.3 115 39.1 No opinion 0 0.0 4 1.4 In o al 294 100.0 294 100.0 Table A7. How sa is ied a e you wi h he so wa e pla o ms used o online lec u es?—Dis ibu ion o eache s’ esponses by coun y. Beg-C19 Pos -C19 F equency % F equency % PL De ini ely no 4 3.6 3 2.7 No 5 4.5 4 3.6 Neu al 21 18.8 7 6.3 Yes 35 31.3 35 31.3 De ini ely yes 47 42.0 63 56.3 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al, 112 100.0 112 100.0 SK De ini ely no 0 0.0 0 0.0 No 2 7.4 0 0.0 Neu al 5 18.5 1 3.7 Yes 11 40.7 13 48.1 De ini ely yes 9 33.3 13 48.1 No opinion 0 0.0 0 0.0 In o al, 27 100.0 27 100.0 CZ De ini ely no 2 3.6 55 100.0 No 4 7.3 1 1.8 Neu al 12 21.8 6 10.9 Yes 22 40.0 32 58.2 De ini ely yes 15 27.3 16 29.1 No opinion 0 0.0 55 100.0 In o al 55 100.0 55 100.0 Sus ainabili y 2023,15, 11878 21 o 22 Re e ences 1. OECD. OECD Policy Responses o Co ona i us (COVID-19), Educa ion Responses o COVID-19: Emb acing Digi al Lea ning and Online Collabo a ion. 2020. A ailable online: h ps://www.oecd.o g/co ona i us/policy- esponses/educa ion- esponses- o-co id-19-emb acing-digi al-lea ning-and-online-collabo a ion-d75eb0e8/ (accessed on 8 May 2023). 2. Zancajo, A.; Ve ge , A.; Bolea, P. 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