Geoheritage: inventories and evaluation

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In: Emmanuel Reynard and José Brilha, editors, Geoheritage. Chennai: Elsevier, 2018, pp. 67-86. ISBN: 978-0-12-809531-7 Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. Elsevier. CHAPTER 4 GEOHERITAGE: INVENTORIES AND EVALUATION Jos´ e Brilha University of Minho, Braga, Portugal The conservation of geological sites using a systematic and scientific background seems to have started in the United Kingdom in 1977, after the establishment of the Geological Conservation Review by the Nature Conservancy (Allen et al., 1987;Wimbledon, 1988). However, isolated efforts to protect geological localities were already happening in different countries from the 17th century (for a compilation of examples, see Gray, 2013;Larwood, 2016). A detailed description of more recent protection initiatives in most of the European countries was presented by Wimbledon and Smith-Meyer (2012). A similar analysis for Latin America countries was recently done by Palacio Prieto et al. (2016). The protection of geological occurrences has always faced a big challenge: with so many rocks occurring all over the Earth’s surface, which ones should be managed in order to be conserved for the benefit of present and future generations? How should outcrops be selected? Which criteria should be used in order to ensure that the chosen localities are really the ones that must be protected? This chapter aims to give clear answers to these questions. It presents a general perspective about geoheritage, mainly focusing on concepts, terminology, and methods for its inventorying and assessment. It should be stated from the beginning that geoheritage, or geological heritage in its extended form, is materialised by exceptional elements of geodiversity, namely minerals, fossils, rocks, landforms and their landscapes, soils, and active geological and geomorphological processes. Thus, in this chapter, the word ‘geology’ and its derivatives include all Earth sciences domains (mineralogy, petrology, geomorphology, palaeontology, etc.). This chapter is organised into three sections, each one addressing a particular issue that is especially relevant to an increasing number of newcomers that are becoming interested in geoheritage: 1. What makes an element of geodiversity exceptional? 2. How should the high value of geodiversity elements be identified and characterised? 3. How and why should geoheritage be assessed? 4.1 WHAT MAKES AN ELEMENT OF GEODIVERSITY EXCEPTIONAL? When something is considered exceptional, typically what is really being appreciated is its high value. Geodiversity elements may have different types of values, starting from those more concrete like the economic, functional, scientific and educational, to the more intangible ones, such as the 69 Geoheritage. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809531-7.00004-6 ©2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Author’s personal copy intrinsic or existence, cultural, and the aesthetic values (Gray, 2013). With the exclusion of the intrinsic or existence value, all other types of value are strongly associated with an anthropogenic vision of nature, particularly in what concerns the use we make of nature. This is what Gray (2013) and Gray et al. (2013) refer to as ‘geosystem services’, i.e., the benefits that society gains from geodiversity elements, including regulating, supporting, provisioning, cultural and knowledge services. Hence, for a geodiversity element to be considered exceptional, a high value must be assigned to it (Table 4.1). When a geodiversity element is considered important for several types of values, it means that its overall exceptionality is higher. For instance, all types of values can be assigned to the typical landforms of the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in Central Australia, apart from just the cultural one referred to in Table 4.1. It is generally assumed by society that the main benefit obtained from geodiversity elements is limited to quarrying and mining of geological resources. This is the traditional understanding of what is the goal of geology, always associated with the exploitation of gold, coal, oil, etc. It is Table 4.1 Examples of Locations Where Geodiversity Elements Have an Exceptional Value. Ex Situ Exemplars of Minerals, Fossils, and Rocks May Also Have All Types of Values, Except the Functional One Value Site/Location Justification Economic Escondida Mine (Chile) Chile is the top copper-producing country in the world. In 2015 this mine alone produced 1148 million metric tons comprising mostly copper concentrate, which generates important revenues for this country Functional Go ¨reme National Park (Turkey) The volcanic rocks of Cappadocia sculpted by erosion were used as dwellings, troglodyte villages and underground towns, which constitute the remains of a traditional human habitat dating back to the 4th century Scientific Basque Coast UNESCO Global Geopark (Spain) The definition of two Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSPs, lower boundaries of the Selandian Stage and of the Thanetian Stage, both belonging to the Paleocene Series) turns the coastal cliffs of Zumaia into a place with global importance for geosciences Educational Terras de Cavaleiros UNESCO Global Geopark (Portugal) The occurrence of a complete ophiolite sequence resulting from the obduction of Palaeothetys oceanic lithosphere over the Allochthonous Basal Complex attracts students from universities of different countries Intrinsic Volcanoes of Kamchatka (Russia) Independently of human appreciation, this is one of the areas of higher density and diversity of active volcanoes on Earth Cultural Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park (Australia) The inselbergs of this park form an integral part of the traditional belief system of one of the oldest human societies in the world and it is considered a sacred place for the Anangu Aboriginal people Aesthetic Iguac¸u National Park (Argentina/Brazil) One of the world’s largest and most impressive waterfalls extending over some 2700 m, attracting about 1.5 million visitors each year to enjoy the natural beauty of the site 70 CHAPTER 4 GEOHERITAGE: INVENTORIES AND EVALUATION Author’s personal copy unquestionable that our complete dependence on geological resources to maintain the growing consumption of all sorts of products justifies the economic value of rocks and minerals. However, many geoscientists around the world are trying to demonstrate that there is another way for geodiversity elements to be exploited by society, without the need to open a quarry, a mine or a borehole. In fact, based on their values, geodiversity elements may be used in a nonextractable sustainable way by different users/beneficiaries (Table 4.2). What kind of activities can be supported? Firstly, a scientific use carried out by geoscientists to produce meaningful scientific knowledge of how the geosphere works and interacts with other Earth systems (biosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere). This knowledge ensures the continuous advancement of geosciences with clear benefits for a growing human population that wishes to live safely and healthily. It is considered that a site has scientific value when the research done directly at that location or using samples collected from it has produced significant scientific understanding to allow the advancement of geosciences nationally and internationally (Brilha, 2016). In addition, sites that were relevant for the history of geosciences at the national and international levels may also be considered to have scientific value. Secondly, an educational use can be applied by geoscience teachers in order to give students a solid knowledge about how planet Earth changes through time. This type of use is also related to the training of new generations of geoscientists. Finally, certain geodiversity elements may justify a distinct form of economic use based on geotourism and leisure, which is a type of sustainable tourism aimed at the environmental and cultural interpretation of a region, with clear benefits and profits for local communities. Table 4.2 Examples of Uses of Geodiversity Elements, Besides the Traditional Exploitation of Geological Resources. Each Type of Use Carried Out by Direct Users/Beneficiaries Is Based on Geodiversity Values Uses of Geodiversity Elements Users/Beneficiaries Values Scientific • Geoscientists • Social scientists (archaeologists, ethnographers...) Scientific Cultural Educational (formal and informal) • Students and teachers of different domains are direct users of formal educational activities. • Informal educational actions are addressed to the general public. In both cases, tourism companies, guides, restaurant and hotel industries, handicraft companies, local cooperatives, rental bus and rent-a-car companies may obtain economic benefits. Educational (geosciences, social and cultural sciences, etc.) Cultural Economic (indirectly) Geotourism and recreation • Nature tourism companies, guides, restaurant and hotel industries, handicraft companies, local cooperatives, rental bus and rent-a-car companies, etc. Economic Aesthetic Cultural The scientific and educational use is not restricted to geosciences as it may be also applied to other disciplines. 714.1 WHAT MAKES AN ELEMENT OF GEODIVERSITY EXCEPTIONAL? Author’s personal copy The in situ occurrence of geodiversity elements with high scientific, educational, aesthetic, and cultural value is usually known as ‘geosite’ or ‘geomorphosite’ if the valued element has a geomorphological nature (Reynard, 2005). Used as a synonym, the term ‘geotope’ (Grandgirard, 1999a) is more common in German-speaking countries. However, ‘geotope’ in Nordic countries has a different meaning being applied to sites that have not been designed with a value, parallel to the neutral biological term ‘biotope’ (Erikstad et al., 2017). In the literature, other terms with similar meanings to geosite can be found, such as geological (or geo) monument, site (or point) of geological interest, or geological site. Considering that: 1. most of these values are subjective and consequently difficult to evaluate with precision; 2. in most countries, there are very few sites properly protected and managed but instead there are inventories being done with hundreds or thousands of sites with different levels of relevance, making them very difficult to be effectively conserved and managed; 3. National and international scientific sites are crucial for geosciences but still lack international agreements or conventions. Brilha (2016) has proposed to restrict the use of the term ‘geosite’ only to the occurrences with scientific value, in order not to trivialize the use of this term (Figs. 4.1 and 4.2). In fact, as there are site inventories being made at different scales international (between countries), national (inside one country), regional (in particular areas of a country like a state, a county or a FIGURE 4.1 Conceptual relations between nature’s diversity, biodiversity, geodiversity, geoheritage, and geoconservation. Valued geodiversity elements should be managed by the implementation of geoconservation strategies. Modified from Brilha (2016). 72 CHAPTER 4 GEOHERITAGE: INVENTORIES AND EVALUATION Author’s personal copy municipality), and local (in a protected area or in a geopark) the number of sites may easily reach several thousands for just one country. This exaggerated number of sites may give the authorities the impression that a geosite is not rare or special and therefore there is no need to implement special management actions. However, some geoscientists disagree with this perspective and claim that the use of the term ‘geosite’ even applied to a site of local relevance is the only way to attract people’s attention. Brilha (2016) has also proposed to restrict the term ‘geological heritage’ or ‘geoheritage’ to in situ and ex situ elements with scientific value (Fig. 4.1). For sites with no scientific value, this author has proposed the term ‘geodiversity site’ (Fig. 4.2). ‘Geodiversity site’ means a location where one or more geodiversity elements have a particular value(s) (except the scientific one) but not FIGURE 4.2 Examples of a ‘geosite’, a ‘geodiversity site’ and ‘ex situ geodiversity elements’ (see. Fig. 4.1). Photographs by J. Brilha. (A) The K¯ılauea’s summit caldera and Halemaumau crater (Hawaii island, USA) is a geosite with international scientific value. In addition, it has also high educational, cultural, and aesthetic values, justified by the almost 2 million visitors in 2015. (B) Outcrop of Neoproterozoic stromatolites near the town of Morro do Chap´ eu (Bahia, Brazil), a geosite with no other relevant value, besides the scientific one. (C) Geodiversity site in Southern Jordan visited by tourists due to the aesthetic value of this landform, just one among hundreds of others not very different, occurring in the same area. (D) Ex situ geodiversity elements with cultural and educational values in the Merrion Square gardens (Dublin, Ireland), where a curious selection of rocks was used to erect a sculpture representing Oscar Wilde. The jacket is carved from nephrite jade, the pink collar and cuffs are of thulite, the trousers are of larvikite and the shoes and socks are of Black Indian Granite (Stillman, 1999). 734.1 WHAT MAKES AN ELEMENT OF GEODIVERSITY EXCEPTIONAL? Author’s personal copy necessarily a location characterised by a variety of elements, as the term might suggest in the first place. However, it must be underlined that Brilha’s proposals for a more restrictive use of terms is under discussion in the geoconservationist community and is not presently widely accepted. To conclude the discussion related to the first question, independently of the terminology, the main scope of geoconservation is the management of sites and ex situ valued geodiversity elements by means of specific inventory, evaluation, conservation, valuing, and monitoring procedures (Brilha, 2015;Henriques et al., 2011). This is what all geoconservationists work for and aspire to have implemented in all nature conservation and land-use planning policies. 4.2 HOW SHOULD THE HIGH VALUE OF GEODIVERSITY ELEMENTS BE IDENTIFIED AND CHARACTERISED? Now that we have understood that among the whole geodiversity of the Earth’s surface, there are a limited number of elements with one or more high value(s), we must define how these special geodiversity elements may be identified and selected for protection, as many of them are rare and at risk of deterioration or destruction. The key answer to this challenge is to implement a well-structured systematic inventory to cover all the area under study, supported by clear criteria well-adapted to each type of value, in order to allow an unbiased selection of sites with the lowest degree of subjectivity possible. Therefore, we present a kind of ‘road map’ to help the development of site inventories (Table 4.3). Table 4.3 Sequential Tasks to Produce a Systematic Site Inventory Taking Into Account the Scientific, Educational, and Geotourism/Recreational Uses Scientific Use Educational Use Geotourism/Recreational Use Define the topic, the value, the scale, and the aim of the inventory Geological literature review Consulting with experts that have worked in the area before Eventual definition of geological frameworks Review of sites used in educational activities Review of touristic advertisement materials List of potential sites Fieldwork aiming at the identification of new sites and the qualitative assessment of each site in the list of potential sites, based on the following selection criteria: • Representativeness • Integrity • Rarity • Scientific knowledge • Didactic potential • Variety of geological elements • Accessibility • Safety • Scenery • Interpretative potential • Accessibility • Safety Final list of sites with complete characterisation a a If the inventory of sites for scientific use is made using the geological frameworks method (Wimbledon et al., 1999), these final lists of sites should be prepared for each framework. Modified from Brilha (2016). 74 CHAPTER 4 GEOHERITAGE: INVENTORIES AND EVALUATION Author’s personal copy There are many published works about inventorying methods (e.g., Alexandrowicz and Kozlowski, 1999;D´ ıaz-Mart´ ınez and D´ ıez-Herrero, 2011;Fuertes-Guti´ errez and Fern´ andez-Mart´ ınez, 2010; Garc´ ıa-Cort´ es and Carcavilla Urqu´ ı, 2009;Grandgirard, 1999b;JNCC, 1977;Lapo et al., 1993; Parkes and Morris, 1999;Pereira and Pereira, 2010;Pereira et al., 2007;Reynard and Coratza, 2013;Reynard et al., 2007, 2016;Sellier, 2016;White and Mitchell, 2006;Wimbledon, 2011; Wimbledon et al., 1995, 1999). In general, all methods are based on a set of criteria that intend to reduce the subjectivity, always associated with the selection procedure of natural objects. For instance, between two outcrops with similar rocks and fossils, which one should be included in the inventory, as it is pointless to add to the inventory multiple sites with repetition of the main geological element? The method presented here is basically the one published by Brilha (2016), which was produced taking into account the best practices of other methods and the author’s experience (Table 4.3). It should be underlined that the procedure exposed here is adapted to identify and characterise the high value of in situ geodiversity elements. There are four main pillars that support a good inventory (Lima et al., 2010): the topic, the value, the scale and the aim. The topic is the subject or theme to be inventoried, for instance the whole geological heritage, just a partial component of it, like the palaeontological or the geomorphological heritage, a specific geological framework, etc. Each inventory should be built taking into consideration which main value must be assigned to the geodiversity elements that are going to be selected. As mentioned above (Table 4.2), the value is closely related to the potential use of sites, essentially the scientific, educational, and/or geotouristic/recreational use. The scale concerns the size of the area where the inventorying will take place (a protected area, a geopark, a municipality, a state, a country, a continent, etc.). Finally, the aim of the inventory is related to its final purpose, which may consist of a national geoconservation strategy, a geotouristic project, an educational programme, etc. It should be emphasised that while the inventories of sites for scientific use are usually done in large areas (a country or state, in case of federal countries), the inventories regarding sites with other types of uses are typically made in small areas (a protected area, geopark, a municipality, etc.). The next step of a systematic site inventory is the preparation of a list of potential sites (Table 4.3). This list is based on published data and on the opinion of experts that have worked in the area of the inventory. The review of scientific papers, Master’s and PhD theses, and guidebooks of scientific fieldtrips is highly recommended in order to build a list of potential sites. If the aim is to select sites for scientific use, this review should be focused on specific locations that are described in the literature for their geological relevance (particularly good exposures, sites where samples were collected that allowed the numerical dating of rocks, outcrops with remarkable fossil content, etc.). In addition, it might be useful to adopt the method based on the definition of geological frameworks. This method was developed in Europe during the 1980s, mainly through the action of ProGEO The European Association for the Conservation of the Geological Heritage (Erikstad, 2008;Wimbledon, 2011;Wimbledon et al., 1999, and references therein). Geological frameworks are main themes related to geoscience materials and/or processes that allow a better understanding of the geological history of the area where the site inventory is being performed (e.g., ‘Geology and metallogenesis of the Iberian Pyrite Belt’ or ‘Neogene ultrapotassic volcanism’). Geological frameworks should represent the main chapters of the Earth’s history that left evidence in the area under study. These frameworks may not have geographical continuity within the area and they can 754.2 HOW SHOULD THE HIGH VALUE OF GEODIVERSITY ELEMENTS Author’s personal copy also exist in contiguous territories, i.e., they may not be exclusive to the area under analysis. The larger the area of the inventory, the more appropriate is the use of this method for the inventory of sites with scientific value. Hence, this method has been used for national inventories in many European countries (Wimbledon and Smith-Meyer, 2012) and was applied for the first time in Latin America in the inventory of the Sa ˜o Paulo State in Brazil (Garcia et al., 2017). Representative geosites of each geological framework should be included in the respective list of potential geosites (a list for each framework should be prepared separately). To produce a list of sites with potential educational use it is recommended to get the opinion of teachers that organise field classes with students in the area of the inventory, together with the reading of literature related to geoscience education with a focus on the same geographical area. For the list of sites with potential geotourism/recreational use it is advisable to review touristic advertisement materials of the area. Quite often, these touristic leaflets, webpages, brochures, and guides use certain nature landmarks that are in fact geodiversity elements with high aesthetic value, even if tourism managers are not fully aware of this. When the list of potential sites is concluded, it is necessary to convert it into the definitive list of sites. In order to establish the final list, it is necessary to carry out fieldwork with two main goals: to confirm each potential site of the list and to eventually identify new sites. In order for a site to be listed as definitive, it is necessary that its value is well justified taking into account four qualitative criteria per type of use (Table 4.3). Hence, for sites with potential scientific use, the following four criteria should be applied: 1. Representativeness: concerning the appropriateness of the site to illustrate a geological process or feature that brings a meaningful contribution to the understanding of the geological topic, process, feature or geological framework. 2. Integrity: related to the present conservation status of the site, taking into account both natural processes and human actions. 3. Rarity: number of sites in the study area presenting similar geological features; 4. Scientific knowledge: based on the existence of scientific data already published about the site. Therefore, sites suitable for scientific use should be the best ones in the area concerning their capacity to illustrate geological processes or features, which are important to allow the advancement of geosciences. They should also be in the best possible conservation status and have some characteristics that differentiate them from other sites with similar geological features. The scientific relevance of a site is also attested if there are national and international publications directly related to its geological value. The selection of sites suitable for educational use should be supported using the following four criteria: 1. Didactic potential: related to the capacity of a geological feature to be easily understood by students of different educational levels (primary and secondary schools, universities). 2. Variety of geological elements: number of different types of geodiversity elements present in the same site. 3. Accessibility: conditions of access to the site in terms of difficulty and time spent on foot for ordinary students. 4. Safety: related to the visiting conditions, taking into consideration minimum risk for students. 76 CHAPTER 4 GEOHERITAGE: INVENTORIES AND EVALUATION Author’s personal copy Allen, P., Benton, M.J., Black, G.P., Cleal, C.J., Evans, K.M., Jusypiw, S.I., et al., 1987. 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