Electronic entrepreneurial intentions in Jordan: entrepreneurial culture, risk propensity and the moderating role of gender

! TESIS!DOCTORAL!+ ELECTRONIC!ENTREPRENEURIAL!INTENTIONS!IN! JORDAN:!ENTREPRENEURIAL!CULTURE,!RISK! PROPENSITY!AND!THE!MODERATING!ROLE!OF!GENDER+ By! Dhia+Mufeed+Mohd+Qasim+ Supervised!by:! Prof.!Francisco!Lin8 an!Alcalde!/!University!of!Seville! Prof.!Ashraf!Adel!Bany!Mohammed!/!University!of!Jordan! ! ! Doctorate!Program!of!Economics,!Business!and!Social!Science!(RD.!99/2011)! Faculty!of!Economics!and!Business! University!of!Seville! Seville,!January!2021!! ! 2 ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER Abstract( The$field$of$e-entrepreneurship$is$emerging$and$flourishing$as$the$number$of$eentrepreneurs$ who$ start$ an$ online$ business$ is$ continuously$ growing.$ This$ dissertation$ aims$ to$ investigate$ some$ of$ the$ factors$ that$ affect$ the$ eentrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan$as$one$of$the$ developing$countries$representing$the$Middle$East$and$Northern$Africa$(MENA).$ The$ research$ firstly$ performed$ a$ qualitative$ case$ study$ analysis$ on$ three$ entrepreneurial$centres$in$Jordan.$This$analysis$showed$increased$attention$and$ support$for$entrepreneurship$in$general,$and$e-entrepreneurship$in$particular.$In$ addition,$several$programs$were$identified$that$specifically$aimed$at$promoting$ women$e-entrepreneurship,$since$it$is$seen$as$a$way$of$overcoming$some$of$the$ cultural$barriers$to$female$entrepreneurial$activity.$$ Next,$ this$ research$ explored$ the$ past$ literature$ on$ e-entrepreneurship$ which$showed$that$the$field$is$still$emerging$and$experiencing$a$lack$of$theories$ and$models.$Many$researchers$were$deriving$theories$from$other$areas,$such$as$ economics,$ psychology,$ etc.$ The$ rapid$ increase$ in$ e-entrepreneurship$ studies$ emphasises$ the$ need$ for$ a$ systematic$ classification$ that$ can$ support$ the$ development$ of$ theories$ and$ research.$ Furthermore,$ this$ research$ seeks$ to$ explore,$classify$and$assess$previous$research$works$to$build$a$solid$base$for$ future$research.$In$doing$so,$ the$research$runs$a$systematic$ literature$review$ (SLR)$ to$ categorise$ the$ theories$ and$ models$ found$ from$ a$ total$ of$ 105$ eentrepreneurship$publications$from$2008$to$September$2020.$A$citation$analysis$ is$also$performed$to$identify$25$influential$works$in$this$field.$The$review$findings$ contribute$ to$ the$ extant$ literature$ of$ e-entrepreneurship$ as$ it$ revealed$ some$ critical$ research$ gaps,$ and$ mainly$ the$ need$ to$ develop$ new$ theoretical$ frameworks$ that$ can$ combine$ and$ extend$ the$ classical$ models$ of$ innovation,$ entrepreneurship,$ and$ technology$ to$ tackle$ the$ e-entrepreneurship$ field$ of$ research$specifically.$ The$present$dissertation$conducts$a$quantitative$empirical$analysis$with$a$ focus$ on$ the$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture,$ risk$ propensity$ and$ the$ moderating$role$ of$ gender.$ This$ builds$ a$ theoretical$framework$ based$ on$ the$ ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER 3 theory$ of$ planned$ behaviour$ (TPB)$ to$ investigate$ what$ influences$ the$ eentrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$A$total$of$480$ responses$were$retrieved$from$university$students$and$nascent$e-entrepreneurs.$ Using$a$structural$equation$modelling$analysis,$both$perceived$entrepreneurial$ culture$and$risk$propensity$were$found$to$affect$the$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$ to$ start$ a$ new$ online$ business$ in$ Jordan.$ According$ to$ gender,$ in$ turn,$ no$ differences$were$identified$between$men$and$women$in$their$e-entrepreneurial$ intentions.$ The$ thesis$ findings$ extended$ Ajzen’s$ TPB$ by$ analysing$ the$ role$ of$ perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$ and$risk$propensity$to$describe$Jordanians’$ intentions$toward$ e-entrepreneurial$ activities.$ Finally,$ implications$ and$ recommendations$for$future$studies$are$offered.$They$will$be$useful$to$support$ the$shaping$of$youth$e-entrepreneurs$and$their$creative$goals,$and$support$eentrepreneurship$in$Jordan.$ $ $ $ 4 ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER Resumen( El$campo$de$emprendimiento$electrónico$(e-emprendimiento)$está$creciendo$a$ medida$ que$ aumenta$ el$ número$ de$ e-emprendedores$ que$ inician$ empresas$ online.$Esta$tesis$doctoral$tiene$como$objetivo$investigar$algunos$de$los$factores$ que$afectan$a$dichas$intenciones$e-emprendedoras$en$Jordania$como$uno$de$los$ países$en$desarrollo$que$representa$al$Medio$Oriente$y$África$del$Norte$(MENA).$ En$primer$lugar,$se$realizaron$estudios$de$casos$cualitativos$en$tres$centros$de$ emprendimiento$de$Jordania.$Este$análisis$mostró$una$mayor$atención$y$apoyo$al$ emprendimiento$en$general,$y$al$e-emprendimiento$en$particular.$De$hecho,$se$ identificaron$ varios$ programas$ que$ concretamente$ promovían$ el$ eemprendimiento$femenino,$ya$que$se$ve$como$una$forma$de$superar$algunas$de$ las$barreras$culturales$respecto$a$la$actividad$emprendedora$femenina.$ A$continuación,$esta$investigación$analizó$la$literatura$publicada$sobre$eemprendimiento.$Este$análisis$identificó$que$el$campo$de$investigación$está$en$ auge.$Por$el$contrario,$también$experimenta$una$escasez$de$teorías$y$modelos.$ Numerosos$ investigadores$ han$ utilizado$ teorías$ provenientes$ de$ otras$ áreas,$ como$por$ejemplo,$la$economía,$la$psicología,$etc.$El$rápido$crecimiento$de$los$ estudios$sobre$e-emprendimiento$pone$de$relieve$la$necesidad$de$clasificaciones$ sistemáticas$que$puedan$apoyar$el$desarrollo$de$teorías$e$investigación.$En$este$ sentido,$ esta$ investigación$ busca$ explorar,$ clasificar$ y$ evaluar$ trabajos$ de$ investigación$previos$para$construir$una$base$sólida$para$futuras$investigaciones.$ Para$ello,$la$investigación$lleva$a$cabo$una$revisión$sistemática$de$la$literatura$ (SLR)$ especializada$ para$ clasificar$ las$ teorías$ y$ modelos$ encontrados.$ Siendo$ estos$un$total$de$105$publicaciones$sobre$e-emprendimiento$desde$2008$hasta$ septiembre$de$2020.$También$se$realizó$un$análisis$de$citas$para$identificar$25$ trabajos$influyentes$en$este$campo.$Los$resultados$de$la$revisión$contribuyen$a$la$ literatura$ existente$ sobre$ el$ emprendimiento$ electrónico,$ mostrando$ algunas$ lagunas$ importantes$ en$ las$ investigaciones,$ y$ principalmente,$ subrayando$ la$ necesidad$de$desarrollar$nuevos$marcos$teóricos$que$puedan$combinar$y$ampliar$ los$modelos$actuales$de$innovación,$emprendimiento$y$tecnología$para$abordar$ específicamente$la$investigación$en$e-emprendimiento.$ ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER 5 La$presente$tesis$realiza$un$análisis$empírico$cuantitativo$centrado$en$la$ percepción$ de$ la$ cultura$ emprendedora,$ la$ propensión$ al$ riesgo$ y$ el$ rol$ moderador$del$género.$Se$construye$un$marco$teórico$basado$en$la$Teoría$de$la$ Acción$ Planificada$ (TAP)$ para$ evaluar$ qué$ influye$ en$ las$ intenciones$ eemprendedoras$de$creación$de$nuevos$negocios$electrónicos.$Un$total$de$480$ respuestas$ se$ obtuvieron$ de$ estudiantes$ universitarios$ y$ e-emprendedores$ nacientes.$Se$emplearon$técnicas$de$Modelos$de$Ecuaciones$Estructurales.$Como$ resultado,$se$encontró$que$la$cultura$emprendedora$percibida$y$la$propensión$al$ riesgo$afectan$a$las$intenciones$de$e-emprendimiento$en$Jordania.$Respecto$al$ género,$no$se$encontraron$diferencias$significativas$entre$mujeres$y$hombres.$$ Los$hallazgos$de$la$tesis$complementan$los$efectos$de$la$TAP$de$Ajzen$analizando$ el$ papel$ de$ la$ cultura$ emprendedora$percibida$ y$ la$ propensión$ al$ riesgo.$ Finalmente,$se$ofrecen$implicaciones$y$recomendaciones$para$futuros.$Los$cuales$ serán$útiles$para$estimular$a$los$jóvenes$e-emprendedores$y$sus$metas$creativas,$ y$apoyar$el$e-emprendimiento$en$Jordania.$ $ $ $ $ $ 6 ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER Acknowledgements( First$and$Foremost,$praise$to$Allah$for$bestowing$upon$me$faith,$knowledge,$and$ for$blessing$me$with$this$journey$to$pursue$the$goal$of$obtaining$my$doctorate$ degree.$The$Prophet$(ﷺ)$said:$“He$who$does$not$thank$the$people$is$not$thankful$ to$Allah”.$I’m$grateful$for$this$journey$in$all$its$aspects,$all$the$sweat$and$tears,$the$ anxiousness,$the$anxiety,$this$wouldn’t$have$happened$without$the$support$and$ reassurance$ from$ those$ who$ believed$ in$ me.$ To$ everyone$ who$ stood$ by$ and$ pushed$me$to$find$my$passion$and$follow$my$dream,$I$would$like$to$thank$you,$ specifically:$$ My$family$in$the$first$place,$my$magnificent$parents$Mufeed&&&Najwa,$my$ amazing$brothers$Bara’&&&Ala’$and$my$wonderful$sisters$Nour,&Shorouq,&Dalia&&& Hayat,$for$your$prayers,$care,$love$and$endless$support,$I$dedicate$this$thesis$to$ you.$ I$would$like$to$express$sincere$gratitude$to$my$supervisor$Prof.$Francisco$ Linc an$and$my$co-supervisor$Prof.$Ashraf$Bany-Mohammed$for$their$leadership,$ provision,$and$for$guiding$me$throughout$my$research.$My$sincere$appreciation$ to$Dr.$Byron$Fabricio$Acosta,$for$the$opportunity$to$execute$my$research$visit$at$ Universidad$Técnica$del$Norte$in$Ibarra$–$Ecuador.$An$extended$thank$you$to$Dr.$ Ahmed$Shuhaiber$for$his$assistance$in$the$statistical$analysis$for$the$research,$and$ to$Stela$Postica$and$Dr.$Heba$Jaber$for$assisting$in$the$proofreading.$ Last$ but$ not$ least,$ I$ am$ grateful$ for$ my$ friends$ and$ classmates,$ the$ professors$of$the$future,$Alberto$Hueso,$Vicente$Casales,$and$Monica$Buenaño,$for$ their$countless$help$and$support$along$the$way,$good$luck$and$best$wishes.$To$all$ those$who$believed$in$me$and$offered$me$substantial$support;$Maen$Abdallah,$ Anwar$Alghabayen,$Janti$Alaskar,$Haya$Warnali$and$Nisreen$AlOmari.$To$those$ who$stood$next$to$me$in$my$expatriation;$Laith$Elmazayda,$Mr.$Salem$Marie,$Bilal$ Mhaidat,$Ghaith$Almarie,$Ayman$Almarie,$Taufiq$and$Tareq$Janoudi,$Fadi$Marhba$ and$Ammar$Zaza.$ Thank$you$all,$I$am$humbled$from$the$love$and$support$you$have$given$me.$ ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER 7 Table(of(Contents( ABSTRACT" 2! RESUMEN" 4! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS" 6! TABLE1OF1CONTENTS" 7! LIST1OF1TABLES" 9! LIST1OF1FIGURES"10! CHAPTER"1:!INTRODUCTION"11! 1.1!RESEARCH1BACKGROUND"12! 1.2!PURPOSE1AND1SCOPE"15! 1.3!OBJECTIVES1AND1RESEARCH1QUESTIONS"16! 1.4!THEORETICAL1FRAMEWORK1AND1HYPOTHESES"16! 1.5!RESEARCH1METHODOLOGY"18! 1.6!RESEARCH1LIMITATION"19! 1.7!THESIS1OUTLINE"19! CHAPTER"2:!LITERATURE"REVIEW"21! 2.1!SYSTEMATIC1LITERATURE1REVIEW"22! 2.2!SLR1METHODOLOGY"24! 2.3!CITATION1ANALYSIS"27! 2.3.1! E-ENTREPRENEURSHIP,*CORE*AND*THEORETICAL*MODELS!29! 2.3.2! ENTREPRENEURSHIP*AND*INNOVATION!29! 2.3.3! ECONOMICS!30! 2.3.4! PSYCHOLOGY!30! 2.3.5! METHODOLOGY!30! 2.4!SLR1RESULTS:1THEMATIC1ANALYSIS"31! 2.4.1! PSYCHOLOGICAL*THEORIES!33! 2.4.2! ECONOMIC*THEORIES!36! 2.4.3! ENTREPRENEURSHIP*&*INNOVATION*THEORIES!38! 2.4.4! OTHER*THEORIES!40! 2.5!DISCUSSION1AND1SUMMARY"41! 2.5.1! IMPLICATIONS!43! 2.5.2! FUTURE*RESEARCH*LINES!44! 2.5.3! CHAPTER*SUMMARY!49! CHAPTER"3:!E-ENTREPRENEURSHIP"IN"JORDAN"51! 3.1!OVERVIEW"52! 3.2!E-COMMERCE1ENTREPRENEURSHIP"53! 3.3!CULTURE,1GENDER1AND1E-ENTREPRENEURSHIP"56! 3.4!CASE1STUDIES1IN1JORDAN"62! 3.4.1! OASIS500!62! 3.4.2!ZINC!63! 3.4.3! CASHBASHA! 65! 3.5!DISCUSSION1AND1SUMMARY"66! CHAPTER"4:!THEORETICAL"FRAMEWORK"68! 8 ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER 4.1!THEORETICAL1FRAMEWORK"69! 4.2!RESEARCH1HYPOTHESES"70! 4.2.1! THE*THEORY*OF*PLANNED*BEHAVIOUR!71! 4.2.2! PERCEIVED*ENTREPRENEURIAL*CULTURE!73! 4.2.3! GENDER!74! 4.2.4! RISK*PROPENSITY!75! 4.3!RESEARCH1MODEL"76! CHAPTER"5:!RESEARCH"METHODOLOGY"79! 5.1!RESEARCH1DESIGN"80! 5.2!INSTRUMENT"80! 5.3!PARTICIPANTS"82! 5.4!ANALYSIS"83! CHAPTER"6:!RESULTS"AND"ANALYSIS"84! 6.1!SAMPLE1PROFILES1AND1RESPONDENT1CHARACTERISTICS"85! 6.2!EXPLORATORY1FACTOR1ANALYSIS"87! 6.2.1! ATTITUDE!88! 6.2.2! SUBJECTIVE*NORMS!89! 6.2.3! PERCEIVED*BEHAVIOURAL*CONTROL!90! 6.2.4! INTENTIONS!ERROR!1BOOKMARK1NOT1DEFINED.! 6.2.5! PERCEIVED*CULTURE!92! 6.2.6! RISK*PROPENSITY!93! 6.3!DATA1ANALYSIS1USING1SMARTPLS"94! 6.3.1! THE*MEASUREMENT*MODEL!95! 6.3.2! THE*STRUCTURAL*MODEL!100! 6.3.3! SUMMARY*OF*THE*HYPOTHESES*RESULTS!102! 6.4!ADVANCED1DATA1ANALYSIS1USING1SMARTPLS"105! CHAPTER"7:!DISCUSSION,"POLICY"IMPLICATIONS"AND"CONCLUSION"109! 7.1!DISCUSSION1AND1IMPLICATIONS"110! 7.2!CONCLUSION"111! 7.3!FUTURE1RESEARCH1LINES"113! BIBLIOGRAPHY"114! APPENDICES"136! APPENDIX1A:1QUESTIONNAIRE1VERSION1IN1ENGLISH"137! APPENDIX1B:1QUESTIONNAIRE1VERSION1IN1ARABIC"141! APPENDIX1C:1ADVANCED1MODEL1(CONTROL1VARIABLES1ANALYSIS)" 145! PUBLISHED"ARTICLES"147! A.!THE1FIRST1PUBLICATION"147! B.!THE1SECOND1PUBLICATION"162! $ ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS IN JORDAN: ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE, RISK PROPENSITY AND THE MODERATING ROLE OF GENDER 9 List(of(Tables( TABLE&2.1:&MOST&CITED&PAPERS&(2008&–&SEPTEMBER&2020)&28& TABLE&2.2&THEORY&GROUPS&–&A&TOTAL&OF&105&ARTICLES&32& TABLE&2.3:&NEW&AVENUES&IN&E-ENTREPRENEURSHIP&46& TABLE&6.1:&DEMOGRAPHIC&PROFILE&OF&THE&SAMPLE&86& TABLE&6.2:&WORK&EXPERIENCE&87& TABLE&6.3:&COMPONENT&MATRIX&FOR&ATTITUDE&SCALE&88& TABLE&6.4:&TOTAL&VARIANCE&EXPLAINED&FOR&ATTITUDE&SCALE&89& TABLE&6.5:&COMPONENT&MATRIX&FOR&SUBJECTIVE&NORMS&SCALE&90& TABLE&6.6:&TOTAL&VARIANCE&EXPLAINED&FOR&SUBJECTIVE&NORMS&SCALE&90& TABLE&6.7:&COMPONENT&MATRIX&FOR&PERCEIVED&BEHAVIOURAL&CONTROL&SCALE&91& TABLE&6.8:&TOTAL&VARIANCE&EXPLAINED&FOR&PERCEIVED&BEHAVIOURAL&CONTROL&SCALE&91& TABLE&6.9:&COMPONENT&MATRIX&FOR&THE&E-ENTREPRENEURIAL&INTENTIONS&SCALE&92& TABLE&6.10:&TOTAL&VARIANCE&EXPLAINED&FOR&E-ENTREPRENEURIAL&INTENTIONS&SCALE&92& TABLE&6.11:&COMPONENT&MATRIX&FOR&PERCEIVED&ENTREPRENEURIAL&CULTURE&SCALE&92& TABLE&6.12:&TOTAL%VARIANCE%EXPLAINED%FOR%PERCEIVED%ENTREPRENEURIAL%CULTURE%SCALE&93& TABLE&6.13:&COMPONENT&MATRIX&FOR&RISK&PROPENSITY&SCALE&93& TABLE&6.14:&TOTAL&VARIANCE&EXPLAINED&FOR&RISK&PROPENSITY&SCALE&94& TABLE&6.15:&OUTER&LOADINGS&96& TABLE&6.16:&OUTER&MODEL&MEASUREMENTS&–&CROSS&LOADINGS&97& TABLE&6.17:&AVE&AND&RELIABILITY&OF&THE&CONSTRUCTS&98& TABLE&6.18:&DISCRIMINANT&VALIDITY&(FORNELL-LARCKER&CRITERION)&100& TABLE&6.19:&PLS&RESULTS&FOR&THE&EEI&MODEL&101& TABLE&6.20:&HYPOTHESES&TESTING&RESULTS&104& TABLE&6.21:&CONTROL&VARIABLES&ANALYSIS&106& & 16 Introduction 1.3 OBJECTIVES'AND'RESEARCH'QUESTIONS' This$study$contributes$to$the$entrepreneurial$intentions$field$of$study.$More$ specifically,$it$will$help$describe$the$entrepreneurship$position$in$Jordan$and$the$ Arab$ World.$ The$ main$ objective$ is$ to$ understand$ how$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$ are$ formed$ in$ Jordan.$ The$ findings$ and$ conclusions$ from$ this$ dissertation$may$help$develop$a$better$image$for$entrepreneurship$that$could$be$ reinforced$in$this$country$and,$thus,$help$the$growth$of$the$local$economy$and$ reduce$the$unemployment$rate.$$ The$ study$ has$ addressed$ four$ main$ questions$ that$ can$ summarise$ its$ objectives.$Those$questions$are$as$follows:$ Q1:$Does$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$influence$the$e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan?$ Q2:$ Are$ there$ any$ differences$ between$ men$ and$ women$ in$ their$ eentrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan?$ Q3.$ Are$ there$ any$ interactions$ between$ gender$ and$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture$ affecting$ the$ formation$ of$ the$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan?$ Q4:$Does$risk$propensity$influence$the$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$ a$new$online$business$in$Jordan?$ The$study$expects$that$the$answers$to$those$questions$can$give$a$better$ understanding$of$the$current$entrepreneurship$position$in$Jordan.$Furthermore,$ it$may$enrich$academic$knowledge$of$the$online$business$formation$process.$ 1.4 THEORETICAL'FRAMEWORK'AND'HYPOTHESES' The$ study$ emphasizes$ the$ entrepreneurial$ intentions$in$ Jordan.$ The$ entrepreneurial$intentions$has$been$studied$by$many$authors$(Liñán$and$Fayolle$ 2015).$Different$variables$have$been$investigated$to$explore$what$affects$it.$This$ study$ will$ focus$ on$ the$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture,$ gender$ and$ risk$ propensity$of$Jordanians.$To$do$so,$the$study$will$adopt$the$theory$of$Planned$ Behaviour$ (TPB)$ (Ajzen$ 1991),$ to$ investigate$ their$ intentions.$ Moreover,$ the$ Introduction 17 dissertation$develops$an$extended$conceptual$framework$of$the$TPB$and$validate$ it$with$results$from$a$developing$country.$The$study$argues$that$external$factors$ other$than$the$TPB$antecedents$are$important$and$indirectly$impact$people's$eintentions.$Precisely,$the$study$formulates$the$following$hypotheses$to$be$tested$ in$the$empirical$analysis:$ H1a:$ There$ is$ a$ positive$ relationship$ between$ personal$ attitude$ and$ eentrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H1b:$ There$ is$ a$ positive$ relationship$ between$ subjective$ norms$ and$ eentrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H1c:$There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$perceived$behavioural$control$ and$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H2a:$There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$perceived$entrepreneurial$ culture$and$personal$attitude$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H2b:$There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$perceived$entrepreneurial$ culture$and$subjective$norms$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H2c:$There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$perceived$entrepreneurial$ culture$ and$ perceived$ behavioural$ control$ to$ start$ a$ new$ online$ business$ in$ Jordan.$$ H3a:$ There$ are$ significant$ differences$ between$ men$ and$ women$ in$ the$ relationships$between$ their$perceived$entrepreneurial$ culture$and$attitude$ to$ start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H3b:$There$are$significant$differences$exist$between$men$and$women$in$the$ relationships$ between$ their$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture$ and$ subjective$ norms$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H3c:$There$are$significant$differences$exist$between$men$and$women$in$the$ relationships$ between$ their$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$ and$ perceived$ behavioural$control$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ H4:$There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$risk$propensity$and$perceived$ behavioural$control$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ 18 Introduction According$ to$ the$ previous$ hypotheses,$ the$ framework$ in$ Figure$ 1.1$ is$ proposed$by$the$author$to$represent$the$conceptual$model$for$this$study:$ $ ! Figure!1.1:!Conceptual!model!of!the!study! $ 1.5 RESEARCH'METHODOLOGY' The$ study$ is$ adopting$ different$ methodologies$ to$ discuss$ the$ eentrepreneurial$intentions$in$Jordan.$As$mentioned$above,$this$study$is$focusing$ on$ the$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture$in$ Jordan.$ Moreover,$ how$ people's$ values$ and$ beliefs$ affect$their$ intentions$to$ engage$ in$ an$ online$ business.$ Additionally,$ the$ study$ wants$ to$ analyse$ the$ existence$ of$ gender$ differences$ among$them.$But$before$measuring$and$examining$this$intentions,$the$study$has$ to$go$through$the$current$literature$and$assess$the$knowledge$in$previous$studies.$ For$this$reason,$the$dissertation$starts$firstly$by$performing$a$qualitative$ study$of$three$case$studies$to$explore$the$current$situation$of$entrepreneurship$ in$ Jordan.$ Next,$ it$ performs$ a$ systematic$ literature$ analysis$ of$ the$ current$ literature$to$contribute$to$the$current$theoretical$literature$of$entrepreneurial$ Introduction 19 intentions.$ Later,$ the$ study$ will$ perform$ a$ quantitative$ analysis$ to$ study$ and$ analyse$the$Jordanians'$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$empirically.$ Data$ analysis$ for$ this$ study$ uses$ SPSS$ in$ order$ to$ show$ the$ descriptive$ analysis$ of$ the$ sample.$ In$ addition,$ the$ study$ performs$ a$ Structural$ Equation$ Modelling$(SEM)$to$test$its$hypotheses$using$SmartPLS$software$and$analyse$the$ data.$$ 1.6 RESEARCH'LIMITATION'' This$thesis,$as$others,$suffers$from$a$number$of$limitations.$First,$the$time$ frame$for$the$systematic$review$is$set$between$2008$and$September$2020.$The$ purpose$of$this$is$to$concentrate$on$recent$studies$in$the$field.$Given$the$wide$ coverage$of$the$selected$databases$for$this$research,$the$systematic$review$is$ limited$to$journal$articles$only$that$have$been$listed$in$one$of$the$four$selected$ databases.$ Regarding$ the$ empirical$ study,$ the$ survey$ distribution$has$ been$ conducted$electronically$and$through$online$social$channels$such$as$WhatsApp,$ Facebook,$etc.$It$also$benefitted$from$some$students’$help$to$spread$the$word-of- mouth$among$university$students$in$different$specialisations.$$ Nevertheless,$the$sample$of$the$empirical$study$is$examining$the$Jordanian$ culture;$thus,$this$study$is$limited$to$the$Jordanian$society.$All$respondents$from$ other$nationalities$were$dropped$off$the$sample.$Finally,$all$precautions$were$ taken$to$avoid$any$other$limitation$that$could$affect$the$results$of$this$research.$ Therefore,$the$author$trusts$that$the$review$performed$in$this$dissertation$gives$ a$ comprehensive$ illustration$ of$ recent$ research$ in$ the$ field$ of$ eentrepreneurship.$Additionally,$the$empirical$analysis$hopefully$offers$a$realistic$ picture$of$the$current$e-entrepreneurship$in$Jordan.$ 1.7 THESIS'OUTLINE' This$ dissertation$ is$ divided$ into$ seven$chapters$ (Figure$ 1.2).$ The$ first$ chapter,$ Introduction,$ presents$an$ overview$ of$ the$ thesis$ that$ includes$ the$ purpose,$scope$and$objectives$of$this$study,$in$addition$to$the$research$questions,$ hypotheses$ and$ research$ model.$ It$ gives$ a$ short$ summary$ of$ the$ adopted$ 20 Introduction methodology$and$the$limitation$of$this$study.$In$the$second$chapter,$Literature& Review,$the$electronic$entrepreneurship$will$be$presented$and$previous$empirical$ studies$will$be$examined.$An$overview$of$the$e-entrepreneurship$in$Jordan$is$ well-presented$in$the$third$chapter.$The$theoretical$framework$of$this$study$and$ its$hypotheses$are$developed$in$the$fourth$chapter,$Theoretical&Framework,$and$ the$primary$model$of$the$study$is$illustrated.$ $ ! Figure!1.2:!Thesis!outline!! $ Next,$the$methodology$and$descriptive$statistics$of$this$study$are$discussed$ in$the$fifth$chapter,$Research&Methodology,$in$addition$to$the$study$survey$and$ sample.$The$sixth$chapter,$Results& and& Analysis,$is$providing$the$study$results$ according$to$hypotheses$testing.$The$last$chapter,$Discussion,&policy&implications& and&Conclusion,$provides$a$discussion$of$the$study$literature$and$its$analysis,$the$ conclusions$ and$ implications$ of$ this$ research$ are$ stated.$ Finally,$ this$ dissertation's$publications$are$enclosed$under$the$title$Published&Articles$at$the$ end$of$this$dissertation.$ $ $ Chapter( 1•Introduction Chapter( 2•Literature!Review Chapter 3• E-Entrepreneurship!in!Jordan Chapter 4•Theoretical!Framework Chapter( 5•Research!Methodology Chapter( 6•Results!and!Analysis Chapter( 7•Discussion,!Policy!Implications!and!Conclusion Literature Review 21 $ $ $ Chapter(2: Literature(Review( $ 2.1$SYSTEMATIC'LITERATURE'REVIEW%22$ 2.2$SLR'METHODOLOGY%24$ 2.3$CITATION'ANALYSIS%27$ 2.3.1$ E-ENTREPRENEURSHIP,*CORE*AND*THEORETICAL*MODELS$29$ 2.3.2$ ENTREPRENEURSHIP*AND*INNOVATION$29$ 2.3.3$ ECONOMICS$30$ 2.3.4$ PSYCHOLOGY$30$ 2.3.5$ METHODOLOGY$30$ 2.4$SLR'RESULTS:'THEMATIC'ANALYSIS%31$ 2.4.1$ PSYCHOLOGICAL*THEORIES$33$ 2.4.2$ ECONOMIC*THEORIES$36$ 2.4.3$ ENTREPRENEURSHIP*&*INNOVATION*THEORIES$38$ 2.4.4$ OTHER*THEORIES$40$ 2.5$DISCUSSION'AND'SUMMARY%41$ 2.5.1$ IMPLICATIONS$43$ 2.5.2$ FUTURE*RESEARCH*LINES$44$ 2.5.3$ CHAPTER*SUMMARY$49$ $ % $ 22 Literature Review This$ chapter$ aims$ to$ review$ the$ current$ literature$ on$ e-entrepreneurship$ to$ identify$relevant$and$essentials$works.$Consequently,$it$will$consider$the$existing$ empirical$literature$of$e-entrepreneurship$that$is$based$on$a$clear$theory$in$order$ to$address$the$research$questions.$Moreover,$it$will$identify$the$most$relevant$ theoretical$bases$of$current$research$in$this$area.$ 2.1 SYSTEMATIC'LITERATURE'REVIEW'' Since$the$beginning$of$the$21st$century,$e-entrepreneurship$has$grabbed$ the$attention$of$many$scholars$and$practitioners.$It$describes$the$use$of$electronic$ platforms$by$entrepreneurs$to$create$a$new$innovative$online$business$in$the$Net$ Economy$(Kollmann$2006).$As$the$benefits$of$online$business$activities$grow$in$ the$virtual$economy,$for$both$companies$and$their$customers$(Badzinska$and$ Brzozowska-Woś$2017),$many$organisations$have$moved$to$the$Net$Economy$to$ successfully$ perform$ online$ in$ the$ virtual$ marketplace$ (Sigfusson$ and$ Chetty$ 2013).$Additionally,$the$number$of$virtual$entrepreneurial$firms$has$been$rising,$ all$while$deriving$new$online$business$models$that$have$become$very$important$ for$doing$business$on$the$Internet$(Kollmann$and$Hasel$2008).$The$growth$of$the$ online$mobile$community$persuades$e-entrepreneurs$to$invest$in$e-enterprises$ utilising$mobile$communications$and$social$software$technologies$(Ratten$2013).$ E-entrepreneurship$ has$ evolved$ into$ an$ essential$ tool$ for$ entrepreneurs$ in$ troubled$ economies$ (Truong$ and$ Bhuiyan$ 2011),$ in$ addition$ to$ growing$ and$ reaching$the$international$market$(Etemad,$Wilkinson,$and$Dana$2010).$ The$ Net$ Economy$ or$ virtual$ economy$ has$ illustrated$ the$ development$ progress$ of$ the$ business$ environment$ in$ cyberspace$ (Badzinska$ and$ Brzozowska-Woś$2017).$The$success$of$electronic$commerce$(e-commerce)$has$ generated$ new$ digital$ platforms$ and$ technologies$ that$ developed$ the$ Net$ Economy$(Bai$2015).$Technological$opportunities$have$been$transformed$into$ reality$in$most$organisational$processes$through$e-entrepreneurship$(Shkurkin$ et$al.$2015).$Also,$the$contributions$of$digital$communication$networks$and$ecommerce$have$improved$the$technological$platforms$that$help$many$firms$who$ run$online$business$operations$(Qasim,$Bany$Mohammed,$and$Liñán$2018).$Ever$ since,$ entrepreneurial$ strategies$ have$ shown$ the$ emergence$ of$ e-commerce$ Literature Review 23 entrepreneurial$firms,$practices$and$entrepreneurial$roles$that$have$created$new$ business$ models$ to$ support$ the$ prediction$ of$ success$ factors$ for$ e-commerce$ firms$(Gundry$and$Kickul$2004).$This$inspired$several$governmental$and$private$ organisations$to$invest$in$e-entrepreneurs$and$digital$incubators$(Facet$2011).$ Furthermore,$ research$ works$ promoted$ e-entrepreneurship$ instead$ of$ traditional$ entrepreneurship$ and$ recommended$ investing$ in$ e-entrepreneurs$ (Matlay$and$Martin$2009).$ Several$studies$have$been$carried$out$on$e-entrepreneurship$since$Matlay$ (2004)$proposed$a$research$agenda$on$e-entrepreneurship.$The$last$few$years$ have$seen$several$articles$that$tackle$e-entrepreneurship$to$help$organisations$ and$entrepreneurs$to$plan$and$implement$successful$start-ups$online.$Various$ studies$have$been$conducted$in$different$areas$to$cover$diverse$topics,$such$as$ entrepreneurs’$intentions$of$starting$an$e-entrepreneurial$business$(Wang$et$al.$ 2016;$Chang$et$al.$2020;$Lai$and$To$2020),$e-commerce$entrepreneurial$firm$and$ its$advantages$(Abebe$2014;$Anwar$2017;$S.-H.$Chang$et$al.$2018;$Deng$and$Wang$ 2016),$or$the$success$factors$of$e-commerce$ventures$(Guo$et$al.$2017;$Imran$ Khan$et$al.$2016;$Wongkhamdi,$Cooharojananone$and$Khlaisang$2020).$Some$ researchers$referred$to$e-entrepreneurship$as$cyber$entrepreneurship,$and$use$ cyber$ traders$ or$ cyber$ entrepreneurs$ to$ term$ those$ who$ start$ their$ business$ online$on$the$Internet$(Serarols$and$Urbano$2008;$Carrier,$Raymond,$and$Eltaief$ 2004;$ Wang$ et$ al.$ 2016).$ In$ this$ sense,$ this$ research$ will$ use$ the$ term$ “eentrepreneurship”$in$this$thesis$to$refer$to$all$businesses$operating$online$as$their$ primary$ strategy,$ as$ this$ is$ the$ most$ common$ term$ among$ other$ similar$ synonyms$ such$ as$ e-commerce$ entrepreneurship$ or$ cyber$ entrepreneurship$ (Kollmann$2006;$Quinones,$Nicholson,$and$Heeks$2015;$Al$Omoush,$Al-Qirem,$ and$Al$Hawatmah$2018).$ The$significant$literature$on$e-entrepreneurship$was$reviewed$and$showed$ that$the$research$area$is$still$in$an$emerging$stage$(Carrier,$Raymond,$and$Eltaief$ 2004).$Moreover,$venture$creation$by$e-entrepreneurs$remains$an$emerging$field$ (Serarols$2008).$Furthermore,$the$main$contributions$use$theories$derived$from$ other$ fields,$ such$ as$ entrepreneurship,$ economics,$ etc.$ The$ field$ of$ eentrepreneurship$continues$emerging,$and$there$is$a$notable$lack$of$theories$and$ 24 Literature Review models.$However,$many$studies$are$found$in$the$field,$and$this$number$is$rapidly$ increasing.$ Hence,$ this$ might$ result$ in$ a$ lack$ of$ categorisation$ and$ systematisation.$ Therefore,$ there$ is$ a$ need$ to$ assess$ the$ quality$ of$ previous$ studies$to$build$a$solid$base$for$future$work$and$prevent$possible$confusion$in$the$ field$(Fayolle$and$Liñán$2014).$ The$main$objective$of$this$research$is$to$summarise$the$knowledge$base$and$ to$ identify$ future$ research$ lines.$ That$ is,$ it$ aims$ at$ providing$ a$ transparent$ illustration$of$recent$empirical$contributions$in$the$area$of$e-entrepreneurship$ that$are$based$on$a$clear$theory.$Accordingly,$the$research$performs$a$systematic$ literature$review$(SLR)$to$categorise$and$systemise$the$current$results$obtained$ from$the$e-entrepreneurship$literature.$Moreover,$it$will$identify$what$theories$ are$ being$ used$ as$ the$ base$ in$ e-entrepreneurship.$ In$ order$ to$ accomplish$ its$ objectives,$this$research$uses$a$citation$analysis$method$to$identify$the$previous$ primary$ literature$ used$ by$ authors$ in$ the$ field.$ This$ classification$ of$ main$ references$will$serve$as$a$guide$to$categorise$the$contributions$analysed$in$this$ review.$It$will$help$us$identify$the$existing$gaps$in$the$e-entrepreneurship$field$ and$point$out$some$critical$elements$of$a$future$research$agenda.$$ 2.2 SLR'METHODOLOGY' The$ research$ performs$ an$ SLR$ to$ ensure$ that$ the$ review$ is$ clear$ and$ transparent.$This$SLR$has$been$implemented$based$on$previous$methodological$ and$entrepreneurship$literature$recommendations$to$ensure$it$is$systematic$and$ replicable$ (Lourenço$ and$ Jones$ 2006;$ Tranfield,$ Denyer,$ and$ Smart$ 2003).$ Consequently,$this$research$replicates$the$approach$followed$in$similar$previous$ studies$(Liñán$and$Fayolle$2015).$It$classifies$the$empirical$contributions$made$ since$2008$in$the$area$of$e-entrepreneurship.$The$period$under$investigation$is$ limited$to$the$last$twelve$years$due$to$the$convenience$of$focusing$on$more$recent$ contributions$(Pautasso$2013).$In$this$way,$the$author$will$be$able$to$provide$a$ general$overview$of$current$trends$in$the$field.$It$makes$sense$to$focus$on$the$ most$ recent$ contributions,$ given$ the$ dramatic$ changes$ undergone$ by$ eentrepreneurship$since$its$upsurge.$ Literature Review 25 The$SLR$process$goes$through$different$steps$to$ensure$systemisation.$First,$ the$selection$of$the$keywords$came$after$checking$similar$research$work$in$the$ field.$ Then,$ the$ author$ used$ research$ constraints$ in$ order$ to$ target$ related$ literature$ articles$ and$ create$ a$ controllable$ sample.$ The$ search$ process$ was$ performed$in$four$highly-used$databases:$Scopus,$Web$of$Science$(Social$Science$ Citation$Index),$ABI-Inform/ProQuest,$and$Science$Direct,$due$to$their$broader$ coverage$of$indexed$journals$(Meho$and$Yang$2007).$The$search$process$was$ executed$through$the$articles’$titles,$abstracts$and$keywords$in$all$the$databases.$ The$time$frame$set$for$all$articles$published$was$from$2008$to$September$2020$ (inclusive),$ and$ they$ had$ to$ contain$ one$ of$ the$ following$ keywords:$ “eentrepreneur”,$“e-entrepreneurs”,$“e-entrepreneurship”$or$else$the$combination$ of$“entrepren*”$with$one$of$the$keywords$“electronic$commerce”,$“e-commerce”$ or$ “cyber*”.$ Only$ journal$ articles$ have$ been$ included,$ as$ they$ are$ considered$ validated$knowledge$(Podsakoff$et$al.$2005).$Therefore,$conference$papers$and$ book$ chapters$ were$ excluded$ due$ to$ their$ restricted$ availability$ and$ less$ homogeneous$review$process$(Jones,$Coviello,$and$Tang$2011).$ $ $ Figure!2.1.!Article!Selection!Process! $ Empirical$articles$that$are$based$on$a$clear$theory$or$model Final$sample=$105$articles After$screening$all$titles,$abstract$and$keywords Total$sample$of$e-entrepreneurship$articles=$291$articles After$integrating$and$removing$duplicate$articles$ Total$number$of$articles$is=$652$articles Records$identified$through$search$process$in$four$main$databases Sco=$397 WoS=$190 ScD=$95 PrQ=$262 32 Literature Review $ Table&2.2&Theory&groups&–&A&Total&of&105&Articles& Method&Economics& (33%Articles)% Entrepreneurship&&& Innovation& (28%Articles)% Psychology& (38%Articles)% Other&Theories& (6%Articles)% Quantitative& 62%Articles& (Al% Omoush,% Al-Qirem,% and% Al% Hawatmah% 2018;% Boschma% and% Weltevreden% 2008;% Chandna% and% Salimath% 2020;% Colton,% Roth,% and% Bearden% 2010;% Deng% and% Wang% 2016;%Glavas,%Mathews,%and%Bianchi% 2017;% Gregg% and% Parthasarathy% 2017;%Häsel,%Kollmann,%and%Breugst% 2010;%Kuhn%and%Galloway%2015;%S.- G.%Lee,%Koo,%and%Nam%2010;%Y.%Y.%Lee% and% Falahat% 2019;% Niu,% Deng,% and% Hao%2020;%Rana%and%Sørensen%2013;% Saridakis% et% al.% 2018;% Shan% et% al.% 2014;% F.% Wang% 2020;% S.% Wang,% Cavusoglu,%and%Deng%2016)% (Al-Omoush%et%al.%2019;%Alam%et% al.%2018;%Kyobe%2008;%Lian%and% Yen% 2017;% Millman% et% al.% 2009;% Ramadani%et%al.% 2014;%Rasheed% 2009;% Truong% and% Bhuiyan% 2011;% Y.-M.% Wang% and% Chiou% 2020;%Yu%et%al.%2019;%Zhu%and%Lin% 2019)% (Nawi% et% al.% 2017;% Matlay% and% Martin% 2009;% S.% Wang,% Cavusoglu,%and%Deng%2016;%Abebe%2014;%Imran%Khan%et%al.% 2016;%Sebora,%Lee,%and%Sukasame%2009;%Kwun%et%al.%2010;% Cordero-Gutiérrez%and%Santos-Requejo%2016;%Jansen%et%al.% 2016;%Lane%et%al.%2014;%Mariani,%Muhamad,%and%Lamarauna% 2017;%Abdulwahab%and%Kabir%2014;%Batool%et%al.%2015;%Koe% 2020;% Yi-Shun% et% al.% 2019;% Chang% et% al.% 2020;% 2018;% Wongkhamdi,% Cooharojananone% and% Khlaisang% 2020;% Suvattanadilok%2020;%Tanikan%and%Nittaya%2019;%Hartoyo% et% al.% 2019;% Zolait% et% al.% 2018;% Oumlil% and% Juiz% 2018;% Chandna%and%Salimath%2020;%Lai%and%To%2020;%Adiandari%et% al.%2020;%Dixit,%Prakash,%and%Verma%2018;%Isabelle%2020;% Suleman,% Zuniarti,% and% Sabil% 2019;% Han% and% Li% 2020;% Al% Mamun%et%al.%2020)% (Guo%et%al.%2017;% Martinez% and% Williams% 2010;% S.% Wang,% Mao,% and% Archer% 2012)% % Qualitative& 31%Articles& (Che% and% Zhang% 2019;% Cui% et% al.% 2017;%Effah%2016;%Grochal-Brejdak% and% Szymura-Tyc%2018;%Hassan% et% al.% 2012;% Holland% and% Gutiérrez- Leefmans%2018;%Li%et%al.%2018;%Sala% and%Tańska%2010;%Sell%et%al.%2019;% Serarols%and%Urbano%2008;%S.%Wang% et%al.%2011;%You,%Shu,%and%Luo%2018)% (Godoe% and% Hansen% 2009;% Hevner%and%Malgonde%2019;%Jain% et% al.% 2019;% McAdam,% Crowley,% and%Harrison%2020;%Pourhossein% and%Omran% 2014;%Ratten%2019;% Sen%and%Ongsakul%2017;%Serarols% 2008;% Shaheer% and% Li% 2020;% Stampfl,% Prügl,% and% Osterloh% 2013;%Wentrup%2016;%Zaheer%et% al.%2019)% (Beránek%2015;%Dy,%Marlow,%and%Martin%2017;%Petersson% McIntyre% 2020;% Shemi% and% Procter% 2018;% van% Gelderen,% Sayers,%and%Keen%2008)% (Hafezieh,% Akhavan,% and% Eshraghian% 2011;% Yoshida% and%Iijima%2019)% Mixed& 6%Articles& (Koch% 2010;% Sigfusson% and% Chetty% 2013)% (Anwar%2017;%Chung%et%al.%2016)% (Lichtenstein,%Abbott,%and%Rechavi%2015;%Yu%et%al.%2017)%–% Reviews& 6%Articles& (Bailetti% and% Zijdemans% 2014;% Reuber%and%Fischer%2011)% (Rippa%and%Secundo%2019;%Trimi% and% Berbegal-Mirabent% 2012;% Zaheer%et%al.%2019)% –% (Shabbir% et% al.% 2016)% % Literature Review 33 As$it$is$clearly$shown,$the$psychological$theory$group$is$the$largest$(38$out$ of$105),$with$a$high$usage$of$quantitative$studies$(31$out$of$38).$Likewise,$the$ second$(economics)$group$also$showed$that$quantitative$studies$are$dominant$ (17$out$of$33),$but$the$presence$of$qualitative$studies$is$higher$(12$out$of$33).$The$ e-entrepreneurship$ literature$ has$ also$ relied$ significantly$ on$ the$ field$ of$ entrepreneurship$ and$ innovation,$ since$ 28$ of$ the$ papers$ are$ based$ on$ these$ theories.$However,$the$qualitative$studies$(12$papers)$in$this$group$represent$the$ most$frequent$approach,$rather$than$the$quantitative$ones$(11$papers).$Finally,$ the$ last$ group$ is$ labelled$ as$ other$ theories.$ It$contains$ six$ articles$ adopting$ theories$ or$ models$ from$ different$ literature$ streams$ (three$ quantitative,$ two$ qualitative$ and$ one$ review).$ Overall,$ most$ empirical$ studies$ in$ eentrepreneurship$used$a$quantitative$method$(62$out$of$99,$not$counting$the$six$ literature$reviews),$while$31$of$them$were$qualitative$studies,$and$six$additional$ papers$adopted$a$mixed-method$approach.$Theory$groups$are$demonstrated$in$a$ more$detailed$account$of$the$research$in$each$of$these$main$groups.$ 2.4.1 %Psychological%theories% Generally,$psychological$theories$focus$on$emotional$or$cognitive$elements$ in$individuals.$In$this$group,$researchers$have$referred$to$different$psychological$ theories$in$their$work$to$study$e-entrepreneurs.$According$to$Davis$(1989),$the$ TAM$explains$how$users$accept$using$new$technologies.$The$unified$theory$of$ acceptance$and$use$of$technology$(UTAUT)$by$Venkatesh$et$al.$(2003)$extends$ the$TAM$model.$These$two,$together$with$the$TPB$(Ajzen$1991),$are$the$most$ frequently$adopted$theories$in$this$group.$These$studies$have$been$carried$out$in$ several$ countries$ with$ a$ variety$ of$ samples,$ such$ as$ university$ students$ in$ developed$countries$(Czech$Republic,$Israel,$USA)$(Beránek$2015;$Lichtenstein,$ Abbott,$and$Rechavi$2015;$Yu$et$al.$2017),$and$students$in$developing$countries$ (Indonesia,$Malaysia,$Taiwan)$(Adiandari$et$al.$2020;$Nawi$et$al.$2017;$Wang$et$ al.$2016).$Several$studies$have$been$done$on$e-entrepreneurs$who$intend$to$start$ their$online$business$using$electronic$platforms$(Cordero-Gutiérrez$and$Santos- Requejo$2016;$Isabelle$2020;$Jansen$et$al.$2016;$Lai$and$To$2020),$as$well$as$on$ business$ owners$ who$ are$ transforming$ some$ of$ their$ business$ operations$ in$ 34 Literature Review order$to$grow$online$(Abebe$2014;$Chandna$and$Salimath$2020;$Kwun$et$al.$2010;$ Lane$et$al.$2014;$van$Gelderen,$Sayers,$and$Keen$2008).$ As$ mentioned$ above,$ the$ majority$ of$ these$ empirical$ studies$ follow$ a$ quantitative$method$(31$studies),$using$surveys$and$questionnaires$for$the$data$ collection$process$(Batool$et$al.$2015;$Han$and$Li$2020;$Mariani,$Muhamad,$and$ Lamarauna$2017;$Nawi$et$al.$2017).$The$most$frequently$adopted$model$in$this$ group$is$the$TAM,$which$is$used$to$discuss$the$adoption$of$mobile$commerce$by$ e-entrepreneurs$and$its$capabilities$to$strengthen$their$business$(Wongkhamdi,$ Cooharojananone$and$Khlaisang$2020;$Tanikan$and$Nittaya$2019),$to$examine$ customers’$behaviour$online$and$how$they$interact$inside$the$company’s$website$ (Suvattanadilok$ 2020;$ Zolait$ et$ al.$ 2018),$ and$ also$ to$ discuss$ the$ perceived$ strategic$value$of$adopting$e-commerce$in$business$(Hartoyo$et$al.$2019;$Kwun$et$ al.$2010;$Lane$et$al.$2014).$The$second$most$used$theory$in$this$group$is$the$TPB.$ This$theory$served$in$predicting$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$among$students$ (Adiandari$et$al.$2020;$Isabelle$2020),$and$young$people$(Lai$and$To$2020).$And$ the$last$study$was$exploring$consumers$behaviour$online$(Dixit,$Prakash,$and$ Verma$2018).$$ Additionally,$some$articles$developed$their$research$or$framework$based$ on$both$the$TAM$and$TPB$together$(Abebe$2014;$Cordero-Gutiérrez$and$Santos- Requejo$2016;$Suleman,$Zuniarti,$and$Sabil$2019),$combining$the$focus$of$the$ TAM$ on$ the$ technological$ perspective$ with$ the$ emphasis$ of$ the$ TPB$ on$ behavioural$intentions.$$ The$ next$ most$ used$ theory$ is$ the$ UTAUT,$ employed$ by$ researchers$ to$ investigate$ e-entrepreneurs$ usage$ of$ social$ media$ as$ business$ platforms$ (Al$ Mamun$et$al.$2020;$Nawi$et$al.$2017),$and$customer-to-customer$online$shopping$ (Mariani,$Muhamad,$and$Lamarauna$2017).$Further,$based$on$both$the$UTAUT$ and$ its$ antecedent,$ $ the$ TAM,$ Oumlil$ and$ Juiz$ (2018)$ proposed$ a$ model$ that$ explains$ the$ acceptance$ of$ e-entrepreneurship$ among$ entrepreneurs$ in$ the$ tourism$ industry.$ Similarly,$ and$ based$ on$ both$ UTAUT$ and$ TPB,$ Wang$ et$ al.$ (2016)$proposed$a$model$to$explore$the$effect$of$e-entrepreneurial$motivation$on$ students’$ intentions.$ Their$ model$ suggested$ the$ moderation$ of$ education$ (IT/non-IT$ students).$ Their$ study$ revealed$ that$ business$ students$ with$ an$ IT$ Literature Review 35 background$showed$a$greater$intentions$to$start$an$online$business$than$other$ students$(Wang$et$al.$2016).$ Among$ other$ theories$ in$ this$ group,$ Bandura's$ (1977)$social$ cognitive$ theory$(SCT)$is$used$to$study$self-efficacy$among$students$and$its$relation$to$the$ intentions$to$start$an$online$business$(S.-H.$Chang$et$al.$2018,$2020).$Yi-Shun$et$ al.$ (2019)$ develop$ a$ scale$ to$ measure$ e-entrepreneurial$ self-efficacy.$ Other$ authors$combine$the$SCT$with$the$expectation$confirmation$theory$(ECT)$from$ McKinney,$ Yoon,$ and$ Zahedi$ (2002)$to$ study$ user$ stickiness$ and$ continuous$ usage$and,$thus,$the$increase$in$loyalty$to$business$(Abdulwahab$and$Kabir$2014;$ Yu$ et$ al.$ 2017).$ Overall,$ authors$ in$ this$ research$ group$ have$ noticed$ that$ entrepreneurs$ are$ shifting$ to$ e-commerce$ businesses$ in$ order$ to$ realise$ opportunities$and$perceive$their$expected$benefits$(Imran$Khan$et$al.$2016).$$$ Several$ studies$ revealed$ the$ importance$ and$ strength$ of$ e-commerce$ technologies$in$online$business$for$their$capability$to$help$better$understanding$ customers’$wishes,$tastes$and$interests$(Cordero-Gutiérrez$and$Santos-Requejo$ 2016),$their$positive$influence$on$firms’$performance$(Abebe$2014),$developing$ a$ competitive$ e-marketing$ platform$ in$ addition$ to$ other$ different$ e-business$ processes$(Matlay$and$Martin$2009),$and$reinforcing$the$strategic$value$for$SMEs$ (Lane$et$al.$2014).$However,$some$researchers$identified$certain$technical$issues$ in$ e-entrepreneurship.$ According$ to$ Jansen$ et$ al.$ (2016),$ there$ is$ a$ need$ to$ improve$ security$ measures$ against$ online$ threats,$ and$ encourage$ young$ eentrepreneurs$to$undertake$more$effective$procedures$to$protect$their$systems$ and$data.$$ Finally,$ several$ psychological$ characteristics$ are$ found$ to$ significantly$ affect$the$adoption$of$e-commerce$technologies$by$e-entrepreneurs,$such$as$the$ need$for$achievement,$risk-taking$ability$and$locus$of$control$(Lane$et$al.$2014;$ Shemi$and$Procter$2018),$in$addition$to$competence,$relatedness$and$autonomy$ (Koe$2020).$E-commerce$courses$develop$students’$e-entrepreneurial$skills$to$ work$in$a$risky$and$competitive$business$environment$(Beránek$2015).$Further,$ e-learning$ provides$ new$ entrepreneurial$ ways$ of$ teaching$ college$ students$ through$ the$ association$ of$ technologies$ which$ leads$ to$ a$ successful$ learning$ process$(Lichtenstein,$Abbott,$and$Rechavi$2015).$$ 36 Literature Review 2.4.2 %Economic%theories% The$ e-entrepreneurship$ articles$ in$ this$ group$ are$ based$ on$ economic$ theories$which$ focus$ on$ business$ resources$ and$ opportunities$ in$ entrepreneurship.$Some$authors$stress$the$dynamic$and$open$nature$of$market$ systems$(Simpeh$2011).$The$most$widely-adopted$theory$in$this$group$is$the$RBV$ (Barney$1991),$or$the$resource-based$theory$(RBT)$(Barney,$Ketchen,$and$Wright$ 2011).$In$ general,$ the$ RBT$ stresses$ the$ way$ entrepreneurs$leverage$ different$ resources$to$gain$some$entrepreneurial$benefits.$It$emphasises$the$importance$of$ firm$resources$in$creating$sustained$competitive$advantages$for$it.$In$addition,$ this$research$finds$other$economic$theories,$such$as$the$early$mover$advantage$ theory$ (EMA,$ Deng$ and$ Wang$ 2016;$ Wang,$ Cavusoglu,$ and$ Deng$ 2016),$ the$ economic$theory$of$competition$to$study$long-term$survival$of$online$businesses$ (Gregg$ and$ Parthasarathy$ 2017),$ the$ economic$ theory$ of$ development$ that$ discusses$the$development$in$Poland$over$the$past$two$decades$(Sala$and$Tańska$ 2010),$ the$ RBV$ and$ theoretical$ reasoning$ approach$ (TRA)$ to$ analyse$ the$ relationship$between$entrepreneurial$resources$and$organisational$capabilities$ (Shan$et$al.$2014),$the$global$value$chain,$as$in$Rana$and$Sørensen$(2013),$and$ the$utility$theory$as$per$Häsel,$Kollmann,$and$Breugst$(2010)$and$others.$$ Articles$based$on$the$RBV$or$the$RBT$(12$out$of$33)$are$classified$according$ to$their$analysis$method.$Six$of$these$articles$followed$a$quantitative$analysis$that$ used$ a$ survey$ as$ their$ primary$ data-collection$ tool$ (e.g.,$ Colton,$ Roth,$ and$ Bearden$2010;$Lee$and$Falahat$2019).$In$these$research$works,$the$authors$study$ e-commerce’s$ effect$ on$ online$ firms’$ performance$ within$ the$ e-marketplace$ (Glavas,$Mathews,$and$Bianchi$2017;$Kuhn$and$Galloway$2015;$Niu,$Deng,$and$ Hao$ 2020).$ Likewise,$ Shan$ et$ al.$ (2014)$show$ that$ e-commerce$ is$ an$ entrepreneurial$ technological$ resource$ that$ positively$ affects$ organisational$ capabilities.$ Additionally,$ qualitative$ studies$ revealed$ the$ importance$ of$ ecommerce$as$it$empowers$social$innovation$by$e-entrepreneurs$in$rural$villages$ (Cui$et$al.$2017).$It$also$leverages$online$business’$competitive$advantages$to$ grow$ globally$ (Sigfusson$ and$ Chetty$ 2013;$ Wang$ et$ al.$ 2011;$ Bailetti$ and$ Zijdemans$2014)$and$successfully$identifies$international$opportunities$(Reuber$ and$Fischer$2011).$Another$case$study$indicates$that$the$educational$level$and$ Literature Review 37 entrepreneurial$ antecedents$ in$ the$ entrepreneur’s$ family$ positively$ affect$ the$ success$of$his/her$online$start-up$(Serarols$and$Urbano$2008).$$ The$remaining$articles$represent$a$diversity$of$economic$theories.$Three$ studies$based$on$the$institutional$theory$(DiMaggio$and$Powell$1983)$analyse$the$ use$of$e-entrepreneurial$opportunities$by$entrepreneurs$(Che$and$Zhang$2019),$ the$adoption$of$e-payment$entrepreneurship$to$grow$globally$(Effah$2016)$and$ the$long-term$sustainability$of$e-firms$(Al$Omoush,$Al-Qirem,$and$Al$Hawatmah$ 2018).$Another$two$quantitative$studies$ based$on$the$early$mover$advantage$ theory$(EMA)$find$that$customer$relationship$management$(CRM)$capabilities$ support$ the$ entrepreneurial$ existence$ in$ electronic$ marketplaces$ (Wang,$ Cavusoglu,$ and$ Deng$ 2016),$ and$ that$ e-commerce$ portals$ offer$ nascent$ entrepreneurs$the$opportunity$to$grow$globally$(Deng$and$Wang$2016).$In$line$ with$ this,$ early$ movers$ have$ more$ cumulative$ strategic$ capabilities$ than$ followers$in$the$market$and$within$innovative$differentiation$(Lee,$Koo,$and$Nam$ 2010).$ Other$quantitative$studies$adopt$different$economic$approaches.$The$longterm$sustainability$of$online$businesses$is$found$to$depend$on$venture$size,$age,$ and$ reputation$ (Gregg$ and$ Parthasarathy$ 2017),$ and$ also$ on$ the$ strategic$ planning$by$balancing$business,$technologies,$and$consumers$(Sell$et$al.$2019).$ More$importantly,$strong$digital$capabilities,$such$as$e-marketing,$leverage$small$ e-entrepreneurial$ firms’$ performance$ to$ compete$ with$ medium-sized$ firms$ (Wang$2020).$Likewise,$the$likelihood$of$undertaking$internet$strategies$rises$ when$ there$ is$ more$ demand$ by$ locals$ and$ less$ competition$ (Boschma$ and$ Weltevreden$2008).$$ Regarding$ the$ internationalisation$ process,$ this$ is$ influenced$ by$ the$ ecommerce$level$of$adoption,$entrepreneurs’$managerial$capabilities$and$language$ skills$ (Grochal-Brejdak$ and$ Szymura-Tyc$ 2018;$ Rana$ and$ Sørensen$ 2013).$ Furthermore,$business$owners$with$an$e-entrepreneurs$competence$profile$tend$ to$ be$ more$ innovative$ (Häsel,$ Kollmann,$ and$ Breugst$ 2010).$ Moreover,$ IT$ technologies$ are$ increasingly$ essential$ for$ e-commerce$ firms$ for$ the$ development$of$current$or$new$economies$(Sala$and$Tańska$2010).$However,$eentrepreneurs$should$consider$trust$as$the$primary$factor$when$dealing$with$ 38 Literature Review customers$ through$ an$ online$ platform$ (Hassan$et$ al.$ 2012).$ Finally,$ a$ mixedmethod$study$investigates$two$different$electronic$marketplaces$(EMP)$based$on$ the$ dynamic$ capabilities’$framework.$ It$ finds$ entrepreneurial$ alertness$ and$ customer$agility$to$be$essential$capabilities$to$develop$a$successful$EMP$(Koch$ 2010).$ 2.4.3 %Entrepreneurship%&%Innovation%theories% This$category$includes$e-entrepreneurship$studies$grounded$on$theories$or$ models$derived$from$the$entrepreneurship$literature.$Researchers$in$this$group$ of$articles$mostly$used$the$entrepreneurship$theory$by$Shane$and$Venkataraman$ (2000)$and$the$diffusion$of$innovation$(DOI)$theory$by$Rogers$(1995).$The$Shell$ model$(Kollmann$2006),$international$entrepreneurship$(Oviatt$and$McDougall$ 2005),$and$other$theories$and$models$are$also$considered.$Some$studies$have$ developed$ their$ own$ framework$ or$ model$ depending$ on$ the$ literature$ of$ entrepreneurship$ and$ e-entrepreneurship,$ such$ as$ the$ evaluation$ model$ of$ interactive$website$design$(Chung$et$al.$2016),$the$comparison$model$between$ pure-play$and$click-and-mortar$(Lian$and$Yen$2017),$the$interactive$model$of$ ethnic$ entrepreneurship$ (Ramadani$ et$ al.$ 2014),$ the$ cyber$ entrepreneurial$ process$model$(Serarols$2008)$and$the$internationalisation$process$conceptual$ model$(Wentrup$2016).$$ In$this$group$of$articles,$11$studies$have$followed$a$quantitative$analysis$ method.$According$to$the$bricolage$theory$of$entrepreneurship,$market$bricolage$ positively$affects$e-sales$performance$(Zhu$and$Lin$2019).$E-entrepreneurship$is$ found$to$empower$entrepreneurs$to$generate$and$increase$revenues$by$entering$ new$ markets$ through$ EMPs$ and$ achieve$ global$ growth$ (Rasheed$ 2009).$ Additionally,$and$based$on$the$DOI$theory$(Rogers$1995),$e-entrepreneurship$ positively$ influences$ the$ financial$ performance$ and$ customer$ management$ performance$(Al-Omoush$et$al.$2019).$E-entrepreneurship$may$be$considered$a$ substitute$for$entrepreneurs$during$crises$and$a$troubled$economy$(Truong$and$ Bhuiyan$2011).$Additionally,$e-entrepreneurs’$innovativeness$generally$affects$ their$ technological$ innovativeness$ and$ life$ satisfaction$ (Lian$ and$ Yen$ 2017).$ Although$e-entrepreneurship$is$an$excellent$alternative$for$entrepreneurs$(Alam$ Literature Review 39 et$al.$2018),$they$need$to$be$aware$of$the$risks$in$handling$e-commerce$security$ systems$ (Kyobe$ 2008).$ Finally,$ two$ quantitative$ studies$ proposed$ that$ the$ technological$background$does$not$affect$being$an$e-entrepreneur$(Millman$et$al.$ 2009),$ and$ e-entrepreneurs$ were$ found$ to$ have$ a$ low$ level$ of$ education$ (Ramadani$et$al.$2014).$Yet,$e-entrepreneurship$education$is$emerging$and$it$is$ essential$to$enhance$students’$innovativeness$(Wang$and$Chiou$2020).$ Next,$this$research$focuses$on$the$12$articles$following$a$qualitative$analysis$ method.$Six$of$these$studies$use$a$case$study$method,$four$studies$work$with$ interviews,$and$two$apply$content$analysis.$The$first$case$study$found$that$some$ established$e-entrepreneurs$enjoy$a$high$educational$level,$but$they$do$not$have$ a$ technological$ background$ (Serarols$ 2008).$ Pourhossein$ and$ Omran$ (2014)$ focus$ on$ some$ specific$ cases$ to$ conclude$ that$ the$ combination$ of$ e-business,$ innovation$ and$ entrepreneurship$ leads$ to$ successful$ e-entrepreneurship.$ Similarly,$developing$organisational$processes$in$digital$start-ups$leads$to$early$ success$(Zaheer$et$al.$2019).$A$case$study$of$three$online$service$providers$(OSPs)$ sheds$light$on$the$globalisation$process$in$an$early$stage,$and$how$the$onlineoffline$ balance$ is$ essential$ (Wentrup$ 2016).$ Some$ authors$ stressed$ the$ slow$ diffusion$ of$ mobile$ commerce$ (m-commerce),$ and$ the$ need$ to$ enhance$ some$ technological$ characteristics$ such$ as$ poor$ user$ interface$ (Godoe$ and$ Hansen$ 2009).$In$turn,$the$evolution$of$mobile$apps$nowadays$is$empowering$firms$to$ reach$globalisation$easily$and$rapidly$(Shaheer$and$Li$2020).$$ Based$on$the$diffusion$of$innovation$theory,$two$content-analysis$studies$ analyse$ the$ role$ of$ firm’s$ digital$ platforms$ in$ improving$ interaction$ with$ customers$at$the$EMPs$(Hevner$and$Malgonde$2019),$and$the$use$of$new$digital$ technologies$ to$ develop$ m-commerce$ (Sen$ and$ Ongsakul$ 2017).$ Another$ two$ articles$ adopt$ a$ mixed-method$ analysis.$ Chung$ et$ al.$ (2016)$ used$ an$ analytic$ network$process$(ANP)$and$a$case$study$in$Taiwan$to$evaluate$the$design$of$an$ interactive$ e-entrepreneurial$ website.$ Anwar$ (2017)$ examined$ the$ Alibaba$ group$ in$ China$ and$ used$ the$ data$ and$ survey$ to$ research$ its$ entrepreneurial$ growth$in$the$global$market.$$ Four$studies$in$this$group$follow$an$interview$method.$Two$studies$have$ explored$ online$ innovative$ business$ models.$ They$ found$ technology$ to$ be$ a$ 40 Literature Review crucial$factor$in$business$model$design$(Stampfl,$Prügl,$and$Osterloh$2013).$Thus,$ internet$ reach$ and$ stability$ are$ important$ factors$ as$ connection$ interruption$ negatively$affects$both$firms$and$customers$(Jain$et$al.$2019).$Moreover,$firms’$ technologies$have$to$be$protected$against$cybercrime$(Ratten$2019).$In$Saudi$ Arabia,$ women$ are$ running$ e-entrepreneurial$ businesses$ for$ their$ several$ benefits,$ such$ as$ specifically$ hiding$ their$ real$ identity$ or$ gender$ (McAdam,$ Crowley,$and$Harrison$2020).$$$ The$last$three$articles$in$this$group$are$literature$reviews$of$entrepreneurial$ business$models.$The$first$concludes$that,$in$a$rapid$dynamic$sector$of$innovation,$ a$technology-based$firm$should$develop$practical$solutions$that$match$customer$ needs$(Trimi$and$Berbegal-Mirabent$2012).$Using$a$qualitative$literature$review,$ the$ second$ article$ assesses$ the$ impact$ of$ digital$ technologies$ on$ academic$ entrepreneurship$ (Rippa$ and$ Secundo$ 2019).$ The$ last$ study$ is$ a$ systematic$ review$ of$ digital$ entrepreneurship$ and$ accordingly$ mapping$ knowledge$ into$ clusters$(Zaheer,$Breyer,$and$Dumay$2019).$ 2.4.4 %Other%theories% Articles$based$on$economic,$entrepreneurship$and$psychological$theories$ made$up$the$main$categories$in$this$research,$as$explained$before.$The$authors$of$ the$six$articles$in$this$group$aim$at$studying$e-entrepreneurship$from$a$different$ perspective.$Three$of$them$use$a$quantitative$method.$The$first$study$was$based$ on$the$contingency$theory.$It$found$that$efficiency$and$centred$complementarities$ positively$affect$the$value$retention$for$e-entrepreneurship$start-ups$(Guo$et$al.$ 2017).$According$to$Martinez$and$Williams$(2010),$the$adoption$of$information$ and$ communication$ technology$ (ICT)$ may$ be$ viewed$ from$ an$ institutional$ perspective,$with$trust$increasing$ICT-based$business$transactions,$particularly$ in$developing$countries.$The$third$study$explores$the$success$factors$in$business- to-business$ (B2B)$ EMPs.$ Based$ on$ the$ organisational$ capabilities$ theory$ and$ market$opportunity$perspectives,$market$size$and$e-commerce$awareness$were$ found$to$affect$e-market$performance$(Wang,$Mao,$and$Archer$2012).$ There$ are$ two$ qualitative$ case$ studies.$ One$ of$ them$ explores$ eentrepreneurship$ competitive$ factors$ through$ interviews$ with$ young$Iranian$ Literature Review 41 entrepreneurs.$A$low$internet$speed$and$high$prices$were$identified$as$relevant$ difficulties$for$e-entrepreneurship$(Hafezieh,$Akhavan,$ and$Eshraghian$2011).$ The$other$uses$grounded$theory$to$explore$the$collaborative$creation$of$media$ information$literacy$(Yoshida$and$Iijima$2019).$Finally,$the$last$study$is$a$detailed$ literature$review$with$a$particular$focus$on$Pakistan$(Shabbir$et$al.$2016).$The$ study$ presents$ recommendations$ and$ implications$ for$ the$ government$ and$ policymakers$to$help$e-entrepreneurs$with$their$start-ups$in$Pakistan,$such$as$ financial$assistance$and/or$low-interest$rates.$It$also$recommends$teaching$eentrepreneurship-related$subjects$to$graduated$students$(Shabbir$et$al.$2016).$ 2.5 DISCUSSION'AND'SUMMARY' The$ SLR$ process$ has$ retrieved$ a$ total$ of$ 652$ articles$ matching$ the$ predefined$keywords.$After$reading$and$classifying$those$articles,$the$full$valid$ sample$for$this$study$is$105$empirical$studies$clearly$based$on$valid$theory.$This$ is$an$indication$that$the$level$of$rigour$varies$notably$within$the$publications$in$ this$field.$The$articles$that$have$been$selected$seem$to$be$the$most$promising$to$ contribute$to$advancing$in$the$field.$The$logical$illustration$of$theory$groups$into$ the$field$of$entrepreneurship$appears$in$(Figure$2.3).$The$total$number$of$studies$ in$e-entrepreneurship$is$still$relatively$small$when$compared$to$empirical$studies$ in$other$related$fields,$yet$it$has$been$increasing$rapidly$in$the$last$few$years.$It$is$ also$shown$that$quantitative$analysis$methods$are$dominant$across$the$study$ sample.$ This$ high$ number$ of$ quantitative$ studies$ raises$ the$ need$ for$ more$ qualitative$or$mixed-method$analysis$studies$with$a$solid$theoretical$base$in$the$ field$of$e-entrepreneurship.$ The$importance$of$e-entrepreneurship$comes$from$its$potential$in$enabling$ a$vast$number$of$unemployed$youths$from$all$around$the$world$to$access$new$ opportunities$ across$ the$ globe$ and$ become$ e-entrepreneurs.$ However,$ an$ eentrepreneur$is$not$just$one$who$starts$an$online$business,$but$also$a$person$who$ can$create$digital$value,$ improve$business$performance$and$ contribute$to$the$ growth$of$both$the$online$and$the$physical$economy$(Kollmann$2006).$For$this$ reason,$more$studies$are$being$carried$out$on$this$topic.$$ $ 48 Literature Review internationalisation.$ Therefore,$ internationalisation$ becomes$ an$ important$ means$ for$ the$ success$ of$ both$ online$ start-ups$ and$ for$ e-entrepreneurship$ transformation$in$traditional$businesses.$ The$fourth$avenue$contains$six$theoretical$contributions$around$the$theme$ of$the$customers$of$e-entrepreneurial$firms.$Four$of$these$papers$examine$the$ online&behaviour$of$customers.$There$is$an$essential$need$to$improve$adopted$ecommerce$technologies$in$the$firm’s$website$in$order$to$make$it$more$attractive$ for$ current$ and$ new$ customers$ (Suvattanadilok$ 2020).$ In$ their$ framework,$ Suleman,$Zuniarti,$and$Sabil$(2019),$stressed$the$factors$that$affect$customers’$ intentions$ and$ decision$ to$ buy$ from$ a$ particular$ venture.$ The$ behaviour$ differences$ between$ men$ and$ women’$ in$ buying$ decisions$ are$ also$ analysed$ (Zolait$et$al.$2018).$E-entrepreneurial$stores$need$to$enrich$social$influence$and$ trust$based$on$age$and$gender$(Mariani,$Muhamad,$and$Lamarauna$2017).$The$ other$two$customer-related$contributions$discuss$the$e-stickiness$of$customers$to$ certain$ventures.$They$focus$on$enhancing$customer$loyalty$(Abdulwahab$and$ Kabir$2014),$and$the$word-of-mouth$(WOM)$of$loyal$customers$to$bring$new$ customers$(Yu$et$al.$2017).$ The$ last$ avenue$ has$ been$ labelled$ as$ others,$ since$it$ includes$ four$ contributions$grouped$into$two$different$and$diverging$themes.$The$first$of$them$ examines$ the$ technical$attributes$ of$ an$ e-entrepreneurial$ firm.$ According$ to$ Chung$et$al.$(2016),$the$website$design$increases$the$interactivity$of$customers$ with$the$firm.$On$the$other$hand,$e-entrepreneurs$must$adopt$high-quality$ecommerce$ security$ features$ against$ cybercrimes$ (Kyobe$ 2008).$ Finally,$ two$ contributions$ refer$ to$ e-entrepreneurship& education$(Isabelle$ 2020;$Wang$ and$ Chiou$ 2020).$ This$ specific$ adaptation$ of$ entrepreneurship$ education$ programmes$to$focus$on$online$businesses$is$relevant.$E-entrepreneurship$may$ become$ a$ main$ area$ of$ entrepreneurship$ development$ in$ the$ near$ future,$ contributing$to$generating$opportunities$and$employment,$especially$for$young$ people.$ The$ five$ “avenues”$ evolved$ in$ chapter$ two$ represent$ relevant$ areas$ for$ future$research.$After$analysing$the$SLR$results,$it$is$evident$that$there$is$a$need$ to$ develop$ more$ models$ and$ theories,$ specifically$ on$ e-entrepreneurship.$ Literature Review 49 Similarly,$more$research$works$and$studies$using$a$qualitative$method$analysis$ are$also$needed.$They$will$contribute$to$understanding$how$and$why$some$eentrepreneurship$processes$take$place.$So$far,$most$studies$have$discussed$eentrepreneurship$and$online$start-ups$in$developed$countries,$such$as$the$USA,$ the$UK$and$the$rest$of$Europe,$and$even$China.$Unfortunately,$there$is$a$limited$ number$ of$ studies$ exploring$ e-entrepreneurship$ in$ developing$ countries.$ For$ example,$some$online$start-ups$cannot$survive$in$developing$countries$due$to$a$ poor$technological$infrastructure$or$e-payment$methods$(Abdulwahab$and$Kabir$ 2014;$Effah$2016).$In$this$regard,$e-entrepreneurs$have$to$protect$their$business$ through$ careful$ precautions$ and$ measures$ to$ increase$ the$ trust$ level$ with$ customers$(Effah$2016;$Jansen$et$al.$2016),$although$there$is$ a$ need$for$high$ propensity$risk$handling$concerning$e-commerce$security$systems$(Kyobe$2008).$ Additionally,$ the$ poor$ adoption$ of$ technology,$ such$ as$ inadequate$ user$ interfaces,$has$resulted$in$a$slow$diffusion$of$m-commerce$businesses$(Godoe$and$ Hansen$ 2009).$ Currently,$ many$ companies$ are$ aiming$ towards$ mobile$ applications,$as$they$shape$the$new$trend$of$doing$business$online$(Tarute,$Nikou,$ and$ Gatautis$ 2017).$ The$ cultural$ aspect$ is$ another$ major$ issue$ that$ needs$ research$ to$ explore$ its$ impact$ on$ e-entrepreneurship.$ Examining$ the$ cultural$ background$ of$ e-entrepreneurs$ and$ the$ impact$ of$ culture$ on$ the$ eentrepreneurial$process$is$necessary$to$understand$the$contextual$influence$on$ digital$start-ups.$The$need$for$more$studies$on$the$e-entrepreneur’s$educational$ background$to$recognise$its$effect$on$their$start-ups$is$also$stressed.$There$is$a$ critical$need$to$build$more$solid$frameworks$that$are$based$on$influential$theories$ to$enhance$the$theoretical$literature$base$in$e-entrepreneurship.$ Overall,$therefore,$the$present$SLR$has$presented$a$picture$of$the$research$ so$far.$The$field$may$be$found$to$lack$some$unity,$but$several$highly$interesting$ avenues$and$themes$are$open$for$future$research.$This$research$expects$that$this$ review$contributes$to$attracting$additional$research$to$the$field.$ 2.5.3 %Chapter%Summary% E-entrepreneurship$is$a$growing$research$field$that$presents$a$promising$ and$critical$field$to$explore,$especially$with$the$increase$in$the$number$and$value$ 50 Literature Review of$online$start-ups.$Hence,$it$is$no$wonder$that$the$number$of$publications$in$eentrepreneurship$is$ growing$and$ receiving$more$ attention.$At$ the$same$ time,$ however,$there$is$a$need$to$organise$and$categorise$the$growing$research$work$ in$the$field,$not$only$to$better$understand$the$current$status$but$to$identify$the$ gaps$that$need$to$be$filled.$Using$a$systematic$literature$review$(SLR),$the$authors$ categorised$and$analysed$the$theories$and$models$from$105$relevant$papers$out$ of$a$total$of$291$articles$in$the$literature$of$e-entrepreneurship$from$2008$to$ September$2020.$This$has$helped$to$reveal$some$very$important$findings$that$ shed$light$on$the$gaps$within$the$field.$For$instance,$this$analysis$showed$that$ most$of$the$research$reviewed$in$this$work$is$not$based$on$a$solid$theoretical$ framework$ that$ specifically$ considers$ the$ distinctive$ characteristics$ of$ eentrepreneurship.$ Moreover,$the$SLR$revealed$the$existence$of$research$gaps$that$need$to$be$ addressed,$ particularly$ those$ that$ focus$ on$ the$ success,$ challenges$ and$ opportunities$e-entrepreneurs$face$in$the$digital$world.$The$findings$argue$that$ these$ gaps,$ both$ in$ theory$ and$ practice,$ need$ to$ be$ developed$ into$ a$ comprehensive$roadmap$to$help$researchers$draw$on$more$relevant$and$needed$ work$in$this$field.$Besides,$researchers$can$also$focus$on$the$development$of$more$ practical$ and$ empirical$ frameworks$ addressing$ the$ regional,$ cultural$ and$ environmental$conditions$ in$ developing$countries$ and$across$ regions.$Finally,$ online$start-ups$represent$a$massive$opportunity$for$entrepreneurs$worldwide.$ E-entrepreneurship$ and$ e-firm$ performance$ is$ a$ multidisciplinary$ field$ of$ research.$Therefore,$it$is$essential$to$integrate$complementary$research$areas$ that$need$institutional$and$theoretical$foundations$to$help$develop$better$marketrelated$research.$ $ $ E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan 51 $ $ $ Chapter(3: E-Entrepreneurship(in(Jordan( $ 3.1$OVERVIEW%52$ 3.2$E-COMMERCE'ENTREPRENEURSHIP%53$ 3.3$CULTURE,'GENDER'AND'E-ENTREPRENEURSHIP%56$ 3.4$CASE'STUDIES'IN'JORDAN%62$ 3.4.1$ OASIS500$62$ 3.4.2$ZINC$63$ 3.4.3$ CASHBASHA$65$ 3.5$DISCUSSION'AND'SUMMARY%66$ & $ $ $ 52 E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan This$chapter$demonstrates$the$context$of$e-entrepreneurship$in$Jordan$through$ a$ qualitative$ case$ study$ research.$The$ first$ section$ 3.1$provides$ a$ general$ overview$of$e-entrepreneurship$in$Jordan$as$it$represents$a$case$in$the$Middle$ East$and$North$Africa$(MENA).$Next,$it$discusses$e-commerce$and$its$capabilities$ in$developing$and$empowering$potential$e-entrepreneurs$(section$3.2).$Later,$in$ section$3.3,$it$tackles$the$culture$and$gender$within$e-entrepreneurship$in$Jordan.$ Then,$it$represents$three$Jordanian$case$studies$of$initiatives$to$support$the$local$ entrepreneurs,$ with$ a$ particular$focus$ on$ e-entrepreneurship$(section$ 3.4).$ Finally,$it$provides$a$discussion$and$summary$of$the$case$studies$analysis$(section$ 3.5).$$ 3.1 OVERVIEW' The$rapid$development$in$the$online$and$e-commerce$business$sectors$has$ linked$different$communities$in$the$global$online$market.$This$has$made$many$ organisations$launch$their$own$websites$to$interact$with$their$local$customers$ and$other$potential$customers$worldwide.$According$to$Turban$et$al.$(2002),$ebusiness$ involves$ the$ buying$ and$ selling$ or$ exchanging$ goods,$ services$ and$ information$ through$ computer$ networks$ via$ the$ internet.$ Because$ of$ the$ ebusiness$sector's$ultimate$growth,$venture$capitalists$and$investors$are$coming$ to$invest$their$funds$in$this$sector.$E-commerce$is$defined$as$sharing$information,$ maintaining$ relationships,$ and$ conducting$business$ transactions$ through$ telecommunications$networks$(Vladimir$1996).$Other$researchers$support$this$ view$as$e-commerce$includes$buying$and$selling$activities$in$addition$to$include$ different$ processes$ across$ the$ organisation$ (Applegate$ 1999;$ Fellenstein$ and$ Wood$2000).$E-commerce$in$a$broader$sense$also$includes$servicing$customers$ and$ collaboration$ among$ the$ business$ partners$ (David$ and$ Benamati$ 2002).$ Thus,$e-commerce$has$increased$rapidly$and$attracted$more$customers$from$Tier$ 2$and$Tier$3$cities,$where$people$have$restricted$access$to$brands$with$high$brand$ equity.$$ Entrepreneurs$ are$ increasingly$ using$ e-commerce$ to$ start-up$ their$ own$ online$business.$A$nascent$entrepreneur$is$someone$who$starts$carrying$out$a$ series$of$activities$intended$to$culminate$in$a$fertile$business$start-up$(Reynolds$ E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan 53 1994).$ It$ may$ include$ individuals$ or$ organisations$ engaged$ in$ the$ entrepreneurship$ process$ (Naffziger,$ Hornsby,$ and$ Kuratko$ 1994).$ Entrepreneurship$is$the$process$consisting$of$the$creation$of$something$new$and$ related$with$the$handling$of$risk$and$reward$measures.$It$encompasses$acts$of$ organisational$creation,$renewal,$or$innovation$that$occur$within$or$outside$an$ existing$organisation$(Sharma$and$Chrisman$2007).$$ On$the$other$hand,$E-commerce$and$entrepreneurship$generate$income$and$ sustain$ economic$ development$ and$ growth$ (Reynolds$ et$ al.$ 2005;$ UNCTAD$ 2003).$Moreover,$creating$a$successful$e-commerce$venture$could$be$affected$by$ factors$such$as$entrepreneurial$characteristics$and$other$critical$factors$defined$ by$Sebora,$Lee,$and$Sukasame$(2009).$A$successful$E-commerce$entrepreneur$is$ one$who$has$launched$an$e-commerce$venture,$profitable$in$monetary$terms,$and$ has$also$survived$to$external$and$internal$factors.$Nevertheless,$e-business$is$also$ characterised$ by$ selling$ or$ buying$ a$ service$ or$ product$ (including$ rental$ and$ books,$computers,$cell$phones,$software)$through$online$sources,$such$as$email$ service.$ E-commerce$ enables$ the$ single$ computer$ owner$ to$ interact$ with$ the$ whole$world$of$consumers$and$run$their$business$with$them.$The$concept$has$a$ broader$scope$and$is$not$limited$to$small$e-businesses$or$organisations,$but$also$ includes$big$corporate$entrepreneurship$(Burgelman$1983).$$ The$use$of$Information$and$Communication$Technologies$(ICT)$have$been$ seen$as$a$good$opportunity$for$developing$countries$(Henari$and$Mahboob$2008;$ Kahttab$et$al.$2012).$E-business$activity$may$compensate$for$the$lack$of$adequate$ physical$infrastructure$or$the$small$local$markets.$For$this$reason,$ICTs$are$being$ promoted$in$ several$ of$these$ countries.$ This$ is$ the$case$ of$ Jordan,$ where$the$ government$is$actively$pursuing$the$modernisation$and$development$of$the$ICT$ sector$ (UNCTAD$ 2003).$ In$ particular,$ special$ attention$ has$ been$ paid$ to$ ebusiness$as$a$possibility$to$promote$women$empowerment$and$reduce$gender$ inequality$(Mellita$and$Cholil$2012).$ 3.2 E-COMMERCE'ENTREPRENEURSHIP'' The$concept$of$infrastructure$related$to$e-commerce$is$a$relevant$factor$ impacting$on$the$adoption$of$e-commerce$by$developing$nation$entrepreneurs$ 54 E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan for$ their$ business.$ The$ e-business$ firm's$ infrastructure$includes$ the$ internet$ compatibility,$technical$skills,$and$experience$of$the$employees$with$respect$to$ the$ business.$ Internet$ compatibility$ refers$ to$ the$ availability$ of$ telecommunication$systems,$hardware$and$software$and$internet$services,$to$the$ entrepreneur.$It$also$includes$knowledge$about$how$to$use$and$apply$it$to$the$ business.$$ Grandon$ and$ Pearson$ (2004)$identify$ different$ variables$ as$ useful$ to$ perceive$ the$ strategic$ value$ of$ e-commerce$ adoption,$ such$ as$ organisational$ support,$ decision-making$ abilities$ and$ managerial$ productivity$ in$ SMEs.$ This$ specific$ knowledge$ allows$ entrepreneurs$ and$ their$ employees$ to$ choose$ ecommerce$ as$ a$ beneficial$ business$ strategy.$ Technical$ computing$ skills$ and$ experience$of$the$employees$and$the$entrepreneurs$will$support$implementing$ strategies$ to$ expand$ or$ develop$ their$ business$ through$ e-commerce.$ The$ customer’s$ability$to$use$the$internet$and$infrastructure$is$also$considered$the$ leading$ component$ for$ adopting$ e-commerce$ by$ the$ entrepreneur.$ The$ infrastructure$ is$ a$ prime$ component$ for$ e-commerce$ to$ work$ for$ the$ entrepreneurs$and$to$support$their$business$(Grandon$and$Pearson$2004).$$ The$main$concern$for$entrepreneurs$while$seeking$new$strategies$are$the$ customers.$ Whatever$ decisions$ an$ entrepreneur$ takes$ to$ expand$ her/his$ business$ depends$ on$ customers’$ -or$ potential$ customer’s-$ acceptance.$ It$ is$ derived$that$the$customers$are$a$primary$element$for$the$entrepreneur$to$decide$ whether$to$adopt$e-commerce$for$her/his$business.$The$decision$to$take$up$ecommerce$as$a$business$strategy$could$be$affected$by$the$customers$and$their$ trust$in$e-commerce$(Shuhaiber,$Lehmann,$and$Hooper$2014).$Change$takes$time$ to$ get$ accepted$ and$ the$ same$ applies$ to$ e-commerce,$ as$ there$ is$ lack$ a$ of$ awareness$and$popularity$of$e-marketing$among$customers.$The$existing$culture$ of$ shopping$ can$ act$ as$ a$ barrier$ to$the$ growth$ of$ e-commerce$ in$ developing$ countries.$$ Related$to$this$situation,$these$countries'$entrepreneurs$are$often$afraid$of$ trying$new$strategies$(Alzubi,$Aldhmour,$and$ALattraqchi$2015).$According$to$ them,$ this$ is$ related$ to$ some$ additional$ factors$ affecting$ the$ adoption$ of$ ecommerce$ management,$ including$ top$ management$ support$ (TMS),$ financial$ E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan 55 resources$ (FR),$ University$ readiness$ (UR),$ attitudes$ and$ subjective$ norms$ (SNKS).$$ The$ market$ environment$ is$ also$ a$ factor$ that$ influences$ e-commerce$ entrepreneurship.$ Wymer$ and$ Regan$ (2005),$ studied$the$ application$ of$ ebusiness$and$e-commerce$information$technology$(EEIT)$in$small$and$medium$ enterprises$ (SMEs).$ The$ primary$ objective$ is$ to$ analyse$ the$ barriers$ and$ incentives$ found$ by$ SMEs$ in$ using$ EEIT$ and$ the$ influence$ of$ demographic$ characteristics$on$the$adopter's$decision.$Market$environment$is$a$combination$ of$competitors,$suppliers,$vendors$and$customers.$The$existence$of$competition$ in$the$market$motivates$vendors$to$stay$one$step$ahead$of$their$competitors.$ Competitors$play$a$major$role$as$they$are$the$main$element$forcing$entrepreneurs$ to$present$themselves$with$uniqueness$and$provide$the$customer$with$easy$to$ access$facilities$to$purchase$their$products.$$ Vendors$ may$ also$ attract$ customers$ by$ using$ alternative$ strategies:$ allowing$them$to$access$the$market$from$the$comfort$of$their$homes,$providing$a$ variety$of$quality$options,$and$allowing$comparison$of$their$products$with$other$ vendors’$ products.$ In$ this$ sense,$ e-commerce$ provides$ entrepreneurs$ with$ benefits$ attached$ to$ it,$ which$ allows$ them$ to$ cover$ wider$ markets$ with$ cost$ efficiency$and$less$effort.$The$trends$running$in$the$market$place$will$influence$ the$decision$of$the$entrepreneur$to$choose$the$promotion$strategy$for$her/his$ products.$If$the$trend$is$in$favour$of$e-commerce,$the$entrepreneur$tends$to$select$ it$(Wymer$and$Regan$2005).$ According$to$Kapurubandara$and$Lawson$(2006),$they$reveal$the$significant$ barriers$ at$ different$ levels$ with$ regard$ to$ e-commerce$ Information$ and$ Communication$Technology$(ICT)$adoption$in$developing$countries.$The$nature$ of$market$ changes$with$ the$ transformation$in$ government$policies,$ rules$and$ regulations$related$to$market$transactions.$When$the$government$introduces$any$ new$policies$regarding$taxes,$subsidies$or$rules$and$regulations,$all$these$factors$ provide$some$flexibility$or$stiffness$in$the$working$procedure$of$an$entrepreneur.$ These$ aforementioned$ elements$ have$ a$ direct$ impact$ on$ the$ adoption$ of$ ecommerce$by$an$entrepreneur.$If$these$elements$are$in$favour$of$e-commerce$ 56 E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan with$ respect$ to$ a$ traditional$ business,$ then$ the$ entrepreneur$ will$ have$ an$ incentive$to$adopt$e-commerce$as$her/his$mode$of$transaction.$$ Contradictory$ to$ the$ preceding$ situation,$ entrepreneurs$ do$ not$ use$ ecommerce$as$their$manner$of$dealing$in$the$market$if$the$government$policies$are$ not$supporting$their$business$through$e-commerce.$Thus,$government$policies,$ rules$and$regulations$are$considered$as$a$crucial$factor$for$the$entrepreneur$to$ take$up$e-commerce$to$promote$their$business$and$attract$the$attention$of$the$ customers$(Kapurubandara$and$Lawson$2006).$$ According$ to$ Henari$ and$ Mahboob$ (2008),$ internet$ users$ have$ an$ experience$in$this$field$and$are$considering$the$internet$technology$to$be$new$and$ possibly$the$most$significant$opportunity$for$commercialism$in$this$century.$This,$ at$one$time$known$as$an$information$revolution,$is$now$called$the$internet$and$ecommerce$revolution$(Henari$and$Mahboob$2008).$There$are$many$cultural$and$ social$aspects$against$different$nations$which$are$considered$a$major$obstacle$to$ the$ spread$ of$ e-commerce.$ E-commerce$ is$ considered$ a$ leading$ indicator$ for$ economic$ advancement$ and$ growth$ in$ developed$ and$ developing$ countries$ (Edvinsson$and$Stenfelt$1999).$ 3.3 CULTURE,'GENDER'AND'E-ENTREPRENEURSHIP' Culture$may$be$defined$as$the$set$of$fundamental$common$values$which$ contributes$ to$ shaping$ people’s$ behaviour$ in$ society$ (Inglehart$ 1997).$ It$ also$ includes$patterns$of$thinking,$feeling$and$acting,$which$are$learned$and$shared$by$ people$ living$ within$ the$ same$ social$ environment$ (Hofstede,$ Hofstede,$ and$ Minkov$2005).$The$first$and$most$common$classification$of$cultures$distinguishes$ between$ individualist$ and$ collectivist$ ones$(Hofstede,$ Hofstede,$ and$ Minkov$ 2005;$Schwartz$1999).$The$more$general$set$of$cultural$dimensions$defined$by$ Hofstede$(1980),$have$been$frequently$applied$in$the$study$of$these$countries.$ These$ four$ underlying$ value$ dimensions$ are$ used$ to$ position$ countries$ into$ cultural$ regions.$ These$ dimensions$ include$ power$ distance,$ uncertainty$ avoidance,$ individualism$ vs$ collectivism,$ and$ masculinity$ vs$ femininity.$ All$ of$ these$dimensions$are$rated$on$a$different$scale$from$the$lowest$to$the$highest$ (Hofstede$1980).$$ E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan 57 The$cultural$dimension$of$collectivism$appears$to$be$a$sort$of$functional,$ social$closeness.$It$is$measured$with$respect$to$parents,$friends$and$others.$The$ collectivist$society$consists$of$collective$identity,$emotional$dependency,$sharing$ of$duties$and$obligations$needed$for$stable$and$predetermined$friendship,$group$ decision,$ and$ participation.$ On$ the$ other$ hand,$ individualism$ is$ a$ multidimensional$ concept.$ The$ behavioural$ aspects$ of$ individualism$ act$ according$to$the$personal$attitudes$and$preferences$of$people,$rather$than$being$ influenced$ by$ others’$ opinions$ and$ perception$ level$ (Buda,$ Richard;$ Elsayed- Elkhouly$1998).$The$cultural$difference$of$both,$individualism$and$collectivism,$ affects$ the$ business$ and$ the$ economy$ in$ several$ ways$ because$ of$ their$ interrelated$functions$(Hofstede,$Hofstede,$and$Minkov$2005).$$ The$findings$of$various$research$studies$suggest$that$culture$in$the$Arab$ countries$could$be$a$barrier$to$the$internet$usage$because$of$the$highly$social$and$ family-oriented$culture$of$the$Arab$region.$There$could$be$a$threatening$effect$of$ internet$ and$ e-commerce$ in$ the$ life$ of$ family$ and$ community.$ According$ to$ Lauzikas$and$Mokseckiene$(2013),$in$a$society,$culture$affects$the$decisions$of$ young$ people$ about$ focussing$ on$ innovation,$ employment$ or$ starting$ a$ new$ venture.$The$role$of$a$society’s$lifestyle,$religion,$customs,$rules$and$other$similar$ aspects$ on$ the$ business$ and$ organisations$ of$ a$ country$ are$ relatively$ underexplored.$The$influence$of$human$resources,$and$their$intercultural$backgrounds$ are$generally$ignored$when$identifying$the$role$of$culture$in$entrepreneurship$ activities.$Nevertheless,$it$has$a$deep$impact$on$entrepreneurship.$Entrepreneurs$ cannot$get$the$desired$results$from$their$businesses$activities$without$having$ adequate$knowledge$about$the$culture$of$the$country$where$their$business$is$ located$(Lauzikas$and$Mokseckiene$2013).$ The$lack$of$cultural$awareness$may$also$result$in$the$vanishing$of$some$ financial$ benefits$ of$ the$ business.$ In$ the$ view$ of$ Sajjad$ and$ Dad$ (2012),$ the$ entrepreneur’s$intentions$are$substantially$affected$by$the$culture$of$a$country.$ They$ propose$ the$ model$ of$ persuasion$ as$ consisting$ of$ Appropriateness,$ Consistency$and$Effectiveness$(ACE).$This$model$assumes$entrepreneurs$choose$ between$adding$a$new$concept$to$the$existing$trends$of$business$or$introducing$ an$ entirely$ new$ concept$ to$ generate$ a$ striking$ image$ of$ their$ venture$ in$ the$ 64 E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan as$well,$links$Jordanian$entrepreneurs$inside$the$country$with$start-ups,$mentors$ and$investors$around$the$world.$ According$ to$ the$ Zain$ 2016$ thought$ leadership$ report;$ ZINC$ offers$ entrepreneurs$free$membership$for$the$campus,$meeting$leading$mentors$and$ experts$in$workshops$and$lectures,$also$access$to$the$latest$ICT$technology,$and$ the$opportunity$to$connect$with$investors$worldwide.$ZINC$has$evolved$into$a$ nationally$recognised$entrepreneurial$hub.$It$has$attracted$representatives$from$ Google,$ Yahoo,$ Microsoft,$ regional$ e-commerce$ powerhouse$ Souq,$ along$ with$ Ambassadors$and$international$investors$such$as$500$Start-ups$and$Eureeca.$It$ established$a$ host$of$strategic$partnership$ with$the$Jordanian$ Government$to$ develop$ smart$ government$ solutions$ and$ mobile$ apps$ (e-government),$ and$ partnership$with$the$venture$capital$firm$500$Start-ups$to$collaboratively$invest$ $2$million$USD$in$local$start-ups.$$ A$ significant$ aspect$ of$ ZINC$ is$ the$ inclusive$ nature$ in$ which$ it$ offers$ Jordanian$youth$the$opportunities$to$learn$and$develop.$Moreover,$it’s$accessible$ to$all$Jordanians;$including$those$at$the$bottom$of$the$pyramid$that$typically$have$ difficulty$attending$educational$forums$and$events.$The$events$organised$through$ ZINC$in$2015$attracted$more$than$25,000$attendees.$ZINC's$leading$successful$ start-ups$are:$A$Minute$Marvel,$Amberley,$AqarCirle,$Cashbasha,$Ekeif,$Feesheh,$ Jobedu,$LinaGas,$Tamatem$and$Toffimelt.$$ The$next$project$is$to$activate$ZINC$within$universities$in$2017,$which$will$ be$the$enterprise$hosting$workshops$with$public$and$private$sector$partners$in$ an$effort$to$promote$students$to$pursue$entrepreneurship$and$innovation$in$their$ future$careers.$ ZINC$ Academy$ division$ is$ also$planning$new$ courses$that$ will$ teach$start-ups$the$fundament$scaling$and$legitimising$business$models.$Recently$ Oasis500$started$a$partnership$with$ZINC$to$explore$the$possible$opportunities$ for$entrepreneurship$development$in$Jordan.$Both$parties$have$agreed$to$allow$ their$members’$have$mutual$access$to$the$latest$technology,$knowledge$sharing,$ mentoring$ and$ coaching$ sessions,$ training,$ speakers’$ series$ and$ access$ to$ networks.$ Oasis500$ and$ ZINC$ are$ committed$ in$ benefiting$ entrepreneurs$ in$ Jordan$ by$ leveraging$ a$ holistic$ package$ of$ support$ services$ derived$ from$ the$ expertise$and$resources$available$in$both$organisations.$$ E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan 65 3.4.3 CashBasha% This$is$a$cash$collection$network,$where$customers$can$shop$online$and$pay$ for$their$purchases$in$cash$at$trusted$locations$near$them,$or$at$their$doorsteps$ through$the$cash$on$delivery$(COD)$method.$The$decision$to$start$CashBasha$was$ a$result$of$large-scale$research$by$the$team,$which$showed$them$that$80%$of$ecommerce$retail$in$the$MENA$region$was$flowing$from$capital$global$e-commerce$ players.$One$of$the$success$points$was$the$ability$to$map$how$emerging$market$ customers$ want$ to$ be$ served$ on$ international$ shopping$ sites$ in$ a$ way$ that$ completely$hides$all$the$complexities$of$purchasing$from$the$customer.$$ The$CashBasha$team$guaranteed$that$their$solution$supported$any$and$all$ shopping$sites.$But$at$present,$they$are$partnered$with$just$one$site,$which$is$a$ great$first$partner$to$have,$given$that$its$global$e-commerce$major$Amazon.$The$ decision$ to$ begin$ with$ Amazon$ was$ a$ result$ of$ co-founders’$research$ which$ showed$that$about$40%$of$any$online$purchases$being$made$in$(MENA)$region$all$ came$from$that$one$site.$Without$elaborating$on$the$terms$of$the$partnership$with$ the$ e-commerce$ giant$ (owing$ to$ nondisclosure$ agreements),$ strategically,$ CashBasha$ is$ aligned$ with$ Amazon,$ designed$ with$ a$ personal$ distinctive$ technology$to$be$agnostic$and$work$on$any$e-commerce$website$by$design.$It$ resulted$ in$ requests$ from$ customers$ to$ integrate$ more$ sites,$ and$ they$ are$ considering$it.$$ CashBasha$ was$ officially$ launched$ in$May$ 2015,$ showing$ success$ in$ the$ early$ results.$ They$ were$ able$ to$ achieve$ those$ within$ the$ first$ two$ days$ of$ operation,$ showing$ a$ solution$ and$ considerable$ growth.$ Currently,$ in$ Jordan$ alone,$CashBasha$claims$to$be$shipping$nearly$six$tons$of$goods$per$month.$In$the$ cash-dominated$markets$served$by$CashBasha,$only$20%$of$the$transactions$are$ digital$in$nature.$Moreover,$CashBasha’s$tools$also$sustain$international$sourcing,$ shipping,$customs$clearance$and$other$allied$needs,$and$are$not$just$a$means$of$ payment.$Their$method$on$supporting$COD,$is$“cash$before$delivery",$and$not$ COD,$ without$ necessarily$ advocating$ or$ overly$ encouraging$ cash$ payments,$ letting$customers$transact$in$whatever$way$they$are$comfortable$with.$$ 66 E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan 3.5 DISCUSSION'AND'SUMMARY' In$ this$ chapter,$ the$ dissertation$ tried$ to$ present$ an$ overview$ of$ the$ literature$ about$ the$ roles$ of$ culture$ and$ gender$ in$ e-commerce$ and$ eentrepreneurship.$It$particularly$focused$on$Jordan,$as$a$representative$of$the$ Middle$ East$ and$ Northern$ Africa$ (MENA)$ countries.$ $ A$ collectivistic$ culture$ typically$prevails$in$ Arab$countries.$This$kind$ of$cultural$values$ may$act$as$ a$ barrier$to$the$development$of$innovative$entrepreneurial$projects,$as$is$the$case$ with$ e-entrepreneurship.$ A$positive$ relation$ has$ been$ found$ between$ ecommerce$and$individualism.$$ In$ this$ regard,$ some$ of$ the$ environmental$ factors$ that$ are$ relevant$ in$ affecting$entrepreneurial$activity$include$the$market$situation$and$the$role$of$the$ government.$Regarding$the$former,$infrastructure$and$customers’$practices$do$ not$ seem$ to$ be$ too$ favourable$ for$ the$ development$ of$ e-commerce$ entrepreneurship.$ Customers$ need$ to$ accept$ and$ get$ used$ to$ e-commerce$ by$ changing$their$traditional$ways$of$shopping$and$do$shopping$online$in$place$of$ face-to-face$interaction.$They$need$to$get$used$to$utilising$the$internet$as$their$ mode$of$shopping.$The$bargaining,$interacting$with$the$shopkeeper$and$getting$ the$delivery$of$products$directly$from$the$hands$of$the$shopkeeper$will$change$to$ online$transactions$from$their$homes$without$direct$personal$contact.$ In$contrast,$despite$a$not$so$positive$initial$situation,$government$policies$ and$measures$are$being$implemented$to$support$entrepreneurship$in$general,$ and$the$use$of$ICT$in$entrepreneurship.$Similarly,$the$Jordanian$government$is$ also$ encouraging$ women$ to$ become$ an$ entrepreneur$ by$ promoting$ the$ development$of$entrepreneurial$intentions$among$them.$Our$review$has$found$ indications$that$there$is$a$considerable$gender$bias$in$the$developing$countries$ and$specifically$in$Jordan$with$respect$to$entrepreneurship.$For$this$reason,$many$ countries$ are$ starting$ to$ provide$ support$ to$ their$ female$ population,$ as$ ecommerce$enables$them$to$conduct$their$business$from$the$comfort$and$safety$of$ their$homes.$$ In$particular,$some$of$ the$initiatives$implemented$ through$Oasis500$are$ potentially$very$relevant$and$maybe$highly$impactful$in$this$respect.$In$this$sense,$ the$ initiative$ of$ entrepreneurship$ education$ may$ be$ beneficial$ to$ motivate$ E-Entrepreneurship in Jordan 67 women$ entrepreneurs$ to$ understand$ the$ importance$ of$ entrepreneurship.$ In$ order$ to$ promote$ women$ e-commerce$ entrepreneurs,$ the$ inclusion$ of$ ICT- specific$contents$is$an$essential$factor$to$be$considered.$ $ Table$1:$Doing$Business$Report$on$Starting$a$Business$2017$ Indicator% Jordan% MENA% OECD%high% income% Procedure&–&Men&(number)&& 7.0& 7.8& 4.8& Time&–&Men&(days)& 12.0& 20.1& 8.3& Cost&–&Men&(%&of&income&per&capita)&& 22.4& 26.3& 3.1& Procedure&–&Women&(number)& 8.0& 8.6& 4.8& Time&–&Women&(days)& 13.0& 20.9& 8.3& Cost&–&Women&(%&of&income&per&capita)&& 22.4& 26.3& 3.1& Paid-in&min.&capital&(%&of&income&per&capita)& 0.1& 11.2& 9.2& Source:&World&Bank&Doing&Business&Project& (http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/jordan)& $ Regarding$ the$ case$ studies,$ the$ initiatives$ analysed$ represent$ important$ steps$to$develop$Jordan$as$a$vital$environment$for$entrepreneurs.$As$shown$in$ Table$1,$Jordan$compares$fairly$well$with$other$MENA$countries$and$there$is$no$ strong$regulative$discrimination$against$women$in$starting$a$business.$Although$ one$additional$procedure$is$required$(husband’s$permission),$there$is$no$extra$ cost$ for$ women$ when$ they$ are$ to$ launch$ a$ new$ venture.$ Additionally,$ recent$ initiatives$ as$ Oasis500$ and$ ZINC$ are$ helping$ develop$ a$ more$ supportive$ environment$for$venture$start-ups.$As$indicated$above,$there$is$still$a$relatively$ low$percentage$of$newly$funded$companies$launched$by$females.$ $ $ $ $ 68 Theoretical Framework $ $ $ Chapter(4: Theoretical(Framework( $ 4.1$THEORETICAL'FRAMEWORK%69$ 4.2$RESEARCH'HYPOTHESES%70$ 4.2.1$ THE*THEORY*OF*PLANNED*BEHAVIOUR$71$ 4.2.2$ PERCEIVED*ENTREPRENEURIAL*CULTURE$73$ 4.2.3$ GENDER$74$ 4.2.4$ RISK*PROPENSITY$75$ 4.3$RESEARCH'MODEL%76$ & $ $ $ Theoretical Framework 69 This$chapter$argues$the$theoretical$framework$of$this$study,$which$is$based$on$ the$TPB$to$investigate$e-entrepreneurs’$intentions$(section$4.1).$Next,$section$4.2$ discusses$ the$ development$ and$ construction$ of$ the$ study$ hypotheses.$ This$ section$distinguishes$in$detail$the$TPB$hypotheses$and$the$wide$usage$of$this$ theory$ among$ other$ empirical$ studies$ related$to$ intentions.$ Moreover,$ it$ also$ develops$the$hypotheses$regarding$the$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture,$gender$ differences,$and$risk$propensity.$Finally,$the$conceptual$framework$of$this$study$ is$drawn$according$to$the$developed$hypotheses$of$this$study$(section$4.3).$ 4.1 THEORETICAL'FRAMEWORK' The$ entrepreneurship$ field$ is$ growing$ and$ getting$ more$ attention$ from$ numerous$researchers.$In$this$research,$we$focus$on$e-entrepreneurship$as$a$new$ field$of$research$(Kollmann$2006;$Matlay$2004).$One$of$the$early$authors$who$ considered$studying$e-business$and$entrepreneurship$is$Matlay$(2004),$as$he$was$ the$first$to$refer$to$this$field$as$“e-entrepreneurship”$(Quinones,$Nicholson,$and$ Heeks$ 2015).$ He$ stressed$ out$ the$ need$ for$ more$ studies$ on$ the$ topic$ as$ the$ importance$of$internet$business$nowadays.$Ever$since,$it$has$gradually$taken$on$ a$serious$curve$in$scientific$research$as$a$new$field$of$research.$For$instance,$the$ Shell$ Model$ offers$ a$ broader$ illustration$ of$ the$ e-entrepreneurship$ and$ its$ infrastructure$(Kollmann$2006).$Furthermore,$various$empirical$works$shaped$ the$initial$body$of$e-entrepreneurship$literature$(Gundry$and$Kickul$2006;$Matlay$ and$Westhead$2005;$Millman$et$al.$2009;$Tarres,$Melendez,$and$Obra$2006).$$ Plenty$of$research$is$carried$out$on$the$entrepreneurial$intentions$(Liñán$ and$Fayolle$2015),$as$well$as$on$the$social$entrepreneurial$intentions$(Tan,$Le,$ and$ Xuan$ 2019).$ Yet,$ relatively$ few$ studies$ focus$ on$ the$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$(Batool$et$al.$2015;$Y.$S.$Wang$et$al.$2016).$Likewise,$venture$creation$ by$e-entrepreneurs$is$still$in$an$emerging$state$(Serarols$2008).$Several$models$ have$been$developed$to$examine$the$entrepreneurial$intentions$toward$starting$ a$new$entrepreneurial$ business.$For$instance,$ the$ Theory$of$Reasoned$ Action$ (TRA)$(Fishbein$and$Ajzen$1975);$the$Theory$of$Planned$Behaviour$(TPB)$(Ajzen$ 1991;$Ajzen$and$Klobas$2013);$the$Technology$Acceptance$Model$(TAM)$(Davis$ 70 Theoretical Framework 1989);$ the$ Unified$ Theory$ of$ Acceptance$ and$ Use$ of$ Technology$ (UTAUT)$ (Venkatesh$et$al.$2003).$$ In$chapter$2,$the$citation$analysis$demonstrated$the$most$influential$studies$ that$ formed$ the$ literature$ base$ on$ the$ field$ of$ e-entrepreneurship.$ The$ psychological$category$embraced$the$two$most$influential$empirical$frameworks$ that$ have$ been$ used$ to$ study$ the$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$ among$ other$ studies$as$the$Technology$Acceptance$Model$(TAM,$Davis$1989);$and$the$TPB$ (Ajzen$1991).$Nevertheless,$both$TAM$and$the$Unified$Theory$of$the$Acceptance$ and$Use$of$Technology$(UTAUT)$frameworks$were$mostly$adopted$to$examine$ the$ease$of$use$and$usefulness$of$technology$use$in$business,$furthermore,$to$ embrace$ what$ kind$ of$ technology$ is$ better$ according$ to$ the$ business$ model$ (Cordero-Gutiérrez$and$Santos-Requejo$2016;$Kwun$et$al.$2010;$Nawi$et$al.$2017;$ Sudarmaji$ and$ Ambarwati$ 2018).$ In$ turn,$ many$ studies$ adopted$ the$ TPB$ in$ building$ theoretical$ frameworks$ as$ per$ the$ strength$ of$ its$ antecedents$ (Naimatullah$and$Ali$2017;$Schlaegel$and$Koenig$2014).$In$fact,$the$TPB$is$the$ most$common$theory$to$test$entrepreneur’s$intentions$and$behaviour$(Liñán$and$ Fayolle$ 2015).$ Thus,$ this$ study$ will$ adopt$ the$ TPB$ to$ examine$ the$ Jordanian$ entrepreneurs’$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ 4.2 RESEARCH'HYPOTHESES' The$theoretical$base$structures$of$e-entrepreneurship$are$still$emerging$as$ it$focuses$on$those$of$similar$disciplines$and$frameworks$(Carrier,$Raymond,$and$ Eltaief$2004).$Several$studies$have$carried$out$the$TPB$framework$to$investigate$ the$ entrepreneurial$ intentions$ (Ajzen$ and$ Klobas$ 2013;$ Naimatullah$ and$ Ali$ 2017;$Vodă$and$Florea$2019).$In$addition,$it$was$the$base$for$some$frameworks$ to$investigate$the$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$(Dutot$and$Van$Horne$2015;$Van$ Horne,$Dutot,$and$Zhang$2016;$Younis,$Katsioloudes,$and$Bakri$2020).$$ This$ research$ focuses$ on$ the$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$of$ Jordanians$ entrepreneurs$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$By$adopting$the$TPB,$the$ study$will$first,$test$the$effect$of$the$three$primary$factors$attitude,$subjective$ norms$and$perceived$behavioural$control$on$the$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$in$ Jordan.$ Additionally,$ the$ study$ will$ investigate$ the$ relationship$ between$ Theoretical Framework 71 perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$ and$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$ start$ a$ new$online$business.$Furthermore,$the$study$will$explore$the$differences$between$ men$ and$ women$ regarding$ their$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$ start$ a$ new$ online$business.$Finally,$the$study$will$examine$the$effect$of$risk$propensity$on$ Jordanians’$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business.$ Overall,$ the$ study$ hypothesises$ that$ in$ addition$ to$ the$ three$ factors$ suggested$by$(Ajzen$1991).$The$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture,$gender$and$ risk$ propensity$ affect$ the$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$ start$ a$ new$ online$ business$ in$ Jordan.$ For$ that$ purpose,$ a$ set$ of$ hypotheses$ were$ developed$ to$ answer$the$study’s$main$questions.$Each$set$of$hypotheses$is$well-presented$as$ follows.$ 4.2.1 %The%Theory%of%Planned%Behaviour% This$theory$went$through$several$phases$of$development$until$it$reached$its$ current$ model.$ Initially,$ Fishbein$ and$ Ajzen$ (1975),$ proposed$ the$ Theory$ of$ Reason$Action$(TRA)$to$explain$how$the$attitude$and$the$subjective$norms$affect$ the$intentions$of$individuals,$which$in$turn$is$the$best$predictor$of$behaviours.$ After$several$phases$of$theory$development$(Ajzen$1985,$1987),$the$perceived$ behaviour$control$factor$was$added$to$the$theory$to$shape$the$current$TPB$(Ajzen$ 1991).$The$theory$reports$that$the$three$factors,$Attitude,$Subjective$Norms$and$ Perceived$ Behaviour$ Control,$ together$ influence$ and$ motivate$ individuals’$ intentions$(Ajzen$1991;$Liñán$and$Chen$2009);$consequently,$it$will$affect$their$ behaviour$(Figure$4.1).$ Previous$research$works$have$confirmed$the$TPB$framework$empirically,$ in$addition$to$the$positive$relationship$between$entrepreneurial$intentions$and$ attitude,$subjective$norms$and$perceived$behavioural$control$(Lechuga$Sancho,$ Martin-Navarro,$and$Ramos-Rodriguez$2020;$Paray$and$Kumar$2020;$Wach$and$ Wojciechowski$2016).$Correspondingly,$The$TPB$was$used$in$several$studies$in$ e-entrepreneurship.$ For$ instance,$ attitude$ and$ perceived$ behavioural$ control$ have$ a$ positive$ relationship$ on$ the$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$in$ Iran,$ yet,$ subjective$norms$were$not$found$to$have$any$relation$with$their$intentions$to$ start$a$new$online$business$in$such$a$developing$country$(Farani,$Karimi,$and$ 72 Theoretical Framework Motaghed$2017).$However,$individuals’$attitude$toward$e-entrepreneurship$was$ not$found$ to$impact$ their$ e-entrepreneurial$intentions,$ while,$ both$subjective$ norms$and$perceived$behavioural$control$were$found$to$positively$impact$their$ intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$(Lai$and$To$2020).$ $ Figure!4.1:!Theory!of!Planned!Behaviour! $ This$association$has$been$sufficiently$studied;$however,$it$is$important$for$ this$ research$ to$ refer$ to$ it.$ Consequently,$ this$ study$ developed$ the$ following$ hypotheses:$ H1.$There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$the$TPB$antecedents$and$eentrepreneurial$ intentions$ to$ start$ a$ new$ online$ business$ in$ Jordan.$ H1a:& There& is& a& positive& relationship& between& personal& attitude& and& eentrepreneurial&intentions&to&start&a&new&online&business&in&Jordan.& Theoretical Framework 73 H1b:& There& is& a& positive& relationship& between& subjective& norms& and& eentrepreneurial&intentions&to&start&a&new&online&business&in&Jordan.& H1c:&There&is&a&positive&relationship&between&perceived&behavioural&control& and& e-entrepreneurial& intentions& to& start&a& new& online& business& in& Jordan.& 4.2.2 Perceived%Entrepreneurial%Culture% Culture$ can$ be$ defined$ as$ the$ collective$ programming$ of$ the$ mind,$ and$ serves$to$differentiate$some$ethnic$and$social$groups$from$others.$In$particular,$ where$we$refer$to$nations$and$countries,$National$Culture$may$differ$from$people$ living$in$the$corresponding$nations$(Hofstede$1980).$Entrepreneurs$have$been$ seen$to$share$their$culture$and$values$in$entrepreneurship$learning$(Gibb$2002).$ The$role$of$culture$was$reported$to$affect$the$entrepreneurial$intentions$as$it$ affects$the$behaviour$of$people$(Bogatyreva$et$al.$2019).$Culture$expresses$some$ nuanced$ differences$ between$ entrepreneurs$ through$ different$ stages$ in$ their$ business$ development.$ It$ was$ also$ seen$ to$ directly$ affect$ the$ entrepreneurial$ intentions$and,$accordingly,$entrepreneur’s$competitiveness$(Paul,$Hermel,$and$ Srivatava$2017).$$ According$to$Qasim,$Bany$Mohammed,$and$Liñán$(2018),$People$in$Jordan$ demonstrate$a$collectivism$culture;$however,$this$research$focuses$on$perceiving$ entrepreneurial$culture$at$an$individual$level.$Yet,$it$has$been$seen$that$cultural$ indicators$ at$ country-level$ are$ not$ able$ to$ predict$ whether$ cultural$ aspects$ stimulate$certain$individuals$to$start$a$new$business$(Liñán,$Jaén,$and$Martín$ 2020).$ Culture$ has$ been$ seen$ as$ a$ critical$ antecedent$ that$ illustrates$ entrepreneurial$ intentions$(Terjesen,$ Hessels,$ and$ Li$ 2013).$ Moreover,$ entrepreneurial$ actions$ at$ the$ individual$ level$ depend$ on$ the$ personal$ perceptions$ of$ an$ entrepreneur$ (Autio,$ Pathak,$ and$ Wennberg$ 2013;$ Liñán,$ Moriano,$and$ Jaén$ 2016).$There$is$ significant$ heterogeneity$in$ how$culture$is$ being$perceived$by$people$inside$any$country$(Jaén$and$Liñán$2013;$Leung$and$ Morris$ 2015);$ thus,$ some$ researchers$ stressed$ out$ the$ individual-level$ perceptions$of$culture$(McCoy,$Galletta,$and$King$2005;$Shinnar,$Giacomin,$and$ Janssen$2012).$$ 80 Research Methodology This$ chapter$ outlines$ the$ research$ methodology$ and$ design$ used$ in$ this$ dissertation.$The$selected$methods$are$used$to$help$in$analysing$the$collected$ data$in$this$research.$This$chapter$describes$the$design$adopted$by$this$research$ to$ achieve$ its$ aims$ and$ objectives$ (section$ 5.1).$ Section$ 5.2$ discusses$ the$ instruments$used$in$the$study$questionnaire$and$justifies$their$use;$furthermore,$ the$population$and$the$participants$of$this$study$(section$5.3);$finally,$the$last$ section$5.4$explains$how$the$data$is$analysed.$$ 5.1 RESEARCH'DESIGN'' The$ empirical$ research$ in$ this$ dissertation$ has$ been$ designed$ as$ a$ quantitative$survey-based$study.$As$described$above,$it$focuses$on$the$analysis$of$ the$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$in$Jordan.$For$this$reason,$a$questionnaire$is$ developed$to$collect$the$data$needed$to$test$the$research$developed$hypotheses,$ as$described$in$ section$5.2$ below.$The$ sample$is$ made$up$ of$young$ adults$in$ Jordan.$Their$characteristics$are$presented$in$section$5.3.$Finally,$a$Structural$ Equation$Modelling$(SEM)$analysis$has$been$deemed$as$the$most$adequate$to$ simultaneously$assess$the$different$hypotheses$proposed.$$ 5.2 INSTRUMENT' A$ questionnaire$ is$ designated$ to$ be$ the$ data$ collection$ tool$ for$ this$ quantitative$ research.$ The$ ELITE’s$ initial$ questionnaire$ for$ nascent$ entrepreneurs$has$ been$taken$ as$ the$basis$ and$thus$ has$ been$adapted$ to$the$ purposes$of$the$present$research.$This$ELITE$questionnaire$has$been$tested$and$ considered$as$a$validated$tool$(Liñán$and$Fernández-Serrano$2018).$The$original$ questionnaire$is$part$of$the$ELITE$project$(funded$by$the$Spanish$National$R+D$ Programme,$Ref.:$ECO2016-75655-P).$It$contains$seventh$sections$as$part$of$a$ longitudinal$study$on$the$process$of$emergence$of$high-impact$entrepreneurs$in$ Spain.$For$this$research,$a$questionnaire$was$derived$from$the$ELITE’s$project$to$ test$the$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$$ According$to$the$study$model,$the$new$resulting$questionnaire$contains$four$ sections;$the$first$section$(section$A),$includes$five$questions.$The$first$question$ (A1)$asks$to$identify$their$stage$of$the$creating$process$of$an$online$venture.$This$ Research Methodology 81 gives$the$author$a$comprehensive$view$of$the$sample$status$in$their$process$of$ creation$an$online$business.$The$second$question$(A2)$identifies$the$gender$role$ of$the$sample.$It$contains$a$12-item$Likert-type$scale,$including$the$most$common$ items$derived$from$the$original$60$items$of$Bem’s$sex-role$Inventory$(Bem$1974).$ The$third$question$(A3)$contains$six$items$that$examine$the$entrepreneurial$selfefficacy$to$address$the$perceived$behavioural$control$of$the$respondents$(Liñán,$ Moriano,$ and$ Jaén$ 2016).$ The$ fourth$ question$ (A4)$ contains$ eight$ items$ that$ investigate$entrepreneurial$motivation$(Fernández-Serrano$and$Romero$2013;$ Reynolds$et$al.$2005;$Romero,$Santos,$and$Fernández-Serrano$2012).$The$last$ question$in$this$section$contains$five$items$that$measure$the$entrepreneurial$goal$ intentions$of$respondents$(Liñán$and$Chen$2009).$$ The$second$section$(section$B),$includes$four$questions.$The$first$question$ (B1)$contains$five$items$that$explore$the$respondents’$attitude$to$risk.$The$scale$ was$developed$based$on$two$previous$studies$that$address$risk$propensity$(Hung$ and$Tangpong$2010;$S.$C.$Santos,$Caetano,$and$Curral$2013).$The$following$two$ questions$ are$ containing$ four$ items$ in$ each$ one$ of$ them.$ These$ scales$ are$ developed$ to$ discover$ the$ impact$ of$ subjective$ norms$ on$ entrepreneurial$ intentions$(Jaén$and$Liñán$2013;$Liñán,$Moriano,$and$Jaén$2016;$Liñán$and$Chen$ 2009).$ The$ last$ question$ in$ this$ section$ contains$ five$ items$ that$ explore$ the$ perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$in$Jordan$by$examining$the$entrepreneurial$ beliefs$(McGrath$and$MacMillan$1992).$This$scale$helps$in$understating$the$effect$ of$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$on$the$entrepreneurial$behaviour$as$it$is$ adapted$ from$ the$ National$ Expert$ Survey$ (NES)$ from$ the$ Global$ Entrepreneurship$Monitor$(GEM);$in$particular,$the$section$on$Social$and$cultural$ norms$(Reynolds$et$al.$2005).$ The$ following$ section$ (section$ C)$ serves$ to$ collect$ demographic$ data$ which$ include,$age,$gender$(male$=$1,$female$=$2),$nationality$(Jordanian$=$1,$elsewhere$ =$2),$city$(Amman$=$1,$Irbid$=$2,$Zarqa$=$3,$Madaba$=$4),$socioeconomic$level$ “socioECO”$(Low$=$1,$Medium-low$=$2,$Medium$=$3,$Medium-high$=$4,$High$=$5).$ And$the$last$section$(section$D)$serves$to$collect$data$regarding$to$their$training$ and$experience$in$creating$ business$that$includes.$education$ level$ “Edu-level”$ (Pre-university$=$1,$University$degree$or$similar$=2,$Master's$degree$or$doctorate$ 82 Research Methodology =$ 3),$ Education$ Background$ (EDU_IT_Technology$ =$ 1,$ EDU_Economics$ =$ 2,$ EDU_SocialSciences$ =$ 3,$ EDU_Health$ =$ 4,$ EDU_Engineering$ =$ 5,$ other$ =$ 6),$ Working$status$(Not$working$=$1,$Self-Employee$=$2,$Employee$=$3,$or$Self-Emp$ &$ Employee$ =$ 4),$ Working$ experience:$ ExpEmp$ (experience$ as$ employee),$ ExpSelf$(experience$as$self-employed).$ This$research$follows$a$self-administered$questionnaire,$where$individuals$ complete$the$questionnaire$by$themselves.$This$type$of$questionnaires$can$be$ distributed$ among$ the$ respondents$and$ collected$ back$ in$ several$ ways.$ The$ researcher$chooses$to$conduct$the$data$collection$process$through$online$means.$ This$ way$ seems$ to$ match$ the$ respondents$ more$ as$ the$ research$ is$ targeting$ individuals$with$e-entrepreneurial$intentions.$Various$online$methods$were$used$ to$ distribute$ the$ questionnaire$ such$ as$ university$ platforms,$ emails,$ assisted$ crowdsourcing$ and$ using$ online$ social$ media$ networks.$ Furthermore,$ it$ was$ prepared$in$two$languages;$Arabic$–$the$official$language$in$Jordan$and$English$–$ the$second$ language$ in$ Jordan.$ This$ way,$ the$ study$ can$ reach$ the$ whole$ population$in$Jordan$easily.$The$full$questionnaires$in$Arabic$(Appendix$B),$and$ English$(Appendix$A)$are$included$in$the$appendices$section$of$this$dissertation.$ 5.3 PARTICIPANTS' The$ study$ targets$ university$ students$ and$ employees$ in$ Jordan,$ a$ representative$country$in$the$Arab$World$and$the$Middle$East$and$North$Africa$ (MENA)$ countries.$ The$ entrepreneurial$ ecosystem$ in$ Jordan$ is$ getting$ much$ attention$from$the$government$and$many$investors.$Overall,$the$environment$ seems$to$support$entrepreneurship$in$various$sectors.$ The$questionnaire$has$been$formed$online$using$google$forms$platforms.$ Hence,$the$distribution$of$the$questionnaire$has$been$conducted$electronically$ between$January$and$June$2020.$This$period$was$convenient$to$reach$students$in$ both$first$and$second$semesters$in$several$universities.$The$questionnaire$was$ sent$ through$ universities$ platforms,$ e.g.,$the$ University$ of$ Jordan$ and$ Alzaytoonah$University$of$Jordan.$The$students$were$asked$to$distribute$it$with$ their$friends$through$word-of-mouth$as$well.$ Research Methodology 83 Approximately,$ 2,000$ persons$ including$ students,$ employees$ and$ unemployed$ people$ were$ invited$ to$ participate$ in$ this$ study.$ A$ total$ of$ 521$ completed$responses$were$collected.$After$removing$inconsistent$responses$and$ those$from$non-Jordanians,$480$surveys$were$identified$as$usable$responses.$The$ response$rate$is$about$24$percent.$ 5.4 ANALYSIS' The$research$is$following$a$quantitative$analysis$as$discussed$previously.$ For$this$reason,$the$researcher$will$use$a$combination$of$two$statistical$analysis$ software;$ The$ Statistical$ Package$ for$ the$ Social$ Sciences$ (IBM$ SPSS$ Statistics,$ v.26),$ and$ SmartPLS$ v.3.3.2.$ Initially,$ the$ raw$ data$ collected$ by$ the$ online$ questionnaire$were$transferred$into$an$excel$sheet.$Then,$the$SPSS$was$used$to$ perform$a$descriptive$data$analysis$of$the$sample.$The$descriptive$analysis$aims$ to$ give$ an$ overall$ view$ of$ the$ sample$ such$ as$ the$ demographic$ variables.$ Afterwards,$ the$ SmartPLS$ has$ been$ used$ to$ investigate$ the$ effect$of$ the$ independent$variables$according$to$the$research$hypotheses.$$ In$the$current$research,$online$data$collection$software$(Google$forms)$was$ used$to$collect$data$from$respondents.$Collected$data$from$both$(English$n=59,$ and$Arabic$n=462,)$questionnaires$were$downloaded$and$combined$in$an$excel$ sheet.$ Afterwards,$ data$ were$ transcribed$ and$ coded$ in$ preparation$ for$ the$ analysis$ process.$ Finally,$ the$ data$ were$ merged$ into$ one$ SPSS$ file$ to$ ensure$ completeness$and$consistency$of$the$reported$online$survey$(Evans$and$Mathur$ 2005).$This$initial$preparation$of$the$data$is$essential$to$enhance$data$quality$in$ order$to$get$a$meaningful$analysis$(Neuman$2014).$Moreover,$organising$and$ manipulating$ quantitative$ data$ preparing$ for$ the$ analysis$ process$ to$ reveal$ interesting$factors$ concerning$ the$ research$ problem$ (Creswell$ and$ Creswell$ 2017;$Neuman$2014).$$ $ $ 84 Results and Analysis $ $ $ Chapter(6: Results(and(Analysis( $ 6.1$SAMPLE'PROFILES'AND'RESPONDENT'CHARACTERISTICS%85$ 6.2$EXPLORATORY'FACTOR'ANALYSIS%87$ 6.2.1$ ATTITUDE$88$ 6.2.2$ SUBJECTIVE*NORMS$89$ 6.2.3$ PERCEIVED*BEHAVIOURAL*CONTROL$90$ 6.2.4$ INTENTIONS$ERROR!'BOOKMARK'NOT'DEFINED.$ 6.2.5$ PERCEIVED*CULTURE$92$ 6.2.6$ RISK*PROPENSITY$93$ 6.3$DATA'ANALYSIS'USING'SMARTPLS%94$ 6.3.1$ THE*MEASUREMENT*MODEL$95$ 6.3.2$ THE*STRUCTURAL*MODEL$100$ 6.3.3$ SUMMARY*OF*THE*HYPOTHESES*RESULTS$102$ 6.4$ADVANCED'DATA'ANALYSIS'USING'SMARTPLS%105$ & $ $ $ Results and Analysis 85 This$chapter$presents$the$results$of$the$empirical$analysis$using$the$data$collected$ through$the$study$questionnaire.$The$chapter$contains$five$sections.$The$first$ section$(6.1)$presents$the$respondents’$characteristics$and$the$sample$profile$in$ general.$Next,$section$6.2$reports$the$exploratory$factor$analyses$(EFAs)$for$the$ study$ variables.$ Later,$ the$ data$ is$ analysed$ using$ SmartPLS$ to$ test$ the$ study$ hypotheses$(section$6.3).$In$addition,$an$advanced$analysis$is$performed$to$reveal$ some$ complementary$ factors$ that$ could$ also$ affect$ the$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$of$the$respondents.$The$last$section$(6.4),$summarise$the$chapter$and$ the$results$regarding$the$study$hypotheses.$ 6.1 SAMPLE'PROFILES'AND'RESPONDENT'CHARACTERISTICS' All$answered$questionnaires$were$reported$to$be$complete$and$have$zero$ missing$data.$Yet,$the$author$went$through$the$answers$to$ensure$non-biased$ questionnaires.$ A$ total$ of$ 480$ respondents$ were$ reported$ to$ be$ valid$ for$ the$ analysis$ process$ after$ removing$ non-valid$questionnaires.$ The$ characteristics$ data$ of$ the$ respondents$ were$ classified$ to$ gain$ a$ better$ understating$ of$ the$ sample$(Sekaran$2003).$Consequently,$the$survey$was$grouped$according$to$the$ demographic$ profiles$ to$ gender,$ age,$ education$ level,$ education$ area,$ Socioeconomic$level$and$City$of$living.$$ As$shown$in$(Table$6.1),$the$male$respondents$of$the$sample$were$more$ than$females$(56.7%),$with$age$ranged$between$(30$to$39),$that$made$half$of$the$ sample$ (51.1%).$ Concerning$ the$ educational$ level,$ respondents$ holding$ a$ university$ degree$ or$ similar$ were$ the$ majority$ (75.8%),$ followed$ by$ those$ holding$ a$ Master's$ degree$ or$ doctorate$ (18.1%).$ Furthermore,$ respondents’$ education$background$was$from$different$areas,$yet$Economy$and$Business$area$ had$ the$ highest$ ratio$ (26.5%).$ The$ majority$ of$ the$ respondents$ reported$ a$ medium$ socioeconomic$ position$ (69.2%),$ followed$ by$ (15.6%)$ for$ those$ medium-high$level.$Finally,$the$greater$part$of$them$(84.6%)$lives$at$Amman,$the$ capital$of$Jordan.$ $ $ 86 Results and Analysis Table$6.1:$Demographic$Profile$of$the$Sample$ Demographic+ Variable+ Categories/Values+ Responses+Percentage+ (N=480)+ Gender% Male% 56.7%% Female% 43.3%% Age% Less%than%20% 1.7%% 20-29% 28.9%% 30-39% 51.1%% 40-49% 15.0%% 50%or%more%% 3.3%% Educational%level% Pre-University% 6.1%% University%degree%or%similar% 75.8%% Master's%degree%or%doctorate% 18.1%% Educational%Area% Computer%Science,%IT%Technology% 14.6%% Economy%and%Business% 26.5%% Other%Social%Sciences%and%Humanities% 15.4%% Health%and%Experimental%Sciences% 4.4%% Engineering,%Architecture,%etc.% 15.0%% Other% 24.2%% Socioeconomic%Level% Low% 4.0%% Medium-Low% 7.7%% Medium% 69.2%% Medium-High% 15.6%% High% 3.5%% City% Amman% 84.6%% Irbid% 9.4%% Zarqa% 3.5%% Madaba% 2.5%% $ As$ per$ the$ work$ status,$ half$ of$ the$ respondents$ were$ only$ employees$ (53.8%),$ comparing$ to$ (10.4%)$ who$ identified$ themselves$ as$ self-employed.$ Additionally,$ 14.4%$ of$ them$ reported$ being$ employees$ and$ self-employed$ simultaneously.$Finally,$the$remaining$21.5%$of$the$respondents$indicated$that$ they$were$without$work$(unemployed).$As$per$their$experience,$the$respondents$ showed$a$long$experience$as$employees$for$more$than$3$years$(62.1%).$On$the$ other$ hand,$ 62.5%$ of$ them$ indicated$ that$ they$ have$ no$ experience$ as$ entrepreneurs$at$all,$whereas$15.2%$of$them$have$less$than$a$year$of$experience.$ As$ per$ the$ stage$ of$ creation$ of$ their$ new$ online$ business,$ almost$ half$ of$ the$ respondents$with$the$previous$characteristics$specified$that$they$still$had$not$ thought$about$starting$a$new$online$business$(48.5%).$Nevertheless,$a$third$of$ the$respondents$(33.3%)$expect$to$start$their$online$business$in$the$next$three$ years$(Table$6.2).$$ $ Results and Analysis 87 Table$6.2:$Work$experience$ Demographic+Variable+ Categories/Values+ Responses+ Percentage+ (N=480)+ Employment%Situation% Employee% 53.8%% Employee%&%Self-Emp%simultaneously% 14.4%% Unemployed% 21.5%% Self-Employed% 10.4%% Work%Experience%as% Employee None% 16.5%% Less%than%1%year% 8.8%% From%1%to%3%years% 12.7%% More%than%3%years% 62.1%% Work%Experience%as% Entrepreneur% None% 62.5%% Less%than%1%year% 15.2%% From%1%to%3%years% 7.9%% More%than%3%years% 14.4%% Stage%of%creation%process% I%have%not%thought%about%it%yet% 48.5%% I%expect%to%create%it%in%the%next%3%years% 33.3%% I%am%currently%creating%it% 7.5%% I%created%it%in%the%last%year% 4.8%% I%created%it%more%than%a%year%ago% 5.8%% $ Overall,$the$descriptive$analysis$of$the$sample$showed$that$the$respondents$ are$predominantly$males$in$their$thirties.$The$most$common$respondents$have$a$ high$level$of$ education$with$ at$least$ a$ university$degree.$ Many$were$from$ an$ economic$and$business$background.$The$sample$also$covered$four$main$cities$in$ Jordan,$ although$ the$ highest$ number$ of$ respondents$ was$ from$ the$ capital$ Amman.$The$respondents$generally$tend$to$have$a$medium$socioeconomic$level.$ Regarding$their$working$life,$the$majority$of$the$respondents$were$employees.$ Being$ an$ employee$ with$ a$ medium$ socioeconomic$ level$ could$ be$ one$ of$ the$ reasons$not$to$stimulate$the$Jordanians$intentions$toward$starting$a$new$online$ business,$ since$ their$ careers$ are$ apparently$ satisfactory$ so$ far.$ These$ respondents$typically$have$more$than$three$years$of$experience$as$employees,$ and$less$than$a$year$of$experience$as$entrepreneurs.$This$could$possibly$indicate$ that$ society’s$ culture$ is$ inclined$ toward$ employment$ rather$ than$ selfemployment.$ 6.2 EXPLORATORY'FACTOR'ANALYSIS'' It$is$a$statistical$methodology$to$reduce$data$provided$by$several$items$to$a$ smaller$collection$of$summary$variables$(one$of$two$variables).$Furthermore,$to$ 88 Results and Analysis describe$ the$ relationship$ structure$ between$ the$ variable$ and$ the$ respondent$ (Podsakoff$et$al.$2003).$The$research$uses$a$self-report$questionnaire$to$collect$ the$ data;$ accordingly,$ this$ test$ is$ executed$ to$ check$ whether$ a$ single$ factor$ emerges$to$ be$ accountable$ for$variance$(Chang,$ van$ Witteloostuijn,$and$ Eden$ 2010).$ All$ items$ of$ each$ construct$ were$ loaded$ into$ EFA$ to$ check$ for$ new$ extracted$factors$(Malhotra,$Kim,$and$Patil$2006).$The$SPSS$v.26$was$used$for$the$ purpose$of$this$test$and$results$are$explained$briefly$in$the$following$sections.$$ 6.2.1 Attitude%% The$ scale$ contains$ 8$ items$ that$ investigate$ the$ motives$ to$ start$ a$ new$ venture$ on$ the$ Internet.$ The$ questionnaire$ followed$ previous$ studies$ as$ explained$ before$ to$ examine$ the$ attitude$ of$ the$ respondents$ (Sparks$ and$ Shepherd$1992;$van$Gelderen$et$al.$2018).$The$EFA$for$these$items$has$extracted$ two$ factors$ with$ eigenvalues$ higher$ than$ one$ (Table$ 6.3).$The$ first$ factor$ is$ explaining$ more$ than$ half$ of$ the$ scale$ variance$ (54.641%),$ while$ the$ second$ factor$explains$an$additional$12.839%$(Table$6.4).$According$to$the$EFA,$the$first$ factor$ (Attitude-Opportunity),$ is$ explained$ as$ the$ attitude$ toward$ new$ opportunity$on$the$market.$The$second$factor$(Attitude-Necessity),$those$items$ explain$the$need$to$make$a$change$in$their$current$situation$or$enhance$their$ income.$ $ Table$6.3:$Component$Matrix$for$Attitude$Scale$ $ Components$ 1$ 2$ A4.1ATT$ .807$ -.326$ A4.2ATT$ .806$ -.357$ A4.5ATT$ .798$ $ A4.8ATT$ .793$ -.118$ A4.3ATT$ .780$ $ A4.7ATT$ .738$ $ A4.6ATT$ .565$ .619$ A4.4ATT$ .577$ .615$ $ Results and Analysis 89 The$EFA$results$of$this$study$show$that$only$two$items$were$loaded$in$the$ second$component.$The$unemployment$item$was$at$the$second$component$rather$ than$belonging$to$the$first$component$here.$This$difference$could$be$related$to$ the$Jordanian$cultural$as$people$feel$obligated$to$contribute$to$the$family$income.$ Complementing$family$income$is$seen$as$an$opportunity$to$collaborate$rather$ than$the$situation$of$necessity$as$in$the$second$component.$ $ Table$6.4:$Total$Variance$Explained$for$Attitude$Scale$ Component! Initial!Eigenvalues! Extraction!Sums!of!Squared!Loadings! Rotation! Sums!of! Squared! Loadingsa! Total! Total! %!of! Variance! Cumulative!%! Total! %!of! Variance! Cumulative!%! 1% 4.371% 54.641% 54.641% 4.371% 54.641% 54.641% 4.171% 2% 1.027% 12.839% 67.480% 1.027% 12.839% 67.480% 2.485% 3& .670& 8.374& 75.854& & & & & 4& .535& 6.688& 82.542& & & & & 5& .457& 5.708& 88.251& & & & & 6& .368& 4.598& 92.848& & & & & 7& .343& 4.283& 97.131& & & & & 8& .230& 2.869& 100.000& & & & & $ $ 6.2.2 Subjective%Norms%% The$subjective$norms$/$social$norms$scale$in$this$questionnaire$is$obtained$ from$ the$ combination$ of$ two$ constructs.$ These$ two$ constructs$ explore$ how$ important$ people’s$ approval$ or$ being$ supportive$ and$ how$ their$ opinion$ is$ important$for$me$to$make$my$decisions$(Jaén$and$Liñán$2013;$Kolvereid$1996;$ Liñán,$Moriano,$and$Jaén$2016;$Liñán$and$Chen$2009).$The$calculation$of$these$ two$constructs$has$been$evidenced$to$be$equivalent$and$gives$the$same$results$ when$tested$separately$(Heuer$and$Liñán$2013).$The$four$variables$of$the$first$ construct$ are$ multiplied$ with$ the$ four$ variables$ of$ the$ second$ construct$ (B2.1*B3.1,$etc.).$The$new$four$calculated$items$are$then$used$to$examine$the$EFA$ for$the$subjective$norms$scale.$ $ 96 Results and Analysis 0.4$or$higher$will$be$accepted$in$the$current$analysis$of$the$measurement$model$ (Hair$et$al.$2017;$Hulland$1999).$ $ Table!6.15:!Outer!loadings! Construct! Item! Loading! Perceived!Behavioural!control! A3.1! 0,854! A3.2! 0,886! A3.3! 0,858! A3.4! 0,831! A3.5! 0,792! A3.6! 0,842! Attitude!/!Opportunity! A4.1! 0,836! A4.2! 0,837! A4.3! 0,786! A4.5! 0,798! A4.7! 0,747! A4.8! 0,805! Attitude!/!Necessity! A4.4! 0,852! A4.6! 0,859! E-Entrepreneurial!Intentions! A5.1! 0,859! A5.2! 0,894! A5.3! 0,047! A5.4! 0,879! A5.5! 0,869! Risk!Propensity! B1.1! 0,813! B1.2! 0,164! B1.3! 0,150! B1.4! 0,879! B1.5! 0,873! Subjective!Norms! B2B3.1! 0,761! B2B3.2! 0,869! B2B3.3! 0,823! B2B3.4! 0,655! Perceived!Entrepreneurial!Culture! B4.1! 0,835! B4.2! 0,858! B4.3! 0,746! B4.4! 0,854! B4.5! 0,829! $ The$ analysis$ shows$ that$ the$ majority$ of$ the$ items$ are$ indicating$ outer$ loadings$ higher$ than$ the$ indicated$ threshold$ level$ (0.4),$ consequently,$ these$ items$are$retained$for$further$PLS-SEM$analysis$as$they$considered$reliable$items$ (Table$ 6.15).$ However,$ there$ are$ three$ highlighted$ items$ (A5.3,$ B1.2,$ B1.3)$ showing$outer$loadings$below$this$level.$Those$are$the$same$items$that$have$been$ dropped$ previously$ at$ the$ EFA.$ These$ items$ are$ accordingly$ excluded$ from$ further$analysis$as$they$are$exposing$a$very$low$loading$(Hair$et$al.$2017).$$ All$remaining$retained$items$indicate$outer$loadings$higher$than$0.7$except$ for$ only$ one$ item$ (B2B3.4),$ that$ is$ included$ within$ the$ subjective$ norms$ construct.$ This$ item$ indicated$ an$ outer$ loading$ of$ 0.655,$ which$ is$ below$ the$ Results and Analysis 97 recommended$ 0.7$ level.$ According$ to$ (Hair$ et$ al.$ 2017),$ this$ item$ is$ initially$ accepted$ as$ long$ as$ it$ increases$ its$ construct’s$ validity.$ Overall,$ a$ total$ of$ 30$ validated$items$out$of$33$will$be$used$to$measure$the$dependent$and$independent$ variables$(except$for$control$demographic$variables).$ $ Table!6.16:!Outer!Model!Measurements!–!Cross!Loadings! ! PBC! ATT- Opp! ATT-Nec! EEI! Risk! SN! Culture! A3.1! 0,854! 0,388! 0,078! 0,528! 0,413! 0,246! 0,192! A3.2! 0,886! 0,392! 0,070! 0,518! 0,384! 0,226! 0,181! A3.3! 0,858! 0,447! 0,114! 0,454! 0,365! 0,229! 0,140! A3.4! 0,831! 0,448! 0,110! 0,502! 0,352! 0,213! 0,204! A3.5! 0,792! 0,373! 0,147! 0,417! 0,351! 0,228! 0,130! A3.6! 0,842! 0,396! 0,121! 0,475! 0,352! 0,212! 0,140! A4.1! 0,433! 0,836! 0,358! 0,444! 0,404! 0,360! 0,247! A4.2! 0,416! 0,837! 0,336! 0,418! 0,367! 0,325! 0,209! A4.3! 0,349! 0,787! 0,433! 0,417! 0,366! 0,317! 0,209! A4.5! 0,344! 0,798! 0,511! 0,469! 0,361! 0,373! 0,318! A4.7! 0,397! 0,747! 0,411! 0,434! 0,371! 0,315! 0,206! A4.8! 0,384! 0,805! 0,419! 0,458! 0,319! 0,287! 0,194! A4.4! 0,107! 0,447! 0,852! 0,197! 0,127! 0,197! 0,116! A4.6! 0,105! 0,435! 0,859! 0,146! 0,193! 0,182! 0,127! A5.1! 0,497! 0,561! 0,238! 0,860! 0,416! 0,355! 0,226! A5.2! 0,528! 0,507! 0,166! 0,894! 0,448! 0,365! 0,229! A5.4! 0,479! 0,445! 0,151! 0,880! 0,458! 0,338! 0,297! A5.5! 0,505! 0,410! 0,145! 0,869! 0,427! 0,314! 0,266! B1.1! 0,347! 0,409! 0,183! 0,430! 0,825! 0,210! 0,197! B1.4! 0,405! 0,395! 0,136! 0,443! 0,895! 0,213! 0,189! B1.5! 0,393! 0,387! 0,175! 0,433! 0,892! 0,229! 0,233! B2B3.1! 0,228! 0,371! 0,168! 0,339! 0,191! 0,762! 0,312! B2B3.2! 0,207! 0,343! 0,158! 0,302! 0,202! 0,869! 0,303! B2B3.3! 0,193! 0,294! 0,188! 0,306! 0,198! 0,823! 0,294! B2B3.4! 0,205! 0,270! 0,179! 0,270! 0,188! 0,655! 0,319! B4.1! 0,148! 0,280! 0,151! 0,265! 0,191! 0,325! 0,835! B4.2! 0,144! 0,250! 0,111! 0,200! 0,198! 0,329! 0,858! B4.3! 0,139! 0,168! 0,088! 0,196! 0,195! 0,289! 0,746! B4.4! 0,180! 0,199! 0,094! 0,265! 0,180! 0,327! 0,854! B4.5! 0,193! 0,283! 0,136! 0,260! 0,213! 0,349! 0,829! $ Later,$cross$loadings$analysis$is$performed$to$observe$the$pattern$of$item$ loadings$within$other$constructs$of$the$model.$This$is$necessary$in$order$to$report$ 98 Results and Analysis the$discriminant$validity$across$the$items,$particularly,$construct’s$item$loadings$ should$load$on$the$construct$itself$more$than$other$constructs$(Hair$et$al.$2017).$ In$ the$ current$ study,$ cross$ loadings$ between$ all$ constructs$ confirmed$ the$ discriminant$validity.$Items$loadings$ on$the$same$ construct$ were$higher$than$ those$ on$ any$ different$ constructs$ (Table$ 6.16).$ In$ total,$ the$ convergent$ and$ discriminant$validity$of$the$research$items$are$confirmed.$ Afterwards,$this$research$measures$the$constructs’$ability$to$attain$validity$ and$ reliability$ of$ the$ constructs.$ Construct$ validity$ describe$ whether$ taken$ measurements$in$this$analysis$are$investigating$and$representing$the$constructs$ being$investigated$(Cronbach$1971;$Gefen$and$Straub$2005).$Construct$validity$ was$ statistically$ analysed$ using$ both$ convergent$ and$ discriminant$ validity$ (Cronbach$ 1971;$ Straub$ 1989).$ Convergent$ validity$ indicates$ the$ degree$ a$ measure$converges$or$ correlates$with$ other$measures$construct,$ additionally,$ contributing$to$the$theoretical$position$of$the$construct$by$representing$a$valid$ measure$ (Carlson$ and$ Herdman$ 2010).$ The$ convergent$ validity$ is$ acceptable$ when$the$Average$Variance$Explained$(AVE)$is$equal$to$0.5$or$above$this$value$ (Fornell$and$Larcker$1981;$J.$Hair$et$al.$2017;$Nunnally$1978).$The$convergent$ validity$ is$ confirmed$ as$ all$ constructs$ are$ indicating$ acceptable$ AVE$ values;$ consequently,$demonstrating$valid$constructs$(Table$6.17).$ $ Table!6.17:!AVE!and!Reliability!of!the!Constructs! Construct! Cronbach's! Alpha! Composite! Reliability! Average! Variance! Extracted! (AVE)! E-Entrepreneurial!Intentions! 0,899! 0,929! 0,767! Attitude!/!Necessity! 0,633! 0,845! 0,731! Attitude!/!Opportunity! 0,889! 0,915 0,643! Subjective!Norms! 0,782! 0,861! 0,610! Perceived!Behavioural!control! 0,919! 0,937! 0,713! Perceived!Entrepreneurial!Culture! 0,883! 0,914! 0,682! Risk!Propensity! 0,841! 0,905! 0,760! Gender! 1,000! 1,000! 1,000! $ Results and Analysis 99 Another$ measurement$ to$ support$ the$ convergent$ validity$ is$ to$ measure$ internal$consistency.$The$constructs’$reliability$indicates$an$internal$consistency$ when$the$Cronbach’s$alpha$is$0.7$or$higher$(J.$F.$Hair$et$al.$2006;$Nunnally$1978).$ All$constructs$of$the$model$indicate$a$satisfactory$level$of$internal$consistency,$ except$for$the$Attitude-Necessity$construct.$$ The$ computed$ Cronbach’s$ alpha$ for$ this$ construct$ is$ slightly$ below$ the$ recommended$threshold$(0.633).$This$could$be$attributed$to$the$small$number$of$ items$in$this$construct$(only$2$items).$However,$this$level$of$Cronbach’s$alpha$is$ still$acceptable$and$provides$reliability$(Nunnally$1978).$According$to$(Lyberg$et$ al.$1997),$the$acceptable$level$of$Cronbach’s$alpha$is$(0.6)$or$above$to$consider$ the$reliability$of$constructs.$In$addition,$Composite$Reliability$(CR)$supports$the$ convergent$validity$of$the$constructs$(Fornell$and$Larcker$1981).$As$suggested$by$ (Fornell$and$Larcker$1981;$J.$F.$Hair$et$al.$2006)$the$CR$of$constructs$should$be$ 0.7$or$higher.$As$shown$in$(Table$6.17),$all$constructs$are$indicating$a$satisfactory$ level$ of$ CR.$ This$ approach$ confirms$ the$ convergent$ validity$ of$ the$ Attitude- Necessity$ construct$ as$ it$ reports$ a$ 0.845$ level$ for$ CR$ (Nunnally$ 1978).$ Consequently,$the$convergent$validity$of$the$constructs$can$be$confirmed.$ Discriminant$validity$investigates$to$what$extent$the$independent$variables$ are$really$different$in$predicting$the$dependent$variable$from$other$independent$ variables$(J.$F.$Hair$et$al.$2006).$It$assesses$how$the$constructs$do$not$converge$ or$correlate$with$other$constructs$in$the$model.$Furthermore,$it$is$essential$that$ the$correlation$between$items$in$the$same$construct$is$higher$than$the$correlation$ with$items$in$other$constructs$(Campbell$and$Fiske$1959).$$ This$research$followed$Fornell-Larcker$criterion$approach$to$examine$the$ discriminant$validity$(Fornell$and$Larcker$1981).$This$approach$compares$the$ cross-loadings$ between$ constructs.$ According$ to$ it,$ each$ latent$ AVE$ must$ be$ greater$than$ any$ other$latent$ squared$correlation$ (Fornell$and$ Larcker$ 1981;$ Hulland$1999).$This$estimation$is$correspondent$in$comparing$the$square$root$of$ the$AVE$with$the$correlations$among$the$latent$constructs$(Fornell$and$Larcker$ 1981).$The$results$in$(Table$6.18),$show$the$calculated$square$roots$of$the$AVE$ values$of$all$constructs$(main$diagonal)$against$cross-construct$correlations$(off$ 100 Results and Analysis diagonal).$ It$ indicates$ that$ Fornell-Larcker$ criterion$ is$ met,$ accordingly,$ discriminant$validity$can$be$claimed.$$ $ Table!6.18:!Discriminant!validity!(Fornell-Larcker!Criterion)! Constructs) Attitude!/! Necessity! Attitude!/! Opportunity! Culture) EEI! Gender! PBC! Risk! SN! Attitude)/) Necessity) 0,855) , , , , , , , Attitude)/) Opportunity) 0,516, 0,802) , , , , , , Culture) 0,143, 0,290, 0,826) , , , , , EEI) 0,200, 0,550, 0,290, 0,876) , , , , Gender) -0,010, -0,093, -0,026, -0,087, 1,000) , , , PBC) 0,124, 0,482, 0,197, 0,574, -0,151, 0,844) , , Risk) 0,188, 0,455, 0,237, 0,500, -0,146, 0,439, 0,872) , SN) 0,221, 0,413, 0,394, 0,392, -0,048, 0,267, 0,250, 0,781) $ Overall,$this$section$summarises$the$PLS$outer$analysis.$The$large$majority$ of$ the$ items$ used$ to$ measure$ the$ research$ model$ constructs$ showed$ validity$ except$for$three$items$(A5.3,$B1.2,$B1.3),$which$were$therefore$deleted.$Later,$the$ measurement$ model$ results$ supported$ the$ reliability,$ convergent$ and$ discriminant$validities$of$all$constructs$and$their$measures$used$in$the$current$ research.$This$gives$a$suitability$to$the$current$measurement$model;$accordingly,$ it$was$considered$adequate$to$carry$out$the$quality$assessment$of$the$structural$ (inner)$model.$$ 6.3.2 The%Structural%Model%% An$ analysis$ of$ the$ structural$ model$ was$ performed$ to$ examine$ the$ significance$of$the$model’s$paths,$furthermore,$foreseeing$the$power$of$the$model.$ The$analysis$of$the$structural$model$can$be$determined$by$investigating$the$tstatistics$values,$standard$error$and$confidence$interval,$in$order$to$assess$the$ significance$of$the$paths$coefficients$(W.$Chin,$Marcolin,$and$Newsted$1996;$W.$ W.$Chin$1998).$The$path$coefficient’s$value$of$constructs$can$be$considered$as$a$ criterion$ for$ estimating$ the$ significance$ of$ individual$ paths$ (Falk$ and$ Miller$ 1992).$Moreover,$the$R-square$(R2)$value$can$evaluate$the$predictive$power$of$ Results and Analysis 101 the$model$fit$through$measuring$the$endogenous$latent$variables$of$the$model$ (W.$W.$Chin$1998;$J.$F.$Hair$et$al.$2006).$The$R2$values$range$between$0$and$1,$ where$a$higher$value$is$preferred$(J.$F.$Hair$et$al.$2006).$According$to$(W.$W.$Chin$ 1998),$the$R2$values$can$be$classified$as$substantial$(0.67$or$higher),$average$ (0.33$to$0.66)$or$weak$(0.19$to$0.33).$However,$(J.$Hair$et$al.$2013)$suggested$the$ thresholds$ to$ be$ raised$ for$ the$ substantial$ (0.75),$ moderate$ (0.50)$ and$ weak$ (0.25)$levels.$$ The$PLS-SEM$does$not$make$any$assumptions$in$distribution$(Urbach$and$ Ahlemann$2010).$Accordingly,$it$is$essential$to$use$the$bootstrapping$technique$ to$test$the$statistical$significance$and$effects$of$the$path$coefficients$of$the$E- entrepreneurial$intentions$model.$Additionally,$it$is$also$important$to$test$the$ significance$ of$ various$ results$ such$ as$ the$ Heterotrait-Monotrait$ Ratio$ of$ Correlations$(HTMT),$Cronbach’s$alpha,$and$R²$values$(J.$Hair$et$al.$2017).$The$ process$of$bootstrapping$is$drawing$ a$randomly$generated$set$ of$subsamples$ from$ the$ original$ sample.$ For$ this$ research,$ the$ larger$ number$ of$ random$ subsamples$was$established$to$be$5000$from$the$original$data$set.$ $ Table!6.19:!PLS!Results!for!the!EEI!Model! Construct! Moderator! (If!existed)! Construct! Path! Coefficient! T-Statistics! (|O/STDEV|)! P-Value! ATT-Opp! ->! EEI! 0,268! 5,248! 0,000! ATT-Nec! ->! EEI! -0,044! 1,080! 0,280! SN! ->! EEI! 0,131! 3,175! 0,002! PBC! ->! EEI! 0,293! 6,362! 0,000! Culture! ->! EEI! 0,041! 1,063! 0,288! Risk! ->! EEI! 0,207! 4,783! 0,000! Culture! ->! ATT-Opp! 0,308! 6,462! 0,000! Culture! ->! ATT-Nec! 0,159! 3,213! 0,001! Culture! ->! SN! 0,388! 8,827! 0,000! Culture! ->! PBC! 0,106! 2,467! 0,014! Risk! ->! PBC! 0,370! 8,005! 0,000! Culture! Gender& EEI! 0,034! 0,964! 0,335! Culture! Gender& ATT-Opp! 0,006! 0,130! 0,896! Culture! Gender& ATT-Nec! 0,045! 0,936! 0,350! Culture! Gender& SN! 0,017! 0,381! 0,703! Culture! Gender& PBC! -0,047! 1,133! 0,257! Calculated!R!square!for!the!EEI!model!is!R2=0.519! EEI:!E-entrepreneurial!Intentions!|!ATT-Opp:!Attitude!/!Opportunity!|!ATT-Nec:!Attitude!/!Necessity!|!SN:!Subjective! Norms!|!PBC:!Perceived!Behavioural!Control!|!Risk:!Risk!Propensity!|!Culture:!Perceived!Entrepreneurial!Culture!|! 102 Results and Analysis $ This$larger$subsample$estimates$and$determine$the$significance$levels$of$ path$coefficients,$t-values,$p-values$to$assess$the$significance$of$PLS-SEM$results$ as$shown$in$(Table$6.19).$The$table$display$that$all$path$coefficients$are$significant$ according$to$the$p-values,$except$for$(Attitude$/$Necessity$->$EEI)$and$(Culture$->$ EEI).$ Additionally,$ the$ gender$ as$ a$ moderating$ variable$ was$ not$ seen$ to$ be$ significant$in$any$relationship$in$the$EEI$model.$$ 6.3.3 Summary%of%The%Hypotheses%Results%% According$to$the$PLS$results$in$(Table$6.19),$there$is$a$positive$relationship$ between$(Attitude$/$Opportunity)$and$the$EEI$(ß$=0,268$|$t$=$5,248$|$P$=$0,000).$ On$the$other$hand,$a$negative$relationship$between$(Attitude$/$Necessity)$and$the$ EEI$was$found$(ß$=-0,044|$t$=$1,080$|$P$=$0,280),$but$this$was$not$significant.$This$ is$suggesting$that$people$in$Jordan$will$consider$any$upcoming$opportunities$to$ start$a$new$online$business.$Yet,$they$are$not$relying$on$starting$a$new$online$ business$to$fulfil$their$needs$or$increase$their$income.$This$finding$supports$H1a$ with$an$opportunity$seeking$attitude$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ A$positive$relationship$has$been$found$between$subjective$norms$and$EEI$ (ß$=0,131$|$t=$3,175$|$p=$0,002).$Similarly,$the$perceived$behavioural$control$is$ also$ positively$ related$ to$ the$ EEI$ (ß$ =0,293$ |$ t=$ 6.362$ |$ p=$ 0,000).$ Hence,$ it$ supports$both$hypotheses$H1b,$H1c.$In$total,$this$confirms$the$TPB$theory$as$it$ supported$in$the$main$hypothesis$H1,$which$confirms$that,$there$is$a$positive$ relationship$between$the$TPB$antecedents$and$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$to$ start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ There$ is$ also$ a$ positive$relationship$ between$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture$and$the$TPB’s$antecedents,$attitude$/$opportunity$(ß$=0,308$|$t=$6.462$|$ p=$0,000),$attitude$/$necessity$(ß$=0,159$|$t=$3.213$|$p=$0,001),$these$findings$ support$hypothesis$H2a,$which$indicate$that$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$ encourage$people’s$attitudes$towards$e-entrepreneurship.$Similarly,$perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$was$found$to$have$a$positive$relationship$with$subjective$ norms$(ß$=0,388$|$t=$8.827$|$p=$0,000),$which$supports$hypothesis$H2b.$This$ indicates$that$a$more$positive$perception$of$culture$is$related$to$a$higher$expected$ Results and Analysis 103 support$from$surrounded$important$persons$in$their$life,$such$as,$family,$friends,$ or$workmates.$Additionally,$a$positive$relationship$was$found$between$perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture$ and$ the$ perceived$ behavioural$ control$ (ß$ =0,106$ |$ t=$ 2.467$ |$ p=$ 0,014),$ thus,$ hypothesis$ H2c$ is$ supported.$ In$ total,$ these$ figures$ support$ the$ main$ hypothesis$ H2,$ which$ indicate$ that$ there$ is$ a$ positive$ relationship$ between$ the$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$ and$ the$ EEI$ antecedents$in$Jordan.$ With$ respect$ to$ gender$ as$ moderating$ the$ relationship$ between$ the$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$ and$ the$ TPB$ antecedents,$ there$ are$ no$ significant$differences$between$men$and$women$in$the$relationships$between$ their$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$and$attitude$/$opportunity$(ß$=0,006$|$t=$ 0.130$|$p=$0,896),$neither$with$the$attitude$/$necessity$construct$(ß$=0,045$|$t=$ 0.936$|$p=$0,350),$therefore,$hypothesis$H3a$is$not$supported.$Moreover,$there$ are$no$ significant$ differences$ between$ men$ and$ women$ in$ the$ relationship$ between$their$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$and$subjective$norms$(ß$=0,017$ |$ t=$ 0.381$ |$ p=$ 0,703),$ thereby$ not$supporting$ hypothesis$ H3b.$ Likewise,$ no$ significant$ differences$ between$ men$ and$ women$ have$ been$ seen$ in$ the$ relationship$ between$ their$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$ and$ perceived$ behavioural$control$(ß$=-0,047$|$t=$1.133$|$p=$0,257),$accordingly,$hypothesis$H3c$ is$not$supported.$$ Finally,$there$is$a$significant$positive$relationship$between$risk$propensity$ and$perceived$behavioural$control$(ß$=0,370$|$t=$8.005$|$p=$0,000),$and$thus$ hypothesis$ H4$ is$ supported.$ Suggesting$ a$ positive$ association$ between$ risk$ propensity$and$perceived$behavioural$control$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$ Jordan.$ Overall,$the$PLS-SEM$analysis$results$have$supported$the$TPB$theory$(H1:$ H1a,$H1b$&$H1c).$Furthermore,$they$support$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$ hypotheses$as$well$(H2:$H2a,$H2b$&$H2c).$However,$Hypotheses$(H3:$H3a,$H3b$&$ H3c)$are$rejected,$suggesting$that$there$are$no$significant$differences$between$ men$ or$ women$ in$ the$ relationship$ between$ their$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$ culture$and$the$TPB$antecedents$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$Lastly,$ hypothesis$ H4$ is$ supported,$ indicating$ a$ positive$ relationship$ between$ risk$ 104 Results and Analysis propensity$and$EEI$(Table$6.20).$And$according$to$the$previous$results,$the$EEI$ model$is$proposed$with$an$illustration$of$the$path$coefficients$of$the$inner$model$ and$R$square$value$for$the$dependent$variable$in$(Figure$6.1).$ $ Table!6.20:!Hypotheses!testing!results!! No% Hypothesis% Result% H1a$ There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$personal$attitude$ and$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$ start$ a$ new$ online$ business$in$Jordan.$ Supported$ H1b$ There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$subjective$norms$ and$ e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$ start$ a$ new$ online$ business$in$Jordan.$ Supported$ H1c$ There$ is$ a$ positive$ relationship$ between$ perceived$ behavioural$control$and$e-entrepreneurial$ intentions$to$ start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ Supported$ H2a$ There$ is$ a$positive$ relationship$ between$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$and$personal$attitude$to$start$a$ new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ Supported$ H2b$ There$ is$ a$ positive$ relationship$ between$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$and$subjective$norms$to$start$a$ new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ Supported$ H2c$ There$ is$ a$ positive$ relationship$ between$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$ and$ perceived$ behavioural$ control$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ Supported$ H3a$ There$ are$ significant$ differences$ between$ men$ and$ women$ in$ the$ relationships$ between$ their$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$and$attitude$to$start$a$new$online$ business$in$Jordan.$ Not$ Supported$ H3b$ There$are$significant$differences$exist$between$men$and$ women$ in$ the$ relationships$ between$ their$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$and$subjective$norms$to$start$a$ new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ Not$ Supported$ H3c$ There$are$significant$differences$exist$between$men$and$ women$ in$ the$ relationships$ between$ their$ perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture$ and$ perceived$ behavioural$ control$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$Jordan.$ Not$ Supported$ H4$ There$is$a$positive$relationship$between$risk$propensity$ and$perceived$behavioural$control$to$start$a$new$online$ business$in$Jordan.$ Supported$ $ Results and Analysis 105 $ Figure!6.1:!The!EEI!Model!Based!on!the!PLS!results! $ 6.4 ADVANCED'DATA'ANALYSIS'USING'SmartPLS' Previously$in$section$(6.3.3),$The$PLS-SEM$results$have$revealed$that$there$ are$no$differences$between$men$and$women$to$start$a$new$online$business$in$ Jordan.$This$stresses$the$need$to$test$other$demographic$variables$of$the$sample.$ In$ order$ to$ investigate$ if$ demographic$ variables$ (control$ variables),$ could$ probably$ affect$ the$ EEI$ to$ start$ a$ new$ online$ business$ in$ Jordan.$ The$ control$ variables$usually$benefit$the$experimental$research$since$they$control$ for$ the$ influence$ of$ extraneous$ elements.$ Although$ these$ variables$ are$ not$ the$ main$ variables$of$the$study,$still,$they$might$affect$or$control$the$main$variables$of$ interest.$Therefore,$control$variables$were$taken$into$consideration$and$included$ in$the$study$model$(Appendix$C:$Advanced$Model),$in$order$to$reduce$variance$ error$or$to$reveal$alternative$explanations$(Schwab$2005).$ $ 112 Discussion, Policy Implications and Conclusion in$the$field,$not$only$to$better$understand$the$current$status$but$to$identify$the$ gaps$that$need$to$be$filled.$Using$a$systematic$literature$review$(SLR),$the$authors$ categorised$and$analysed$the$theories$and$models$from$105$relevant$papers$out$ of$a$total$of$291$articles$in$the$literature$of$e-entrepreneurship$from$2008$to$ September$2020.$This$has$helped$to$reveal$some$very$important$findings$that$ shed$light$on$the$gaps$within$the$field.$For$instance,$this$analysis$showed$that$ most$of$the$research$reviewed$in$this$work$is$not$based$on$a$solid$theoretical$ framework$ that$ specifically$ considers$ the$ distinctive$ characteristics$ of$ eentrepreneurship.$ Moreover,$the$SLR$revealed$the$existence$of$research$gaps$that$need$to$be$ addressed,$ particularly$ those$ that$ focus$ on$ the$ success,$ challenges$ and$ opportunities$e-entrepreneurs$face$in$the$digital$world.$We$argue$that$these$gaps,$ both$in$theory$and$practice,$need$to$be$developed$into$a$comprehensive$roadmap$ to$help$researchers$draw$on$more$relevant$and$needed$work$in$this$field.$Besides,$ researchers$can$also$focus$on$the$development$of$more$practical$and$empirical$ frameworks$addressing$the$regional,$cultural$and$environmental$conditions$in$ developing$ countries$and$across$ regions.$ Finally,$ online$ start-ups$ represent$a$ massive$opportunity$for$entrepreneurs$worldwide.$E-entrepreneurship$and$efirm$performance$is$a$multidisciplinary$field$of$research.$Therefore,$it$is$essential$ to$ integrate$ complementary$ research$ areas$ that$ need$ institutional$ and$ theoretical$foundations$to$help$develop$better$market-related$research.$ The$model$developed$in$this$research$was$based$on$the$TPB$and$the$extant$ literature$of$entrepreneurial$intentions,$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture$and$ risk$propensity.$The$EEI$model$included$three$groups$of$variables$with$a$total$of$ six$factors,$ categorised$ as$ follows;$ the$ TPB$ antecedents$ (attitude,$ subjective$ norms,$perceived$behavioural$control);$e-entrepreneurial$intentions;$perceived$ entrepreneurial$culture,$and$risk$propensity.$In$addition$to$the$moderating$role$ of$gender$in$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$if$existed.$The$findings$reveal$that$the$ TPB$antecedents,$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture,$and$risk$propensity$affect$ the$e-entrepreneurial$intentions$in$Jordan.$However,$there$were$no$differences$ in$the$EEI$according$to$moderation$role$of$gender.$$$$ Discussion, Policy Implications and Conclusion 113 Policymakers$and$government$in$such$a$developing$country$such$as$Jordan$ need$ to$ empower$ people$ to$ overrule$ their$ risk$ perception$ and$ cultural$ perceptions.$This$could$be$achieved$through$encouraging$entrepreneurship$and$ facilitating$start-up$process$on$the$country$level.$Supporting$local$start-ups$helps$ in$ providing$ employment$ and$ leveraging$ the$ national$ economy.$ The$ study$ implications$ can$ also$ help$ local$ incubators$ and$ accelerators$ to$ improve$ and$ increase$start-ups$through$financial$programs$that$could$reduce$the$risk$level$ among$e-entrepreneurs.$Moreover,$understanding$the$obstacles$that$could$limit$ entrepreneurship$in$Jordan,$such$as$the$perceived$entrepreneurial$culture.$$ 7.3 FUTURE'RESEARCH'LINES' The$ field$ of$ e-entrepreneurship$ is$ evolving$ and$ growing$ rapidly.$ The$ number$of$publications$on$entrepreneurial$intentions$is$increasing.$However,$this$ research$identified$some$knowledge$gaps$as$large$number$on$the$entrepreneurial$ intentions’$studies$were$developed$without$a$strong$base$of$previous$theory$or$ model.$This$study$showed$the$importance$of$building$new$models$and$framework$ based$on$a$strong$theory.$Moreover,$the$need$for$more$studies$on$e-business$and$ entrepreneurship$ education$ to$ help$ rural$ e-entrepreneurs$ reach$ success$ and$ survive$in$a$dynamic$and$changing$environment.$On$the$other$hand,$this$research$ stresses$ the$ need$ for$ more$ studies$ to$ investigate$ the$ risk$ perceptions$ in$ developing$countries$such$as$Jordan.$In$addition,$it$also$addresses$the$perceived$ entrepreneurial$cultural$aspects$and$how$to$educate$rural$e-entrepreneurs$to$ innovate$ and$ initiate$ to$ start$ and$ become$ an$ employer.$ Lastly,$ this$ research$ reported$ no$ differences$ giving$ the$ moderation$ of$ gender.$ More$ studies$ are$ needed$to$confirm$whether$conducting$an$online$business$is$the$same$for$both$ genders.$$ $ $ 114 Bibliography Bibliography( Abdulwahab,$L.$and$Kabir,$Mijinyawa.$(2014).$A$Conceptual$Model$of$the$ Expectation$Confirmation$Theory$(ECT)$Modification$on$Cybercafés$Use$ Continuance.$American&Academic&&&Scholarly&Research&Journal,$6(4),$114.$ Abebe,$Michael.$(2014).$Electronic$commerce$adoption,$entrepreneurial$ orientation$and$small-$and$medium-sized$enterprise$(SME)$performance.$ Journal&of&Small&Business&and&Enterprise&Development,$21(1),$100–116.$ Acs,$Zoltan$J.$Szerb,$László$and$Lloyd,$Ainsley.$(2017).$Entrepreneurship&and&the& 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Zhu,$Zhen$and$Lin,$Shuai-fu.$(2019).$Understanding$entrepreneurial$perceptions$ in$the$pursuit$of$emerging$e-business$opportunities:$The$dimensions$and$ drivers.$Computers&in&Human&Behavior,$95,$252–261.$ Zolait,$Ali$Isa,$Safeya$Ali,$Hala$and$Pandiyan,$K.$..$(2018).$Men$vs.$Women:$Study$ of$Online$Shopping$Habits$and$Factors$Influencing$Buying$Decisions$in$ Bahrain.$International&Journal&of&E-Services&and&Mobile&Applications,$10(4),$ 61–73.$ $ $ $ 136 Appendices Appendices( $ The$study’s$questionnaire$is$enclosed$in$both$languages’$English$version$ (Appendix$A)$and$Arabic$version$(Appendix$B).$Additionally,$the$advanced$model$ that$includes$the$control$variables$is$also$enclosed$(Appendix$C).$The$appendices$ are$as$the$following:$ $ $ $ Appendices 137 APPENDIX'A:'QUESTIONNAIRE'VERSION'IN'ENGLISH'' $ $ $ PROYECTO(COFINANCIADO(POR(LOS(FONDOS(FEDER( Referencia del Proy.: ECO2016-75655-P ELECTRONIC ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTION IN JORDAN ELITE’s Initial Questionnaire for Nascent Entrepreneurs Introduction This questionnaire is part of a doctoral study under the title “electronic entrepreneurial intention in Jordan: the role of gender and national culture” that aims to provide a deep insight of electronic entrepreneurship (e-entrepreneurship) in Jordan. The objective of this empirical study is to understand the Jordanian e-entrepreneurs characteristics better. In particular, this study focuses on their great potential to generate a positive high-impact on the economy of Jordan. To do this, those e-entrepreneurs with high-level of education (university degree) and an opportunity motivation will be analyzed. The questionnaire contains four sections and there are NO correct or incorrect answers, we just want to know your personal opinion. Therefore, it’s important that you answer all the questions honestly according to your point of view. It will take approximately 5 minutes to answer all the questions. The answers will only be used for this research purposes and no personal data will be disclosed nor shared with anyone. Your help is essential for this study and we want to thank you for your collaboration. Thus, all those who answer the questionnaire completely and properly will participate in a raffle to win 3 AMAZON gift cards valued at $100, $50 and $25, respectively. Your mobile contact and email address will be used to participate in the raffle, and will also be used to track the progress of your project within one year. Note: This questionnaire is part of the "ELITE’s Initial Questionnaire for Nascent Entrepreneurs". Only questions related to our study have been included. 144 Appendices $ $ $ 3 D4. ھﻞ ﻟﺪﯾﻚ ﺧﺒﺮات ﺳﺎﺑﻘ ﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌ ﻤﻞ؟ * 4. أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺛﻼث ﺳﻨﻮات 3. ﻣﻦ ﺳ ﻨ ﺔ إ ﻟﻰ ﺛﻼث ﺳﻨﻮات 2. أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻨﺔ 1. ﻻ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ 1. ﻛﻤﻮظﻒ 2. ﺻﺎ ﺣﺐ ﻋ ﻤ ﻞ / ر ﯾ ﺎ دي أﻋﻤﺎل D5. اﻟﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﻲ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ * 4. ﻣﻮظ ﻒ و أﻋﻤﻞ ﻟﺤﺴﺎ ﺑﻲ ا ﻟﺨﺎص ﻣﻌﺎ ً ﻓﻲ وﻗﺖ واﺣﺪ 3. ﻣﻮظﻒ 2. أﻋﻤﻞ ﻟﺤﺴﺎ ﺑﻲ ا ﻟﺨﺎص 1. ﻋﺎطﻞ ﻋﻦ ا ﻟ ﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺤﺎﻟ ﺔ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﻲ D6. ﻛﻢ ﻋﺪد اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﻤﺖ ﺑﺈﻧﺸﺎﺋﮭﺎ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺎ ً * 4 أو أﻛﺜﺮ 3 2 1 0 اﺧﺘﺮ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻨﺎﺳﺒﻚ D7. أﺷﺮ إﻟﻰ ﺣﺎﺿﻨﺔ أﻋﻤ ﺎ ل أو ﻣﺮﻛﺰ رﯾ ﺎ د ة ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲ إﻟﯿﮫ * 1. ZINC )زﯾﻦ( 2. BIG )أوراﻧﺞ( 3. TANK )أ ُ ﻣﻨﯿ ّ ﺔ( 4. UJIEC )ﻣﺮﻛﺰ اﻻﺑ ﺘ ﻜ ﺎ ر ورﯾ ﺎ د ة اﻷﻋﻤ ﺎ ل – اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﺔ اﻷرد ﻧ ﯿﺔ( 5. إﻧﺠﺎز 6. دارة اﻟﺮﯾﺎدة – ﻏﺮ ﻓ ﺔ ﺗ ﺠ ﺎ ر ة ﻋﻤ ﺎ ن 7. ﻣﺮﻛﺰ iPark 8. ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ا ﻟ ﻤ ﻠ ﻜﺔ ر ا ﻧ ﯿ ﺎ ﻟﻠﺮﯾﺎدة 9. TTi ﻟﻺﺑ ﺪ اع 10. ﺑﻼ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ 11. ﻏﯿﺮ ذ ﻟﻚ ____________________ ﺷـﻜـــــﺮا ً ﺟـﺰﯾ ــــﻼ ً ﻟـــﻜﻢ! ﻟﻠ ﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﺤﺐ، ﻋﻠﯿﻚ اﻹﺷﺎرة إﻟﻰ رﻗ ﻢ ﻣﻮﺑ ﺎ ﯾﻞ وﺑﺮﯾﺪ إ ﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﺻ ﺎ ﻟﺢ: أد ﺧﻞ رﻗﻢ ھﺎﺗﻔ ﻚ اﻟﻤﺤﻤ ﻮل _______________________________________ أد ﺧﻞ ﺑﺮﯾﺪك اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ _______________________________________ ﺷﻜﺮ ا ﻟ ﻤﺸ ﺎ رﻛ ﺘ ﻜ ﻢ ! و ﻧ ﺘ ﻤ ﻨﻰ ﻟ ﻜ ﻢ ا ﻟ ﺘ ﻮ ﻓ ﯿﻖ ﻓﻲ ا ﻟ ﺴﺤﺐ. ﻷﯾ ﺔ أﺳﺌ ﻠ ﺔ أ و ﻣﻌ ﻠ ﻮﻣﺎت، ﯾﻤﻜﻨﻚ ا ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺎ ﺑ ﺔ إ ﻟﻰ ﻋﻨﻮان ا ﻟ ﺒﺮﯾ ﺪ اﻹﻟ ﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ اﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ: [email protected] ﺳﯿ ﻘ ﺎ م ا ﻟﺴﺤﺐ ﻓﻲ 30 ﯾﻮﻧ ﯿﻮ 2020 وﺳ ﯿ ﺘ ﻢ إ ﺑﻼغ ا ﻟ ﻨ ﺘ ﺎ ﺋ ﺞ ﻟ ﺠﻤ ﯿ ﻊ ا ﻟ ﻤﺸ ﺎ رﻛ ﯿ ﻦ ﻋﻦ طﺮ ﯾﻖ ا ﻟ ﺒ ﺮ ﯾ ﺪ ا ﻹ ﻟ ﻜ ﺘ ﺮو ﻧﻲ. Appendices 145 APPENDIX(C:(ADVANCED(MODEL((Control(Variables(Analysis)( ! ( Published Articles 147 Published*Articles* This%dissertation%was%developed%and%expanded%upon%ideas%embraced%in%previous% papers%on%the%topic%of%e-entrepreneurial%intentions%in%Jordan%that%are%written%by% the%author%and%his%research%supervisors.%This%section%demonstrates%two%articles% as%part%of%the%requirements%to%obtain%the%degree%of%philosophy%of%doctorate.%% A. THE&FIRST&PUBLICATION& The%first%article%was%published%under%the%title:% % “The% Role% of% Culture% and% Gender% in% E-commerce% Entrepreneurship:% Three% Jordanian%Case%Studies”% % Dhia%Qasim,%Ashraf%Bany%Mohammed,%Francisco%Liñán.% % As%part%of%the%contributions%to%Management%Science%book%series%(MANAGEMENT% SC.)% DOI:%10.1007/978-3-319-75913-5_14%% Copyright% information:% Springer% International% Publishing% AG,% part% of% Springer% Nature%2018% % The$book$chapter$to$be$cited$as:$ % Qasim%D.,%Bany%Mohammed%A.,%Liñán%F.%(2018)%The%Role%of%Culture%and%Gender%in% E-commerce%Entrepreneurship:%Three%Jordanian%Case%Studies.%In:%Faghih%N.,%Zali% M.% (eds)% Entrepreneurship% Ecosystem% in% the% Middle% East% and% North% Africa% (MENA).%Contributions%to%Management%Science.%Springer,%Cham.% % % % 148 Published Articles % % % The Role of Culture and Gender in E-commerce Entrepreneurship: Three Jordanian Case Studies D. Qasim, A. Bany Mohammed, and F. Liñán Abstract The number of entrepreneurs using e-commerce to start their own online business up is continuously growing. In this chapter, the current literature on e-commerce entrepreneurship is reviewed and attention is paid to the situation in Jordan, a representative Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) country. In particular, our focus is on the role of culture and gender in local potential, nascent and new e-entrepreneurs. Three Jordan case studies are presented (ZINC, Oasis500 and CashBasha), showing an increased attention and support for entrepreneurship in general, and e-entrepreneurship in particular, in Jordan. In addition, some special programs are aimed at promoting women e-entrepreneurship, since it is seen as a way of overcoming some of the cultural barriers to female entrepreneurial activity. Keywords E-commerce · Entrepreneurship · Jordan · Culture · Gender 1 Introduction The rapid development in the online and e-commerce business sectors has linked different communities in global online market. This has made many organizations launch their own websites to interact with their local customers and other potential customers around the world. According to Turban et al. (2000), e-business involves D. Qasim Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain e-mail: [email protected] A. Bany Mohammed Business School, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan e-mail: [email protected] F. Liñán (*) Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain Lord Ashcroft International Business School, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK e-mail: fl[email protected];[email protected] ©Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 N. Faghih, M. R. Zali (eds.), Entrepreneurship Ecosystem in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), Contributions to Management Science, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75913-5_14 419 Published Articles 149 % % the buying and selling or exchanging of the goods, services and information through computer networks via internet. Because of the ultimate growth of the e-business sector, venture capitalists and investors are coming to invest their funds in this sector. E-commerce is defined by Zwass (1996) as “the sharing of business information, maintaining business relationships and conducting business transactions by means of telecommunication networks”. Other researchers support this view as e-commerce includes buying and selling activities in addition to inclusion of different processes across the organization (Applegate 1999; Fellenstein and Wood 2000). E-commerce in a broader sense also includes servicing customers and collaboration among the business partners (David and Benamati 2002). Thus, e-commerce has increased rapidly and attracted more and more customers from Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities, where people have restricted access to brands with high brand equity. Entrepreneurs are increasingly using e-commerce to start-up their own online business. A nascent entrepreneur is someone who starts carrying out a series of activities intended to culminate in a fertile business start-up (Reynolds 1994). It may include individuals or organizations engaged in the entrepreneurship process (Naffziger et al. 1994). Entrepreneurship is the process comprising the creation of something new and associated with the handling of risk and reward measures. It encompasses acts of organizational creation, renewal, or innovation that occur within or outside an existing organization (Sharma and Chrisman 2007). On the other hand, E-commerce and entrepreneurship generate income and sustain economic development and growth (Reynolds et al. 2003; UNCTAD 2003). Moreover creating a successful e-commerce venture could be affected by factors such as entrepreneurial characteristics and other critical factors defined by Sebora et al. (2009). A successful E-commerce entrepreneur is one who has launched an e-commerce venture, profitable in monetary terms, and has also survived to external and internal factors. Nevertheless e-business is also characterized by selling or buying a service or product (including rental and books, computers, cell phones, software) through online sources, such as email service. The e-commerce enables the single computer owner to interact with the whole world of consumers and can run their business with them. The concept has a wider scope and is not limited to small e-businesses or organisations, but also includes big corporate entrepreneurship (Burgelman 1983). The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) has been seen as a good opportunity for developing countries (Fryad Henari and Mahboob 2008; Kahttab and Qutaishat 2012). E-business activity may compensate for the lack of adequate physical infrastructure, or the small local markets. For this reason, ICT are being promoted in several of these countries. This is the case of Jordan, where the government is actively pursuing the modernization and development of the ICT sector (UNCTAD 2003). In particular, special attention has been paid to e-business as a possibility to promote women empowerment and reduce gender inequality (Meenakshi 2015; Mellita and Cholil 2012). In the present chapter, we present an overview of the previous literature on the effects of gender and culture on e-commerce entrepreneurship in Jordan, as a case representing Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries. In addition, the 420 D. Qasim et al. 150 Published Articles % % % chapter represent three Jordanian case studies of initiatives to support the local entrepreneurs in this country with a special focus on e-entrepreneurship. 2 E-commerce Entrepreneurship The concept of infrastructure related to e-commerce is a relevant factor impacting on the adoption of e-commerce by developing-nation entrepreneurs for their businesses. The infrastructure for the e-business firm includes the internet compatibility, technical skills and experience of the employees with respect to the business. Internet compatibility refers to the availability of telecommunication systems, hardware and software and internet services, to the entrepreneur. It also includes knowledge about how to use and apply it to the business. Grandon and Pearson (2004) identify different variables as useful to perceive the strategic value of e-commerce adoption, such as organizational support, decisionmaking abilities and managerial productivity in SMEs. This specific knowledge allows the entrepreneurs and their employees to choose e-commerce as a beneficial strategy for their businesses. Technical computing skills and experience of the employees and the entrepreneurs will support the implementation of strategies to expand or develop their business through e-commerce. The customer ability to use internet and infrastructure is also considered as a leading component for adopting e-commerce by an entrepreneur. The infrastructure is a prime component for e-commerce to work for entrepreneurs and to support their business (Grandon and Pearson 2004). The main concern for entrepreneurs while seeking new strategies are the customers. Whatever decisions an entrepreneur takes to expand her/his business depends on customers’-or potential customer’sacceptance. It is derived that the customers are primary harbingers for an entrepreneur to decide whether adopting e-commerce for her/his business or not. The decision to take up e-commerce as a business strategy could be affected by the customers and their trust in e-commerce (Shuhaiber et al. 2014). Change takes time to get accepted and the same applies to the e-commerce, as there is lack of awareness and popularity of e-marketing among customers. The existing culture of shopping can act as a barrier to the growth of e-commerce in developing countries. Related to this situation, the entrepreneurs of these countries are often afraid of trying new strategies (Alzubi et al. 2015). According to Alzubi et al. (2015), this is related to some additional factors affecting the adoption of e-commerce management, including top management support (TMS), financial resources (FR), University readiness (UR), attitudes and subjective norms (SNKS). The market environment is also a factor that influences e-commerce entrepreneurship. Wymer and Regan (2005) study the application of e-business and e-commerce information technology (EEIT) in small and medium enterprises (SMEs). The primary objective is to analyse the barriers and incentives found by SMEs in using EEIT and the influence of demographic characteristics on the adopter’s decision. Market environment is a combination of competitors, suppliers, vendors and customers. The existence of competition in the market motivates The Role of Culture and Gender in E-commerce Entrepreneurship: Three... 421 Published Articles 151 % % % vendors to stay one step ahead of their competitors. Competitors play a major role as they are the main element forcing entrepreneurs to present themselves with uniqueness and provide the customer with easy to access to facilities to purchase their products. Vendors may also attract customers by using alternative strategies: allowing them to access the market from the comfort of their homes, providing a variety of quality options, and allowing comparison of their products with other vendors’products. In this sense, e-commerce provides entrepreneurs with benefits attached to it, which allows them to cover wider markets with cost efficiency and less effort. The trends running in the market place will influence the decision of the entrepreneur to choose the promotion strategy for her/his products. If the trend is in favour of e-commerce, the entrepreneur tends to select it (Wymer and Regan 2005). According to Kapurubandara and Lawson (2006), studies reveal the significant barriers at different levels with regard to e-commerce Information and Communication Technology (ICT) adoption in developing countries. The nature of market changes with the transformation in government policies, rules and regulations related to market transactions. When government introduces any new policies regarding taxes, subsides or rules and regulations, all these factors provide some flexibility or rigidity in the working procedure of an entrepreneur. These aforementioned elements have their direct impact on the adoption of e-commerce by an entrepreneur. If these elements are in favour of e-commerce with respect to a traditional business, then the entrepreneur will have an incentive to adopt e-commerce as her/his mode of transaction. Contradictory to the preceding situation, entrepreneurs do not use e-commerce as their manner of dealing in the market if the government policies are not supporting their business through e-commerce. Thus, government policies, rules and regulations are considered as a crucial factor for entrepreneurs to take up e-commerce to promote their business and attract the attention of the customers (Kapurubandara and Lawson 2006). According to Fryad and Mahboob (2008) the internet users have an experience in this field and are considering the internet technology to be a new and possibly the greatest opportunity for commercialism in this century. This, at one time known as an information revolution, is now called the internet and e-commerce revolution (Henari and Mahboob 2008). There are many cultural and social aspects against different nations which are considered a major obstacle to the spread of e-commerce. The e-commerce is being considered as a leading indicator for economic advancement and growth in the developed and developing countries (Edvinsson and Stenfelt 1999). 3 Culture, Gender and E-commerce Entrepreneurship Culture may be defined as the set of basic common values which will contribute to shaping people’s behaviour in a society (Inglehart 1997). It also includes patterns of thinking, feeling and acting, which are learned and shared by people living within the same social environment (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005). The first and most 422 D. Qasim et al. 152 Published Articles % % % common classification of cultures distinguishes between individualist and collectivist ones (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005; Schwartz 1999). The more general set of cultural dimensions defined by Hofstede (1980) has been frequently applied in the study of these countries. These four underlying value dimensions are used to position countries into cultural regions. These dimensions include power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism vs collectivism, and masculinity vs femininity. All of these dimensions are rated on a different scale from the lowest to the highest (Hofstede 1980). The cultural dimension of collectivism appears to be a sort of functional, social closeness. It is measured with respect to parents, friends and others. The collectivist society consists of collective identity, emotional dependency, sharing of duties and obligations, which are needed for stable and predetermined friendship, group decision, and participation. On the other hand, individualism is a multidimensional concept. The behavioural aspects of individualism act according to the personal attitudes and preferences of people, rather than being influenced by others’opinions and perception level (Buda and Elsayed-Elkhouly 1998). The cultural difference of both, individualism and collectivism, affects the business and the economy in several ways because of their interrelated functions (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005). The findings of various research studies suggest that culture in the Arab countries should be a barrier to the internet usage because of the highly social and family oriented culture of the Arab region. There could be a threatening effect of the internet and e-commerce in the life of family and community. According to Lauzikas and Mokseckiene (2013), in a society, culture affects the decisions of young people about focusing on innovation, employment or starting a new venture. The role of a society’s lifestyle, religions, customs, rules and other similar aspects in the business and organisations of a country is relatively under-explored. The influence of human resources and their intercultural backgrounds are generally ignored when identifying the role of culture in entrepreneurship activities. Nevertheless, it has a deep impact on entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs cannot get the desired results from their business activities without having adequate knowledge about the culture of the country where their business is located (Lauzikas and Mokseckiene 2013). The Lack of cultural awareness may also result in the vanishing of some financial benefits of the business. In the view of Sajjad et al. (2012), the entrepreneur’s intentions are substantially affected by the culture of a country. They propose the model of persuasion as consisting of Appropriateness, Consistency and Effectiveness (ACE). This model assumes that entrepreneurs will choose between adding a new concept to the existing trends of business or introducing an entirely new concept to generate a striking image of their venture in the market. The decision will depend on the evaluation of appropriateness, consistency and effectiveness of the alternative opinions. The feasibility of the entrepreneur’s ideas will depend on the customers’demand which ultimately is influenced by their culture. Thus, the importance of culture is revealed by factors such as the customers’acceptance of the idea, or the entrepreneur’s efficiency to stabilize her/his business. It is evident that the thinking, values and beliefs of people have impression of the culture by which they are surrounded The Role of Culture and Gender in E-commerce Entrepreneurship: Three... 423 Published Articles 153 % % % (Liñán et al. 2016). Similarly, the morals, actions, and behaviour of the people are developed under the same culture which is accepted by the society (Leung and Morris 2015). Generally, it is observed that an entrepreneur’s intentions are also influenced by individual thoughts, but which are nurtured by the cultural influence of the country or region (Liñán et al. 2016). Thus, it is accepted that a nation’s culture has a moderating impact on the intentions of the entrepreneur with regard to e-commerce (Sajjad et al. 2012). Entrepreneurship is considered as the essential element that promotes competition, innovation and employment. The entrepreneurial intention is one key step in the process of entrepreneurship (Sajjad et al. 2012). However, entrepreneurial intentions influence the entrepreneurial behaviour depending on previous specific business knowledge. Most people, even if they exhibit high entrepreneurial intention, begin undertaking an employee position before they launch their own business, due to lack of sufficient start-up capital and specific knowledge. Pavlou and Chai (2002) develop a research instrument to measure collectivism and individualism along with the theory of planned behaviour constructs. The use of internet and the process of globalisation develop the activities of e-commerce across nations. These actions develop a new framework of online consumer behaviour that exceeds the national boundaries along with cross-cultural effects. They found a significant relationship between attitude and intention for collectivistic cultures, but insignificant for individualist cultures. However, the findings from various studies state that customer loyalty, in lieu of business to consumers in e-commerce, is not influenced by the individualism or collectivist cultural dimension. Furthermore, individualism and collectivism explain the differences among online and offline commerce. Online shopping pulls in individualists because people do not have to interact in cooperation with other individuals. Therefore, most users of online commerce express individualistic values (Frost et al. 2010). In Arab countries, such as Jordan, where collectivistic values tend to prevail, this would imply a hurdle for the development of e-entrepreneurship. Shuhaiber et al. (2014) introduced a factorial model for consumer trust in mobile payments whether via mobile, cell phone or smartphone handsets. The study was conducted in the United Arab Emirates—a Middle Eastern country. One of the five main conceptualisations in the study model was environmental influences (social and cultural). It found that the word-of-mouth had a positive effect on the majority of people for trusting any online business, in addition to other factors related to the Emirates technological culture and environment (Shuhaiber et al. 2014). In this context, some studies have tried to identify the main factors retarding the spread of e-commerce in many countries, including social and cultural reasons as one relevant element (Gibbs et al. 2003). A recent study has also shown the influence of individualist and collectivist cultural values toward e-commerce intentions in Jordan, moderated by the gender factor (Kahttab and Qutaishat 2012). Gender is a relevant variable determining various roles in the society and lays different emphasis on the work goals and assertiveness in comparison to the personal goals and furtherance. According to the views of Sangwan et al. (2009), there is a significant role of gender in explaining the different motivational levels towards 424 D. Qasim et al.